World community. What is the global community? Problems of international relations. sovereign state now

the term of the theory and practice of international relations, indicating the maximum degree of generalization of the perception of the global international legal situation and denoting the systemic totality of all existing subjects of international law, both state and otherwise, that are members of this community. has firmly entered the political lexicon of modernity and serves as an object of appeal, as well as the subject of the highest motivation for international initiatives of a global nature. A reference to the will of S.M., as well as an indication of actions performed on his behalf, motivated by his interests, are present in the texts of official documents of the UN and other international organizations. Members of S.m. are peoples, states, public structures, groupings, unions, and other associations of this kind, religious associations and movements, organizations, governmental and non-governmental, incl. The UN and other international organizations and institutions of a global nature, as well as regional interstate political, economic, military alliances, transnational economic institutes and structures, international scientific institutions, etc. Political, economic, social, diplomatic, legal, military, humanitarian ties and relations between members of the S.m. collectively constitute the system of international relations, the subjects of which they are.

Before acquiring its modern meaning, the concept of S.m has passed a long historical path, and its evolution continues. Reflections on S.m. are also found in antique. authors, and later - the thinkers of the Renaissance, although both of them meant by this something significantly different from the current understanding of this concept. For a long time, the concept of "S.m." meant primarily the relationship of monarchs. Legal mechanisms were formed only to the extent that they were necessary to maintain interstate relations.

After the First World War, the modern concept of "S.m." is formed. An important factor in the development of the concept of "S.m." was the condemnation of the war as a way to achieve the state of its goals. The split of the world at the same time into two opposing camps, socialist and capitalist, did not beg the significance of this factor, since Soviet Russia recognized most of the principles of peaceful coexistence of states.

The concept of S.m. in the nuclear age, it acquires a meaning and quality that is fundamentally different from the ideas of the past. Understanding the objective interdependence of the common destinies of mankind in the second. floor. 20th century led to the fact that it was during this period that the largely contradictory, but nevertheless real S. m. The realities of the Cold War created unfavorable conditions for a stable all-planetary community of countries and peoples, but the threat of total annihilation turned war from a universal means of redistributing the world or establishing world domination into a means of strategic balancing and contributed to the mutual deterrence of the two blocs, limiting their activity. The factor of moral assessment of the actions of this or that state by S.m. acquired more and more tangible weight. Against the backdrop of an intersystemic ideological confrontation, a pragmatic thesis about the peaceful coexistence of socialism and capitalism developed, which became the foundation of the detente policy.

A new stage in the formation of S.m. began after the collapse of the world socialist system. The elimination of global ideological antagonism made it possible to talk about the development of a strategy for the development of all mankind. Cm. today it has a multi-component structure, replete with various regional associations, but at the same time, a system of diverse ties between regional entities and individual states is developing and steadily expanding, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the Paris Club of creditor countries, etc.

The world community refers to all the countries that currently exist on the planet. Ties between states are becoming closer and closer, and they can be political, economic or cultural. The process of globalization is difficult to assess unambiguously. On the one hand, it helps to quickly and effectively solve problems arising from catastrophes, natural disasters, epidemics, gives people access to benefits that they did not even know about before. However, globalization also has its downsides. Unique cultural organisms, that is, individual societies, are losing their specificity, life is becoming more and more homogeneous and uniform throughout the world. And the developed states, under the guise of strengthening international relations, turn other states into "attachments" to their own economy, using them as a source of cheap labor and inexpensive natural resources.

Globalization in sociology and other social sciences is understood as the formation of supranational structures in the sphere of economy, politics, culture, which influence world processes. In the economic sphere, this manifested itself in the formation of such financial organizations as the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, as well as transnational corporations, in the political sphere - the UN, UNESCO, as well as in the emergence of various military blocs. The sphere of culture is affected by this process to no lesser extent, since at present, due to the development of means of communication, there is a unification of lifestyle.

I. Wallerstein put forward the theory of the world system, according to which supranational economic factors acquire more and more power. Based on this statement, he concludes that nation-states are only elements of the global world system. Wallerstein also proposed the concept of the world economic system - a set of states united by economic ties, but politically independent of each other. He introduced this concept by analogy with the concept of a world empire - a state that subordinates and unites several other states.

According to Wallerstein, the world economic system currently covers the entire world, but the position of individual countries within this system is unequal. For this reason, the American researcher proposed to single out the core, semi-periphery and periphery in the world system.

The core, according to Wallerstein, includes developed economic countries (USA, Canada, Western Europe and Japan). These are the richest countries with the most developed technologies, characterized by the highest standard of living.

Periphery countries are the poorest countries in Africa and Latin America. Such countries are characterized by high political instability, complete underdevelopment of the processing industry; in fact, they are "raw material appendages" of the core countries, since minerals are only mined in them, but not processed.

An intermediate position between the countries of the core and the countries of the periphery is occupied by the countries of the semi-periphery. On the one hand, they are not so powerful as to be compared with the core countries, in relation to which they are also usually "raw material appendages". What they have in common with the core countries is that they perform the same role in relation to the periphery countries. For example, Brazil sells cars produced in its territory, which hardly anyone will buy in the USA: there is much more demand for coffee that is produced in Brazil. However, the countries of the semi-periphery are more developed than the countries of the periphery: Brazil differs from the latter because it is quite industrialized (if it were not, then it would not produce cars either).

The global world system in science is usually called the world community. The world community is not a society in the usual sense of the word, since it brings together many societies. And society is connected with the nation and the state, although it is not equal to them. For this reason, the world community is also called a quasi-society.

There are two main approaches to the phenomenon of globalization. Some scientists consider globalization as a process that can be a guarantor of the integrity of the world and its development. This approach involves the study of global issues, for example, the problem of providing the Earth's population with water and food, the problem of diseases such as cancer, AIDS, which pose a great danger to humanity as a whole, the greenhouse effect, etc.

Other scholars, whose attention is more riveted to the study of the process of formation of global structures, see in globalization the process of Westernization, that is, the spread of values ​​and norms characteristic of Euro-American culture. Naturally, in terms of evaluation, there is no unanimity here, since Westernization is seen as both a positive and a negative trend; in the first case one speaks rather of the development and assimilation of achievements, while in the second one speaks of cultural imperialism.

In connection with the problem of globalization, it should be mentioned that for developed countries that have reached the stage of a post-industrial society, this process is beneficial, while for the countries of the periphery and the so-called semi-periphery it is harmful and destructive. These countries turn out to be largely dependent on the post-industrial core countries, since at the present stage the development of society is determined not so much by contradictions and conflicts between different states as by internal conflicts of post-industrial states. The countries of the periphery (as well as the countries of the semi-periphery, but to a much greater extent) must now adapt to the needs of the industrial countries, since dynamic development is impossible outside the post-industrial perspective.

We note the main manifestations of globalization:

there is a formation of a single information space. The clearest manifestation of this is the emergence of the Internet;

the living space of nation-states is largely subject to the influence of transnational corporations as structures that have emerged along with the world system and global society. This has both positive (primarily economic) and negative (cultural, social, to a lesser extent economic) consequences for the "colonized" states;

the development of the modern world depends mainly on the availability of knowledge and technology. Since knowledge is predominantly owned by transnational corporations, its distribution does not depend on the boundaries of cultures and nation-states.

"Globalization" is an overused term that can be given a variety of meanings. However, an indisputable fact is the awareness of global problems by modern humanity, which, in turn, gave rise to the very concept of globalization, now one of the most popular and most frequently used, and also led to the realization of the idea of ​​​​the possible imminent death of human civilization, and from its own hands. . The turn of the XX-XXI centuries. was marked by the emergence and later by the aggravation of such problems as international terrorism, new types of diseases that claim the lives of thousands of people (AIDS, "chicken flu", etc.), etc. civil society post-industrial globalization

For the first time the concept of globalization was used in the works of French and American scientists in the 60s. XX century, and today, as already mentioned, it is one of the most popular in many languages ​​​​of the world. The process of globalization can be considered both in a political aspect, and in an economic and cultural one, which makes it possible to speak of its socio-cultural nature. In its most general form, globalization can be defined as a historical process of convergence of nations and peoples, between which traditional boundaries are gradually being erased.

Globalization is by no means a new phenomenon. Globalization in the form of internationalization of economic relations and interethnic communication actively developed in the late XIX - early XX centuries. True, world crises, wars and the collapse of colonial empires in the 20th century. significantly weakened her impulses.

Since the middle of the XX century. and especially in recent decades, the trend towards globalization is predominant, leveling the importance of national and regional identity. This is manifested primarily in the formation of a single economic and cultural space, when the extreme diversity of the economic and cultural structure of pre-industrial society is replaced by relatively universal forms of economic and cultural spheres of life. Therefore, sometimes globalism is defined as the formation of a single capitalist system, within which the uniform laws of market relations operate.

Until now, the question of defining the essence of globalization remains unresolved. Many researchers have devoted scientific works to the study of this social phenomenon. Giddens E. Towards the global century // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2002. No. 6; Cassidy F.H. Globalization and Cultural Identity // Questions of Philosophy. 2003. No. 1; Kuvaldin AT., Ryabov A. National state in the era of globalization // Svobodnaya mysl'. 2000. No. 1; Mnatsakanyan M.O. Globalization and the National State: Three Myths // Sociological Studies. 2004. No. 5; Population and globalization / Under the general editorship of NM. Rimashevskaya. M., 2002; Chumakov A.N. Globalization. Contours of the integral world: Monograph. M., 2005, etc., however, no unanimity was reached in the definition of globalization. Globalization can be imagined as "a process of expanding and accelerating world cooperation, affecting all aspects of modern social life - from cultural to criminal, from financial to spiritual" Held D. etc. Global transformations: Politics, economics, culture / Per. from English.

V.V. Sapova et al. M., 2004. P. 2. In general, taking into account the versatility of the globalization process, it can be defined as the process of formation and assertion of the integrity, interconnectedness, interdependence, integrality of the world and its perception as such by public consciousness. The above definition belongs to M.O. Mnatsakanyan, who also notes that this phenomenon should not be identified with unification, expressed in Americanization: in this case, we are talking about the gathering, unity of humanity in a holistic world, where there is an interaction of heterogeneous and diverse national, religious, state-political, civilizational components Mnatsakanyan M.O. Globalization and the National State: Three Myths // Sociological Studies. 2004. No. 5. P. 137. In addition, the definition of globalization given by A.N. Chumakov, according to which globalization should be understood as “a multidimensional natural-historical process of formation on a planetary scale of integral structures and connections that are immanently inherent in the world community of people, cover all its main areas and manifest themselves the stronger, the further a person moves along the path of scientific and technological progress and socio-economic development" Chumakov A.N. Globalization. Contours of the integral world: Monograph. M., 2005. S. 365.

In political terms, globalization is manifested in the formation and functioning of supranational units of various scales: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (the former socialist camp), coalitions of ruling groups ("Big Eight"), continental associations (European Union), world international organizations (UN). The contours of the world government represented by the European Parliament and Interpol are already obvious.

In economic terms, the process of globalization can be expressed by the concept of "world capitalist economy", in which the role of regional and world economic agreements is increasing, as well as a global division of labor, an increase in the role of multinational and transnational corporations, which often have an income exceeding the income of an average national state. Companies such as Toyota, McDonald's, Pepsi-Cola or General Motors have lost their national roots and operate all over the world. Financial markets react with lightning speed to political and social changes in various regions of the world. The world capitalist economy functions within the framework of the world economic system.

The world economic system is a set of territories of countries united by economic ties. This concept is wider than the concept of the world capitalist economy, since it includes countries with capitalist and non-capitalist economies in its orbit, but narrower than the concept of the world system.

Another form of the world economic system was represented by the countries of the so-called socialist camp, where in the 1950-1980s. included the USSR, Cuba, Romania, East Germany, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Mongolia, Vietnam. These countries did not have a single government, each of them was a sovereign state, but between them there was an international division of labor, cooperation and economic exchange within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) created in 1949.

In a broad sense, the world system includes all the countries that currently exist on the planet. She received the name of the world community.

So, at the global level, society turns into a world system, which is also called the world community. There are two forms of such a system: world empires (many territories politically united into one state entity) and world economic systems (countries developing a similar economy, but not politically united into one state).

Civilization belongs to the type of world or global systems. Unlike the world system, civilization reflects the socio-cultural, and not the economic or political aspect of human development. This concept, like the concepts of "world empire" or "world system", is wider than "country" or "state".

Much attention in the socio-political science literature is given to the question of the future world order. Several points of view have developed, which, depending on their political and ideological views, are held by various political forces. For example, some believe that, on the whole, international relations are developing in the direction of a homogeneous democratic world order. Confirmation of this thesis, as well as evidence of the emerging uniformity of the main processes of world politics, can be the fact that in the early 1990s. For the first time in the history of mankind, the potential of democratic states exceeded the potential of authoritarian states. Ideologically close to this point of view is the opinion that the current state and the foreseeable result of international relations will lead to the formation of a unipolar world (in particular, this point of view is shared by the globalists of the liberal party of Russia).

Supporters of the theory of "alternative multipolarity" believe that the current world order will develop in the direction of the emergence of several centers of gravity. But there is another interpretation of this concept, which is that the alternative pole will be concentrated not at the level of an individual state or region, but in society - in the attempts of anti-globalists, radicals, Islamists to oppose themselves to the United States, forming their centers of influence. At the same time, such centers may not coincide with the centers of state power, becoming, in fact, alternative centers of political influence in a globalizing world. Spaces and subspaces alternative to states, which are formed on the basis of the integration of production and capital of transnational structures, can become poles of influence.

How can the modern post-bipolar world be characterized? In some situations, it looks like predominantly unipolar, but in most cases it manifests itself as multipolar - from the point of view of different dimensions (national, transnational, supranational, cultural, civilizational, etc.). Scholars are also divided on this point. However, the growing power and political activity of the United States, aimed at establishing hegemony in the world, makes the majority tend to believe that the modern world order is characterized by unipolarity and forceful world regulation, and the United States is the main regulator, at least for now, in the world.

In the near future, the United States is likely to have undeniable economic and military superiority throughout the world. Most countries are not interested in joining any alliance against the US, and the events of recent years confirm this. The danger of establishing just such a world order led by the United States is recognized by many modern politicians and theorists of political science. In particular, A.S. Panarin in his monograph "The Temptation of Globalism" says that "the Americans turned out to be ghostly globalists pursuing their great-power goals"1. Thus, he concludes that in the American interpretation, the world order and global power (world government) are their order and their power over the world. It's hard to disagree with this. The researcher expressed his views on the history of the development of globalism in his proposed classification of types of globalism:

the globalism of the Enlightenment, laid down at the origins of European modernity and leading to the formation of a single world space based on the universals of progress;

esoteric globalism of the ruling elites, forming a consortium of the world ruling minority and conspiring among themselves behind the backs of their peoples. The formation of the world order is taking place according to a specially developed scenario, far from the expectations of the people, who are not privy to the plans of this privileged club of globalists;

globalism based on the traditional procedure of turning one power into a monopoly carrier of world power, which marks the formation of a unipolar global system.

Each of these types of globalism, A.S. Panarin, was involved in Russia's transition from a bipolar society to a unipolar one, but with varying degrees of authenticity. Initially, at the perestroika stage, the propaganda form of enlightenment globalism was used, believing in the universals of progress and the unity of the world destinies of peoples, as a result of which the traditional national foundations, the ideology of the Soviet people were shaken and destroyed. The second type of globalism was used to manipulate the consciousness of the post-communist elite, which was to surrender their country to the "winners" in the Cold War, as a result of which the former, conflicting national elites united to decide the future fate of the Russian and other peoples. However, in fact, the previous stages were only a phase of the implementation of the third option, and as a result, the United States, remaining the only superpower, got the opportunity to dictate its own terms to the world community.

In order for America not to carry out its far-reaching plans to seize world power, it is necessary to work out a different concept of the development of the world community, which would oppose the American one and would not allow the United States to give the world a look that corresponds only to their national interests.

political science power legitimacy state

The world community is a political term often used in works on political science, speeches by statesmen and mass media to refer to the interconnected system of states of the world. Depending on the context, it may indicate different groups of countries, united according to various economic, political and ideological characteristics. Sometimes means existing international organizations, primarily -- UN, as an organization uniting almost all countries of the globe. Often used as rhetorical technique for opposing one state and its policy to a group of other states, called in this context the “world community” (for example, “ Iran and the world community" or " Israel and the global community).

AT XIX-- early XX century the term "civilized world" was used in a similar sense, which is now considered politically incorrect.

International relations are the sphere of interstate, interethnic communication. In the course of interaction between states and peoples realizing their interests in this area, various relations are formed: diplomatic, economic, social (their subjects are not states, but various non-governmental organizations), cultural, informational, etc.

Modern trends in international relations:

• -- internationalization of almost all spheres of public life. It is expressed in the growth of contacts between people, international exchanges and relationships, and therefore, interdependencies in the economy, education, culture, science, healthcare, protection of human rights and in ensuring all aspects of its security;
• -- the formation of global problems, the solution of which is possible only as a result of successful interaction and cooperation of all peoples living on earth. These include the preservation of peace, the minimization of military danger, the preservation of the environment, the fight against epidemic diseases and crime;
• -- demilitarization and democratization -- gradual rejection of military force methods of solving problems arising in this area (since they turn out to be less and less effective and more dangerous, including for the side resorting to them), as well as respect for the rights of all involved in these relations of subjects, however small they may be.

World politics is a part of the system of international relations, the activities of states to secure their interests in solving problems that arise in the sphere of international relations. The modern dominant of world politics is the desire to maintain security in its various aspects: military, environmental, legal, technological, informational, etc.

World politics is structurally represented by the foreign policy activities of nation states, the global activities of the UN, international unions, organizations and institutions authorized by states and peoples.

The sphere of world politics covers the entire field of political relations that develops between states and supranational frameworks. Since the main elements of world politics are interconnected, it is possible and necessary to talk about world political relations, about a single world political-temporal space, during which or in its constituent parts, the main international political actions are unfolding. The main priorities of world politics are due to the need to solve common problems facing humanity and the national interests of its subjects.

The leading role of politics in international relations is due to the following factors:

• 1) the subjects of world politics have colossal resources and opportunities to influence the entire world around them, possess powerful levers of control over both political and non-political international processes. These include the activities of the UN, the foreign policy activities of sovereign states, leading and authoritative international organizations, bodies, and public groups. It is political decisions and agreements of an international nature that act as the basis for the entire world order; they serve as guidelines for the development of the entire complex of relations between states.
• 2) international relations have a pronounced tendency towards globalization, complication and expansion, which requires the improvement of international political mechanisms for their regulation.
• 3) as never before, the issues of the security of all mankind, the problems of its survival, are acute. It is on this direction that the main direction of world politics in the nuclear age is concentrated.
• 4) it is becoming increasingly important to resolve the contradiction of modern world development, between the growing diversity of the world and the political and socio-economic systems functioning in it, on the one hand, and the current trend towards the integrity of mankind, towards the development and expansion of mutual relations between peoples and states - with another. The unity of humanity also means a deepening of the freedom of human practice, freedom of choice and orientation in the direction of progress. Landmarks and paths for such unity on the planet are outlined and paved by joint efforts by all members of the world community.

Today, the concept of "society" has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or it can be understood as all countries of the world. In this case, we should talk about the world community.

If society is understood in two senses - narrow and wide, then the transition from a single taken society, considered in the unity of its territorial boundaries (country) and political structure (state), to the world community, or world system, which implies all of humanity as an essential whole, is inevitable. .

The idea of ​​a global or, as they say today - planetary, unity of all people did not always exist. It appeared only in the 20th century. World wars, earthquakes, international conflicts made earthlings feel the commonality of their destiny, dependence on each other, the feeling that they are all passengers of one ship, the well-being of which depends on each of them. Nothing like this happened in previous centuries. Even 500 years ago it was difficult to say that people living on earth are united in some kind of single system. In the past, mankind was an extremely colorful mosaic, made up of isolated formations - hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires, which had an independent economy, politics and culture.

Since then, the process of creating a world system has accelerated dramatically. This became especially felt after the era of great geographical discoveries (although the beginning was laid earlier), when Europeans became aware of everything, even the most remote corners of the planet. Today we can only talk about geographical remoteness or separate existence of countries and continents. In the social, political and economic sense, the planet is a single space.

The central governing body of the world community is the United Nations (UN). All countries are subordinate to it, it provides humanitarian assistance, protects cultural monuments and sends peacekeeping forces (UN Blue Helmets) to almost all corners of the Earth. Today, as part of the world community, regional associations such as the European Community are being formed, which include 12 countries with 345 million people, united by an economic, monetary and political union. The Community has a Council of Ministers and a European Parliament.

The main factor in the development of world civilization is the trend towards uniformity. Mass media (media) turn our planet into a "big village". Millions of people become witnesses of events that took place in different places, millions join the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. When they talk about the world community, they mean the process of globalization, the result of which such a community became.

Our world is gradually turning into a global communication system, in which societies break up into separate groups, flowing, depending on changing life priorities, from one social network to another. It is possible that the term "network societies" is more suitable for describing the new situation, where there is a continuous exchange of information and which are not closed, thanks to global networks, within their state borders.

As a result of Russia's accession to the global information community, the main content of social interaction in Russian society is the continuous exchange of information. This is the position of A.N. Kacherov substantiated using the results of an empirical study*, as a result of which he came to the following conclusions:

since the breakthrough of information flows to Russia (starting approximately from 1989-1992), there has been a reduction in the number of direct contacts or the so-called "face-to-face" interaction;

the number of contacts through means of communication has increased (telephone, fax, computer networks);

there is an exponential growth of "artificial" interaction based on radio and television;

personal contacts between individuals are reduced in number and duration due to the fact that the increased speed of information flows makes people avoid excessive emotional stress and energy expenditure during personal contacts.

Russia's entry into the system of world communications to a certain extent - to a significant extent or not, this remains to be seen by sociologists - has changed the traditional way of life, its own channels and ways of communication. A modern resident of a large metropolis has at his disposal all the necessary means of communication and is connected to the global communications network. The more calls to the network it receives or makes, the more it corresponds to the lifestyle adopted in the global information community. The old content of communications - scientific conversations, complaints and squabbles, conversations with friends and lovers, administrative or business negotiations - is clothed today in a new technical form.

Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, between which traditional boundaries are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system. Since the middle of the 20th century, and especially in recent decades, the trend towards globalization has qualitatively affected society. National and regional histories no longer make sense.

Pre-industrial society was an extremely variegated, heterogeneous mosaic of isolated social units, ranging from hordes, tribes, kingdoms, empires, to the newly emerging nation-state. Each of these units had an independent and self-sufficient economy, its own culture. Post-industrial society is completely different. In political terms, there are supranational entities of various sizes: political and military blocs (NATO), imperial spheres of influence (the former socialist camp), coalitions of ruling groups (the “Big Seven”), continental associations (European Community), world international organizations (UN). The contours of the world government represented by the European Parliament and INTERPOL are already obvious. The role of regional and world economic agreements is growing. There is a global division of labor, the role of multinational and transnational corporations is growing, which often have an income that exceeds the income of an average nation-state. Companies such as Toyota, McDonald's, Pepsi-Cola or General Motors have lost their national roots and operate all over the world. Financial markets react to events with lightning speed.

The tendency towards uniformity becomes dominant in culture. Mass media (media) turn our planet into a "big village". Millions of people become witnesses of events that took place in different places, millions join the same cultural experience (Olympiads, rock concerts), which unifies their tastes. The same consumer goods are everywhere. Migration, temporary work abroad, tourism introduce people to the lifestyle and customs of other countries. A single, or at least generally accepted, spoken language, English, is being formed. Computer technology carries the same programs all over the world. Western popular culture is becoming universal, and local traditions are being eroded.

Along with the term "world community", other concepts are widely used in science, which are very similar to it, but have their own distinctive features. You can meet them by reading not only special literature or textbooks, but also the press, listening to radio and television. Let's look into them. It will be about the world system, the world economic system, the world empire, civilization.

The term "world system" was introduced into scientific circulation by Immanuel Wallerstein*. He believed that the usual word "society", borrowed by scientists from everyday practice, is too inaccurate, since it is almost impossible to separate it from the term "state" in a consistent way. Instead of both, he proposed the concept of "historical system", thanks to which, as he believed, two kinds of sciences would finally be reunited - historical (ideographic) and social (nomothetic). The old term "society" separated them, and the new one is designed to unite them. In the concept of "historical system", sociological and historical views of the world coexist.

In addition to him, Niklas Luhmann wrote about world society. He defined society through communication and communicative reach. But if this is so, then the only closed system that is not part of another, built on the principles of communication, is only the world society.

According to I. Wallerstein, there are only three forms, or varieties, of historical systems, which he called mini-systems, world empires and world economies (although other varieties can be distinguished). Mini-systems are small, short-lived (about six generations), and culturally homogeneous. World empires are large political structures, culturally they are much more diverse. The mode of existence is the withdrawal of tribute from subordinate territories, primarily rural districts, which flows to the center and is redistributed among a small stratum of officials. World economies are huge, unequal chains of integrated production structures, separated by numerous political structures. The logic of their existence is that the surplus value is unevenly distributed in favor of those who were able to seize a temporary monopoly on the market. This is "capitalist" logic*.

In that distant era, which we can only judge from archaeological excavations, when gatherers and hunters lived on the earth, mini-systems were the predominant form. At an early stage in history, many social systems existed simultaneously. Since these societies were mostly tribal, one must assume the existence of many thousands of social systems*. Later, in connection with the transition to agriculture and the invention of writing, namely in the period between 8000 BC. e. and 1500 AD e. all three types of “historical systems” coexisted simultaneously on earth, but the world empire was dominant, which, expanding, destroyed and absorbed both mini-systems and world economies. But when world empires collapsed, mini-systems and world economies reappeared on their ruins. History seems to resemble the cycle of substances in nature.

Most of what we call the history of this period is the history of the birth and death of world empires, I. Wallerstein believes. The world economies at that time were still too weak to compete with the three forms of "historical systems".

Around 1500, out of the consolidation of disparate world economies that miraculously survived another invasion of world empires, the modern world system was born. Since then “it has reached its full development as a capitalist system. According to its internal logic, this capitalist world economy then expanded and took over the entire globe, absorbing all existing mini-systems and world empires. Thus, by the end of the XIX century. for the first time in history, there was only one historical system on Earth. We are still in this position.”*

The theory of the world system, created by I. Wallerstein in the mid-70s, makes it possible to explain many historical facts that could not be explained by the traditional theory of society. Undoubtedly, the hypothesis of the cyclical emergence and collapse of world empires is very heuristic, among which it is necessary to include our country, which took the form of either tsarist autocracy or the Soviet totalitarian state. From the eternal cycle of historical forms of society follows not only the inevitability of the collapse of social giants and the emergence of social dwarfs. But also the hypothesis about the internal instability of "weakly packed", loose in terms of specific gravity of a gram of "social substance" per unit area of ​​world empires. Internal cultural heterogeneity did not allow the USSR to exist until the third millennium, despite strict external political control.

All world empires were very unsteady and unstable. What is the empire of the Mongols in the XIV century, which included conquered Russia, as a non-heterogeneous and internally contradictory association, where power was held only “on bayonets”?

If many territories are united only by the fact that taxes or tribute are collected from them, then such an association is doomed to disintegration. Even the presence of a single political center and governing bodies does not save. Although the Russian princes went to the Horde to ask for a charter to rule, this ritual remained an empty formality, since none of the Mongolian "top managers" ever interfered in the internal affairs of the specific princes. Similarly, in the 1970s and 1980s, Soviet party functionaries ceased to control the abuses and freethinking of the "feudal princes" in Uzbekistan, the republics of Transcaucasia, and even the Volga regions. The autonomy of the periphery in relation to the center turned out to be a tragedy for the entire system.

World empires included several territories united by military and political power. The empires of the Incas, Alexander the Great, Darius I, Napoleon, and finally the USSR, which is also classified as a world empire, were very diverse (culturally, socially, economically, less often religiously), vast in territory, politically unstable formations. They were created forcibly and quickly disintegrated.

Europeans have long practiced transoceanic trade and economics. It was they who became the pioneers of a new form of "historical system" - the world system. Over time, people all over the world fell into the European sphere of influence. The beginning of European hegemony can be traced back to the Crusades, Christian military expeditions undertaken between the 11th and 14th centuries to reclaim "holy land" from the Muslims. Italian city-states used them to expand trade routes. In the 15th century, Europe established regular communication with Asia and Africa, and then with America. Europeans colonized other continents, coming as sailors, missionaries, merchants, officials. The discovery of America by Columbus forever connected the Old and New Worlds. Spain and Portugal mined slaves, gold and silver in foreign countries, pushing the natives to remote areas.

With the development of non-European territories, not only the nature of economic ties has changed, but the whole way of life. If earlier, literally until the middle of the 17th century, the diet of a European was made up of subsistence products, that is, what was grown inside the continent by rural residents, then in the 18th and 19th centuries the assortment of items, primarily of the highest class (it always goes at the forefront of progress), includes imports. One of the first overseas goods was sugar. After 1650, it is eaten not only by the upper strata, but also by the middle, and then the lower. A century earlier, a similar story happened with tobacco. By 1750, even the poorest English family could drink tea with sugar. From India, where sugar was first obtained by production, the Europeans brought it to the New World. The climate of Brazil and the Caribbean islands created ideal conditions for growing sugar cane. Europeans established plantations here to meet the growing demand for sugar around the world. The demand for and supply of sugar led to the international market, and in the wake of this, to the slave trade. Cheap labor was needed for the growing plantation economy, and Africa was the labor market. Sugar and cotton became the main subject of international trade, linking continents on opposite sides of the ocean.

In the 17th century, two trade triangles developed, including the trade in sugar and slaves. First, English-made goods were sold in Africa and African slaves were sold in America, while American tropical goods (especially sugar) were sold to England and its neighbors. Secondly, alcoholic beverages from England were shipped by ship to Africa, African slaves to the Caribbean, and molasses (from sugar) was sent to New England for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. The labor of African slaves increased American wealth, which mostly returned to Europe. Food grown by slaves was consumed in Europe. Coffee, paints, sugar and spices came here from Brazil, cotton and alcohol from North America.

Gradually, international trade has become the dominant factor in development. Soon, capitalism began to be defined as an economic orientation to the world market in order to generate income. The notion of a world capitalist economy emerged - a single world system engaged in production for sale and exchange, more for the purpose of increasing profits than for the welfare of the people. Now it indicates in which direction to move individual countries. The modern world is a world system based on capitalism, which is why it is called the "capitalist world system".

“The unit of analysis of the modern world system is the capitalist world economy,” writes I. Wallerstein*.

The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties. This concept is broader than the world capitalist economy, since it includes countries with capitalist and non-capitalist economies in its orbit, but the same as the concept of the world system.

The world capitalist economy is the highest and last form of the world economic system. It has existed for almost 500 years, but has never turned into a world empire. Transnational corporations are outside the control of a single government. They freely transfer huge capitals across state borders. The type of world economic systems should include the so-called socialist camp, which in the 60-80s included the USSR, Cuba, Romania, East Germany, Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam. They did not have a single government, each country is a sovereign state. So it's not an empire. But between them there was an international division of labor, cooperation and economic exchange within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). In a broad sense, the world system includes all the countries that currently exist on the planet. She received the name of the world community.

So, at the global level, society turns into a world system, which is also called the world community. There are two forms of such a system - world empires (many territories politically united into one state entity) and world economic systems (countries developing a similar economy, but not politically united into one state).

Civilizations belong to the type of world, or global, systems. But unlike the world system, civilization reflects the socio-cultural, and not the economic and political aspect of human development. This concept, like a world empire or world system, is wider than a country or a state. It is also expedient to talk about civilization specifically.

Civilization, like the previous concepts, reflects the global level of human society, where the integration of social systems takes place. Scientists continue to argue about its content. Civilization is understood by them in two meanings.

In the first case, civilization denotes the historical epoch that replaced "barbarism", in other words, it marks the highest stage in the development of mankind. O. Spengler's definition adjoins it: civilization is the highest stage in the development of culture, at which its final decline occurs. Both approaches are related by the fact that civilization is thought historically - as a stage in the progressive or regressive movement of society.

In the second case, civilization is associated with a geographical place, meaning local, regional and global civilizations, such as eastern and western civilizations. They differ in economic structure and culture (a set of norms, customs, traditions, symbols), which includes a specific understanding of the meaning of life, justice, fate, the role of work and leisure. Thus, Eastern and Western civilization differ precisely in these fundamental features. They are based on specific values, philosophy, principles of life and image of the world. And within the framework of such global concepts, specific differences in people's behavior, manner of dressing, and types of housing are formed.

Scholars today agree that the first and second approaches are applicable only to societies that are at a sufficiently high level of difference, no matter where they are geographically located. In this case, the primitive societies of Polynesia and Oceania, in particular, are outside civilization, where a primitive way of life still exists, there is no writing, cities and states. It turns out a kind of paradox: they have a culture, but no civilization (where there is no written language, there is no civilization). Thus, society and culture arose earlier, and civilization later. In the entire history of existence in the conditions of civilization, mankind lived no more than 2% of the time.

The combination of place and time gives an amazingly rich palette of civilizations. Historically known, in particular, are Eurasian, Eastern, European, Western, Muslim, Christian, ancient, medieval, modern, ancient Egyptian, Chinese, East Slavic and other civilizations.

The same I. Wallerstein, mentioned above, divided the world system into three parts:

semi-periphery,

periphery.

The core - the countries of Western Europe, North America, Japan - includes the strongest and most powerful states with an improved system of production. They have the most capital, the highest quality goods, the most sophisticated technologies and means of production. These countries export expensive and high-tech products to the periphery and semi-periphery.

The states of the semi-periphery and periphery are the countries of the so-called "second" and "third" worlds. They have less power, wealth and influence.

The term “third world” was coined by the French in 1952 to describe a group of countries that did not join any of the warring parties during the Cold War era between the United States and the USSR (respectively, the first and second worlds). Among them were Yugoslavia, Egypt, India, Ghana and Indonesia. In the second half of the 1950s, the term acquired a broader meaning. It has come to mean all the underdeveloped countries. Thus, its meaning was filled not with geographical, but with economic content. All of Latin America, all of Africa (excluding South Africa), and all of Asia (with the exception of Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Israel) began to be classified as underdeveloped countries. And some countries, such as the countries of the African Sahara, Haiti and Bangladesh, burdened with excessive poverty and destitution, were even included in the category of the fourth world. They have been separated from the third world, which has already chosen the path of economic progress.

The countries of the periphery are the most backward and poorest states in Africa and Latin America. They are considered a raw material appendage of the core. Minerals are mined, but not processed locally, but exported. Most of the surplus product is appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite invests money outside their state, it enters the service of foreign capital and serves only its interests (even if these people do not go abroad). Political regimes are unstable, revolutions often occur, social and national conflicts constantly arise. The upper class is not separated from the lower by a wide layer of the middle class.

Since their well-being depends on the export of raw materials, technology and capital come only from outside. Governments, most often dictatorial or authoritarian regimes, exist and are able to more or less intelligently run the country as long as foreign investment comes. But even Western aid often ends up in the pockets of government officials or on their foreign accounts. Such governments are unstable, they continually unleash international conflicts, internal wars and rebellions. This happens every now and then in Latin America, Iran and the Philippines. Even after the revolutions, it does not get easier for them. New governments turn to repression, quickly reveal their incompetence and are soon removed.

The demographic situation of the third world countries is characterized by contradictory processes: high birth rates and high infant mortality; migration from overpopulated villages to underdeveloped cities in search of jobs.

Since the 1960s, third and fourth world countries have borrowed several billion dollars from developed countries. Loans were taken during the economic boom of the West, therefore, at low interest rates, but they have to be repaid in completely different conditions. The total debt to the West exceeded $800 billion, but there is no way in which borrowers could repay their creditors. The largest debtors are Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Nigeria, Peru, Chile and Poland. Trying to keep the economies of these countries afloat, Western lenders are forced to refinance loans. But more often they are faced with partial or complete non-creditworthiness of a particular country. Defaulting on your debt obligations on such a large scale is destroying the international financial system.

In 1998, Russia declared itself insolvent to Western investors. A scandal broke out, and then a world crisis, which the world had not known since the end of World War II. Some Western banks that bought government bonds (GKOs) in Russia went bankrupt or were on the verge of ruin. Russia, which previously held firmly in the ranks of developed economic powers, has essentially shown that it belongs to the countries of the third world.

The worst thing is that, as experience shows, abundant infusions of foreign investment in such countries do very little to help them get out of the crisis. To improve the situation, an internal restructuring of the economy is needed.

The semi-periphery occupies an intermediate position between the core and the periphery. These are quite developed industrial ones. Like the core states, they export industrial and non-industrial goods, but they lack the power and economic power of the core countries. For example, Brazil (a semi-peripheral country) exports cars to Nigeria and car engines, orange juice extract, and coffee to the US. Production is mechanized and automated, but all or most of the technological advances that arm their own industry are borrowed from the core countries. The semi-periphery includes rapidly developing countries with dynamic politics and a growing middle class.

If we transfer Wallerstein's classification in terms of D. Bell's theory of post-industrial society, then we get the following ratios:

the core is post-industrial societies;

semi-periphery - industrial societies;

the periphery is traditional (agrarian) societies.

As already mentioned, the world system evolved gradually. Accordingly, different countries at different times could play the role of leaders in the core, roll back to the periphery or take the place of the semi-periphery.

Usually one state dominates the core. In the 14th century, northern Italian city-states dominated world trade. Holland was in the lead in the 17th century, England after 1750, and the United States after 1900. And in 1560, the core of the world system was located in Western Europe (England, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain). The northern Italian city-states, which had hitherto been the most powerful, joined the semi-periphery. Northeastern Europe and Latin America constituted the periphery. Many societies (especially in Oceania and the interior of Africa and Asia) until recently were outside the periphery. For a long time they could not join the world capitalist economy, producing and consuming their own products, that is, engaging in subsistence farming. Today, there are virtually no such countries. The countries of the former Soviet bloc (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, etc.) are classified as countries of the "second world". For a long time they were fenced off from the world capitalist system. Now they are credited to the periphery or semi-periphery.

I. Wallerstein's theory of the core and periphery, put forward in the 1980s, is today considered correct in principle, but in need of a certain correction and addition. According to the new approach, the basis of the modern international community, which is sometimes referred to as the "transnational world", is made up of leading international organizations, 50-60 major financial and industrial blocks, as well as about 40 thousand TNCs. The Global Economic Federation is permeated with close economic, political and cultural ties. The largest Western corporations, creating branches around the world, primarily in third world countries, entangle the whole world with financial and commodity flows. They make different regions of the world economically dependent on each other.

In this global space, the post-industrial North, which controls trade and financial channels, the highly industrial West - the totality of the national economies of the leading industrially developed powers, the intensively developing new East, which builds economic life within the framework of the neo-industrial model, the raw-material South, living mainly due to the exploitation of natural resources, stand out. as well as states in the transitional state of the post-communist world.

The movement of the world towards a new type of unification is called the geo-economic or geopolitical restructuring of the planet. The new international space is characterized by two trends: a) the concentration of important strategic decisions in a small group of leading powers, such as the G7 (after Russia joined it, it became the G8), b) the erosion of centralized regions and formations into many independent points , the sovereignization of small states, increasing their role in the world community (for example, the events in Yugoslavia, Palestine, etc.). Between the two tendencies there is confrontation and misunderstanding.

Important political and economic decisions taken by a narrow circle of people can lead to serious consequences in various parts of the globe, sometimes affecting the fate of the population of entire countries. An example is the US influence on the events in Yugoslavia, when America forced almost all European countries to join the military pressure on the Serbs. Although this decision itself is beneficial to a small handful of politicians in the US Congress.

The global community has tremendous power. Prior to his application of economic sanctions against Iraq in its social structure, a small part was rich and the same - poor. The main population lived at an average level, even by European standards. And after a few years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class has fallen into poverty.

Being the most powerful economic state in the world, the US also behaves like a political monopoly. Dollars make politics on the principle of "one dollar - one vote." Decisions made on behalf of international organizations such as the Security Council, the IMF, IBRD, WTO, financed again by developed countries, hide the intention and will of a narrow circle of leading powers.

Pushed to the political and economic periphery, the countries of the South, or developing countries, are fighting the hegemony of the superpowers with the means available to them. Some choose a model of civilized market development and, like Chile and Argentina, are rapidly catching up with the economically developed North and West. Others, due to various circumstances, deprived of such an opportunity, embark on the "warpath". They create branched criminal-terrorist organizations and mafia formations scattered all over the world. Islamic fundamentalism, Medelyan cartel...

In the new world order, everything is connected with everything. The world monetary and financial system, the fortress of which is set by world leaders, primarily the United States, Germany, Japan, England, is no longer as stable as before. Financial crises on the periphery of this system, which may not have been noticed by its whales before, are now shaking the entire world system. Crisis of 1997-1998 in Indonesia and Russia had a strong impact on financial markets around the world. Industrial giants have lost billions of dollars.

The global community has tremendous power. Prior to his application of economic sanctions against Iraq, in the latter's social structure, a small part was rich and just as poor. The main population lived at an average level, even by European standards. And after a few years of the embargo, the national currency depreciated. The bulk of the middle class has fallen into poverty.

* In a narrow sense, society means:

a certain group of people united for communication and joint performance of any activity,

a specific stage in the historical development of a people or country,

a complex system of interaction between people, which has its own structure and institutions.

* The most complete list of necessary and sufficient features that any social association that claims to be called a society must correspond to was given by the famous American sociologist E. Shils.

the association is not part of any larger system (society);

marriages are concluded between representatives of this association;

it is replenished mainly by the children of those people who are already its recognized representatives;

the association has a territory that it considers its own;

it has its own name and its own history;

it has its own control system;

the association exists longer than the average life span of an individual;

it is united by a common system of values ​​(customs, traditions, norms, laws, rules, mores), which is called culture.

• * Society is divided into four main areas - economic, political, social and cultural.
• * The economic sphere includes four main activities: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. It includes not only firms, enterprises, factories, banks, markets, but also flows of money and investments, capital turnover, and so on.
• * The political sphere is the president and the presidential apparatus, the government and the parliament (Federal Assembly), its apparatus, local authorities (provincial, regional), the army, the police, the tax and customs services, which together make up the state, as well as political parties not included in it.
• * Spiritual sphere (culture, science, religion and education) includes universities and laboratories, museums and theaters, art galleries and research institutes, magazines and newspapers, cultural monuments and national art treasures, religious communities, etc.
• * The social sphere covers classes, social strata, nations, taken in their relations and interaction with each other. It is understood in two senses - broad and narrow.

The social sphere of society in a broad sense is a set of organizations and institutions responsible for the welfare of the population.

The social sphere in a narrow sense means only socially unprotected segments of the population and institutions serving them.

* One of the most complete and conceptually clear models of society was created in the middle of the 19th century by the great German thinker Karl Marx. According to his views, any society consists of a base and a superstructure.

The basis is a dialectical unity of productive forces and production relations.

The superstructure includes ideology, culture, art, education, science, politics, religion, family.

• * As an ideal, civil society embodies an ideal society - a society of free, sovereign individuals, endowed with the broadest civil and political rights, actively participating in government, freely expressing their thoughts, freely satisfying various needs: creating any organizations and parties aimed at protecting the interests of these individuals.
• * Civil society as a reality coincides with civil society as an ideal only in one case - when the rule of law is established. It is based on the rule of law in society, the freedom of people, their equality in rights as innate human properties. Members of society voluntarily accept certain restrictions and undertake to obey the general laws.
• * The totalitarian state is the basic concept of sociology. It is characterized by such features as:

suppression apparatus;

persecution of dissidents;

severe censorship and the abolition of freedom of speech;

dictatorship of one political party;

monopoly of state property;

genocide against one's own people;

suppression of the individual, alienation from the state.

• * The global, world-historical process of the ascent of human societies from the state of savagery to the heights of civilization is called social progress.
• * Reform is a partial improvement in any sphere of life, a series of gradual changes that do not affect the foundations of the existing social order.
• * Revolution - a complex change in all or most aspects of public life, affecting the foundations of the existing system. It is of a spasmodic nature and represents the transition of society from one qualitative state to another.
• * According to their typology, societies are divided into closed and open, pre-literate and written, primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist, pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial, stable and unstable, transitional and stable, stagnant and dynamically developing, wild barbarian and civilized, etc. d.
• * Modern sociology uses all typologies, combining them into some kind of synthetic model. The American sociologist Daniel Bell is considered its creator. He divided world history into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial.
• * The development of human society successively passes through three stages corresponding to the three main types of society: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.
• * The transition from the primitive phase to the pre-industrial or traditional society is called the Neolithic revolution, and from it to the industrial - the industrial revolution.
• * Communities - associations of several groups of people connected by mutual marriages, labor cooperation and a common territory.
• * Chiefdom - a hierarchically organized system of people, in which there is no branched administrative apparatus, which is an integral feature of a mature state.
• * Cattle breeding is a more efficient way of obtaining a livelihood, based on the domestication (domestication) of wild animals. Pastoralists, like hunters and gatherers, led a nomadic lifestyle.
• * Cultivation of plants is the process of transforming wild plants into cultivated cereals, signifying the transition to agriculture.
• * With the emergence of ancient Eastern states, we can talk about an important historical process - the transition from disparate communities, often at war with each other, to a cohesive, politically organized society.
• * Complex societies include those where there is a surplus product, commodity-money relations, social inequality and social stratification (slavery, castes, estates, classes), a specialized and widely branched management apparatus.
• * An agrarian society is a multitude of cities and suburbs united by economic exchange.
• * Law -- a set of obligatory rules of conduct (norms) established or sanctioned by the state.
• * Signs of complex societies:

resettlement of people in cities;

development of non-agrarian specialization of labor;

emergence and accumulation of a surplus product;

the emergence of clear class distances;

transition from customary law to legal laws;

the emergence of the practice of large-scale public works such as irrigation and the construction of pyramids;

the emergence of international trade;

the emergence of writing, mathematics and culture.

• * The generalized formula of a complex society can be expressed as follows: state, stratification, civilization.
• * The modern concept of society was formed in European culture not earlier than the 17th-18th centuries. At the end of the 18th century, the concept of "civil society" arose. It described the mores and customs of the entire people, the initiative and self-government of the population, and finally, the participation in the political life of ordinary people, not directed by the state, but arising spontaneously.
• * Industrialization - the application of scientific knowledge to industrial technology, the discovery of new sources of energy that allow machines to do the work that was previously done by people or draft animals. The transition to industry was as significant a revolution for mankind as the transition to agriculture was in its time.
• * In a post-industrial society, the main role is played not by industry and production, but by science and technology.
• * An industrial society can be defined by the number of goods produced, and a post-industrial society by the ability to generate and transmit information.
• * Modernization is understood as a revolutionary transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial, or capitalist society, carried out through complex reforms extended over time. It implies a fundamental change in social institutions and the way of life of people, covering all spheres of society.
• * Today, the concept of "society" has become even broader than it was mentioned above. Indeed, a society can be understood as a separate country, or it can be understood as all countries of the world. In this case, we should talk about the world community.
• * Globalization is a historical process of rapprochement of nations and peoples, between which traditional boundaries are gradually being erased and humanity is turning into a single political system.
• * The world economic system is a set of territories or countries united by economic ties.

a term that is used to refer to some hypothetical community of citizens from all countries of the world who are united in a common impulse of internationalism in a united front. This expression is usually used in a condemning context: “the entire world community has condemned the act...”, “the world community is concerned...”, “the world community has put forward demands for a dictatorial regime...”, etc. It is quite clear that there is no in fact, there is no cohesive world community, most states live on their own, trying not to interfere in the internal affairs of other states and not allowing outside intrusions into their internal affairs. Moreover, many states and blocks of states are with each other, if not in open confrontation, then in a state of cold war, which does not allow us to talk about any integrity at all.

From all of the above, it is clear that the expression "world community" is an element of manipulation of public opinion, when under these words a certain point of view is imposed on the recipient of information that is beneficial to the manipulators. After all, if the entire world community has condemned, then how can a simple layman who watches a report about the condemnation not condemn. Naturally, this technology of manipulation is used to put pressure on regimes objectionable to the new world order, as well as to justify various kinds of humanitarian missions in relation to such regimes.

See also: rogue state, humanitarian aid, international terrorism, universal values, progressive humanity, self-determination, religious freedom, social Darwinism, economic blockade.