Big changes await the global energy sector. In the past 10 years, there has been a rapid leap towards renewable energy sources in the world. The growth rate of wind and solar energy in the world has been 30% or more for several years in a row, which exceeds the growth rate of traditional coal and gas energy by an order of magnitude. In the crisis years of 2008-2009. this growth not only has not weakened, it has accelerated. And this happened against the backdrop of falling prices for traditional energy resources and, it would seem, the increased attractiveness of gas, coal and oil products.
The global energy sector is growing mainly due to the commissioned capacities based on renewable energy sources, while new generation based on fossil fuels, as a rule, only replaces outdated and inefficient energy capacities. In 2009-2010 a significant event took place in the world of energy. For the first time in history, the total capacity of all commissioned RES capacities exceeded the total capacity of new fuel generation. The trends have finally crossed and will continue to move in opposite directions. Why?
Worldwide trend, fashion. The governments of developed countries, the world's largest manufacturing companies have opted for renewable energy. The world elite is in search of a new direction for economic development, a new application of capital and knowledge. Renewable energy is still seen as one of such promising areas.
Cost indicators. The era of cheap hydrocarbons is coming to an end. Extraction of oil, gas, coal goes further and further into the sea, into the taiga, to the north or south. The cream was taken off in the 20th century. There is no doubt that the resources of oil, gas and coal will last for hundreds of centuries, but these resources will be expensive. On the other hand, kW of installed capacity of renewable energy sources has dropped in price by an order of magnitude over the past 30 years. In some cases, the price of electricity produced using renewable energy sources is already cheaper today than electricity using hydrocarbon fuels.
Technological progress and new technologies. Technological progress has certainly affected all sectors of the world economy. But in the field of renewable energy sources, in recent years, it has gone with a noticeable lead. The efficiency of the equipment has increased several times with a constant decrease in its price. For example, wind turbines installed in Europe 10 years ago are already morally and physically obsolete. In the fuel energy industry, on the contrary, new types of equipment are, as a rule, more sophisticated and more expensive than the previous ones.
Political risks. The world is becoming more and more unstable, which noticeably affects the volatility of prices for traditional energy resources, in the final price of which the lion's share is made up of the “mood” of investors and speculators.
Infrastructure risks. As a consequence of political risks, difficulties and disruptions arise in the supply of the energy carriers themselves, the areas of production of which are remote from the areas of consumption. In the middle of the twentieth century, the world was already going through a temporary phase of abandoning oil pipelines (for example, on the Arabian Peninsula) in favor of the development of tanker transport due to political instability in the region. Apparently, the same thing awaits us in the near future. Gas pipeline megaprojects in Eurasia face a host of market and political risks in transit countries, the influence of pirates on the seas is increasing, etc. All this increases the risk of undersupply of fuel, and, accordingly, high costs are required for the maintenance and storage of energy carriers.
Terrorist risks. Fuel energy infrastructure is attracting increased attention from all kinds of extremist and radical communities. In this regard, in recent years, the costs of their protection and safety have increased many times. From this point of view, renewable energy facilities are less interesting: they are low-power, distributed over the territory, their destruction does not threaten the lives of the people around them (there is no point in blowing up an offshore wind farm, for example).
Distributed generation. All of the above risks are gradually shaping a new global trend - the growth of distributed generation capacities - the transition from large generating facilities to much smaller energy clusters. And energy based on renewable energy sources very well fits into this paradigm, which does not require the creation of an expensive transport infrastructure for its own development (both for the supply of energy resources and for the transmission of electricity). Distributed generation based on renewable energy sources logically fits into the problem of energy saving and energy efficiency: most of the energy is consumed at the place of its production, which excludes electricity losses during transport.
Environmental factors. Here, the advantages of energy based on renewable energy sources in comparison with fuel energy are indisputable. Renewable energy uses the energy of the sun or human waste products as energy resources.
Pros and cons
Renewable energy cannot be fully equated with green. It also has its opponents - environmentalists, political scientists, power engineers. Thus, it is widely believed that large wind power is a source of low-frequency oscillations that are destructive to all living things. Countless birds have allegedly been harmed by wind turbines, and offshore wind farms severely interfere with the navigational thinking of migratory birds and prevent schools of fish from navigating the sea.
However, there are official statistics that say that, for example, in Germany, as many as 3 birds per year from the blades per year in 2009. And the "stupid" Germans stubbornly continue to build residential buildings right under the towers of megawatt-class wind farms.
Solar energy is also not ideal in terms of greenness. The technology for obtaining raw materials for solar modules is based on chlorine chemistry, which is killing everything around. Say, at the stage of production of solar modules, the "green" effect of solar energy is completely exhausted.
For each of the types of alternative energy, similar counterarguments can be cited.
Of the two evils, it is customary to choose the lesser. At the same time, few people think about the pollution of the world space by such industries as mining, metallurgy, traditional large-scale energy (fuel and non-fuel). We are just beginning to realize their "contribution".
Solar and wind generation do have other, much more serious technological problems. The sun does not shine at night, solar modules do not work from the shining of the stars and the moon. The wind farm does not work in low wind or calm conditions. The inconsistency of energy production over time is a really serious problem in some branches of non-traditional energy, which adversely affects the ICUF of renewable energy plants, and, consequently, the price and payback period of renewable energy projects. But for the development of renewable energy sources globally, this problem is not of great importance. The Danish experience is proof of this. In this small European country, over the past 5-7 years, the share of wind generation in the structure of the entire electric power industry in terms of capacity has been about 20-25%. At the same time, on some windy nights, wind energy covers all the country's needs for electricity! In calm weather, the share of wind energy never drops to zero and fluctuates at the level of 5-10% of the country's total electricity needs. This is due to the fact that wind farms are relatively evenly distributed throughout the country and the complete absence of wind at all points is extremely unlikely. During calm days, the Danes cover the deficit of their own generation with electricity from Norway, generated at local hydroelectric power plants. The variant of functioning of alternative energy described above allows us to draw several interesting conclusions that are valid both for Denmark and for any other country:
Even in Denmark, renewable energy does not aim to completely replace traditional energy, although globally, guidelines have been approved to bring the share of wind energy in the country's energy production to 50% by 2030.
- Alternative energy rather successfully complements traditional energy, allowing flexible enough to respond to changes in demand. The basic generation of electricity, even in the most developed countries in terms of RES development, is still based on fuel generation. This situation will not change in the coming years, since technologies for the accumulation and distribution of large amounts of energy have not yet been invented and tested, and the network of small power plants based on RES is still not developed everywhere.
- Energy based on renewable energy sources is most efficient in the case of a combination of several of its types or in the case of a combination with traditional energy and the use of smart grids (smart grid)
Place of Russia
Where is Russia's place in the world of global renewable energy? In terms of the installed capacity of renewable energy sources (excluding large hydropower), the Russian Federation occupies a place close to the end of the first hundred, in terms of the share of renewable energy sources in the structure of the energy balance (less than 1%), we are already outside the first hundred countries. In more than a hundred countries of the world, to one degree or another, support for renewable energy is enshrined at the legislative level. Of all the developed countries of the world, only in the Russian Federation there are virtually no working legislative initiatives to support renewable energy sources, not to mention direct measures to stimulate renewable energy sources such as "green" tariffs. Russia is still on the sidelines ... And this despite the fact that several decades ago, in the middle of the 20th century, the USSR was the pioneer in the development of renewable energy-based energy in the world.
What is the reason for this state of affairs? Perhaps we have our own special way of economic development? Maybe the West is bluffing, multiplying the advantages of alternative energy?
Conservatism of the political elite, reluctance for real development of the country, fear and distrust of new technologies. The powerful “anti-alternative” oil and gas lobby at the level of top officials of the state, as well as the total domination of myths about the high cost, low efficiency and uncompetitiveness of renewable energy-based energy, based on information and statistics from the mid-1980s, in the relevant ministries led to a complete stagnation in this region in the Russian Federation. We let even the underdeveloped countries of Tropical Africa, Latin America and Oceania go ahead, in which the corresponding laws ripen like mushrooms after rain, programs to support the development of renewable energy sources are being adopted, and the first projects are being implemented. For developing countries, this is a chance to build a new energy sector and move to the next round of economic development bypassing the hydrocarbon stage.
It is interesting that even such "hydrocarbon" giants as the UAE, Qatar do not hesitate to keep up with the times on the development of renewable energy sources. Moreover, these countries, along with the developed countries of Europe and the United States, are striving to take leading positions in this area of energy. In the UAE, the MASDAR project is developing, which includes the world's first ultra-modern eco-city entirely on renewable energy sources with a technological university specializing in renewable energy sources, residential, public, and commercial buildings.
Beijing and London, the Olympic capitals of 2008 and 2012, have relied on the use of energy-saving technologies and renewable energy sources. At the Thames Estuary, it is planned to launch the London Array, the largest wind farm in Great Britain, and in the whole of Europe, with a capacity of over 1 GW for the opening of the Games. On the contrary, the concept of the Olympics in Sochi contains "anti-green" principles: the transformation of the reserve into a construction site, the construction of thermal power plants, controversial solutions to the "garbage problem", even greater compaction of the city of Sochi. Almost none of the initiatives for the use of renewable energy sources and modern solutions for energy saving find support and are smashed against the wall of corruption valves.
And yet, there will be renewable energy-based energy in Russia as well. It is already developing and growth is gradually accelerating. There are objective reasons for this:
Resource potential. Russia has the largest renewable energy resources in the world, and of almost all types. In some locations, the combination of local conditions contributes to an almost one-step payback of renewable energy projects. For example, projects for power supply of objects remote from the infrastructure, biogas clusters, wood pellet production, zero houses, etc. These areas of renewable energy are already successfully developing even without special measures to support renewable energy from the state.
Support. Until recently, the development of renewable energy-based energy in the Russian Federation proceeded “from below”, by the efforts of engineers, amateurs, small creative teams and enthusiasts. In recent years, there has been strong support for the development of renewable energy sources and "from above" - RusHydro, Renova, Rusnano, Rostekhnologii and Rosatom are gradually involved in the process of creating a renewable energy market in the Russian Federation.
Infrastructure decline. It is becoming more and more difficult for new owners, builders and developers to agree on a connection to power grids and a gas pipeline. There are significant restrictions on the available capacity. The country's energy grid requires a large-scale modernization, which, apparently, will follow the path of developing decentralized generation.
Territory development and new construction. In territories where there is no ready-made infrastructure (power grids, gas pipelines), one has to look for alternative ways of supplying energy to new infrastructure facilities. In the most energy-deficient regions, the choice is increasingly being made in favor of their own generation based on renewable energy sources. It is becoming more and more expensive to use petrol and diesel fuel every day.
Growth of tariffs. The most important driver for the growth of generation based on renewable energy sources is the consistent increase in domestic prices for gas and electricity to the western level. A complete transition to gas tariffs equal to those of Europe, liberalization of the electricity market will lead to the fact that without the use of generation based on renewable energy sources and energy conservation, it will be difficult for Russian consumers to ensure their competitiveness.
alternative energy, biofuel, biogas, wind energy, solar energy, energy saving
Energy of people consists of two streams. One pillar goes from below from the earth, another from above from space. These strings of energy are individual for each person. They cannot be taken away from him.
What is auraThere is a special apparatus that can photograph the human energy field. The latter is often referred to as an "aura". formed by two threads, twisting around the body. Each of them must go completely free, passing through seven special centers, “washing” all the organs and systems of a person, the energy “drains” from the toes and hands. A very important point for health and state of mind is freedom from obstacles. If in some place there is a stop or inhibition of the flow of energy, then the organs or tissues begin to ache. If its entry from space is covered, then the person experiences depression. Any violation immediately affects our condition. Unfortunately, these failures happen all the time. They can be caused not only by external influence, but also by any of our negative thoughts. It is also true that serious violations are provoked only by a long-term stoppage of energy flows. That is, if you hate someone, then you harm not only him, but also yourself.
Negative human energy
When a person experiences setbacks or misfortunes, the fulfillment of plans is regularly disrupted, then they say that his aura is polluted. This is possible in the event that he seriously sinned or he was artificially introduced into the field "black spoilage". The energy of people is very receptive. The fact is that we constantly communicate with each other
another at the field level. People may not know each other, not even suspect of existence, but our auras constantly interact. This process involves the exchange of some parts of our individual energy. Without knowing it, we can inject negative energy into another person. This happens when we feel jealousy, anger, pity, or some other emotion towards one or more people. Any thought directed at a person is accompanied by the transfer of energy to him. It happens that negative energy is intentionally introduced into the field (damage).
Purification of human energy
In fact, caring for the purity of the aura in the modern world is just as normal.
a procedure like hygiene or a healthy lifestyle. Energy of people, due to constant exchange, is subject to some "clogging". That is, we constantly “grab” other people's negative programs. You need to get rid of them regularly. This is done in different ways. Believers purify themselves by prayer and keeping the commandments of the Lord. Esotericists have their own methods. You can also use the services of magicians who specialize in cleaning the field. The best way to preserve the natural purity of the aura is to protect it from negativity. And the best protection is love and a positive attitude. It is known that people who are at the peak of euphoria are very difficult to infect with negativity. He just bounces off them. It's just that when you are in love, the energy is so strong that someone else's "minus" is simply not able to break through it.
So, a person is, in fact, an energy field. The higher and purer his aura, the brighter and calmer his life proceeds.
Energy is the foundation of world civilization. Man is a man only because of his exceptional, in contrast to all living beings, ability to use and control the energy of nature.
The first form of energy mastered by man was the energy of fire. The fire made it possible to heat the dwelling and prepare food. Having learned how to produce and maintain fire on their own and by improving the technology for the production of weapons, people were able to improve the hygiene of their bodies by heating water, improve heating of their homes, and also use the energy of fire to make weapons for hunting and attack other groups of people, that is, in the "military" purposes.
One of the main sources of energy in the modern world is the energy of combustion of petroleum products and natural gas. This energy is widely used in industry and technology, and the use of internal combustion engines of motor vehicles is based on it. Almost all modern types of transport are powered by the combustion energy of liquid hydrocarbons - gasoline or diesel fuel.
The next breakthrough in the development of energy occurred after the discovery of the phenomenon of electricity. Having mastered electrical energy, humanity has made a huge step forward. Currently, the electric power industry is the foundation for the existence of many sectors of the economy, providing lighting, the operation of communications (including wireless), television, radio, electronic devices, that is, everything without which it is impossible to imagine modern civilization.
Nuclear energy is of great importance for modern life, since the cost of one kilowatt of electricity generated by a nuclear reactor is several times less than when generating a kilowatt of electricity from hydrocarbons or coal. Atomic energy is also used in space programs and medicine. However, there is a serious danger of the use of atomic energy for military or terrorist purposes, therefore careful control over nuclear power facilities is required, as well as careful handling of reactor elements during operation.
The civilization problem of mankind is that the natural reserves of oil, gas, and coal, also widely used in industry and chemical production, will sooner or later run out. Therefore, the question of finding alternative energy sources is acute; a lot of scientific research is being carried out in this direction. Unfortunately, oil and gas companies are not interested in curtailing oil and gas production, since the entire world economy of our time is based on this. Nevertheless, someday a solution will be found, otherwise the energy and ecological collapse will become inevitable, which will turn into serious troubles for all mankind.
We can say that energy for humanity is heavenly fire, the gift of Prometheus, which can warm, bring light, protect from darkness and lead to the stars, or can incinerate the whole world. The use of various types of energy requires a clear mind, conscience and iron will of people.
Energy- the area of human economic and economic activity, a set of large natural and artificial subsystems that serve to transform, distribute and use energy resources of all types. Its purpose is to ensure the production of energy by converting primary, natural energy into secondary energy, for example, into electrical or thermal energy. At the same time, energy production most often occurs in several stages:
Power engineering
Electricity is a subsystem of the energy sector that encompasses the production of electricity at power plants and its delivery to consumers through the transmission line. Its central elements are power plants, which are usually classified according to the type of primary energy used and the type of converters used for this. It should be noted that the prevalence of one type or another of power plants in a particular state depends primarily on the availability of appropriate resources. The power industry is usually divided into traditional and unconventional.
Traditional Electricity
A characteristic feature of the traditional electric power industry is its long-term and good development; it has been tested for a long time in a variety of operating conditions. The main share of electricity in the world is obtained precisely at traditional power plants, their unit electrical capacity very often exceeds 1000 MW. The traditional power industry is divided into several areas.
Thermal energy
In this industry, electricity is generated at thermal power plants ( TPP), using for this the chemical energy of fossil fuel. They are divided into:
On a global scale, heat power engineering prevails among traditional types, coal-based generates 46% of all electricity in the world, gas-based - 18%, another 3% - due to the combustion of biomass, oil is used for 0.2%. In total, thermal power plants provide about 2/3 of the total output of all power plants in the world
Energy in such countries of the world as Poland and South Africa is almost entirely based on the use of coal, and the Netherlands - on gas. The share of heat power engineering is very large in China, Australia, Mexico.
Hydropower
In this industry, electricity is produced at hydroelectric power plants ( Hydroelectric power station), using the energy of the water flow for this.
Hydroelectric power plants dominate in a number of countries - in Norway and Brazil, all electricity generation occurs there. The list of countries in which the share of hydroelectric power generation exceeds 70% includes several dozen.
Nuclear energy
The industry in which electricity is produced in nuclear power plants ( NPP), using for this the energy of a controlled nuclear chain reaction, most often uranium and plutonium.
France is the leader in terms of the share of nuclear power plants in electricity generation, about 70%. It also prevails in Belgium, the Republic of Korea and some other countries. The world leaders in the production of electricity at nuclear power plants are the United States, France and Japan.
Unconventional Electricity
Most areas of non-traditional electric power industry are based on quite traditional principles, but the primary energy in them is either sources of local importance, for example, wind, geothermal, or sources under development, for example, fuel cells or sources that may find application in the future, for example, thermonuclear energy. The characteristic features of unconventional energy are their environmental friendliness, extremely high capital construction costs (for example, for a solar power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW it is required to cover an area of about 4 km² with very expensive mirrors) and low unit capacity. Directions of unconventional energy:
- Fuel cell installations
You can also highlight an important concept due to its mass character - small energy, this term is currently not generally accepted, along with the terms are used local energy, distributed energy, autonomous energy and others. Most often, this is the name given to power plants with a capacity of up to 30 MW with units of a unit capacity of up to 10 MW. These include both environmentally friendly types of energy, listed above, and small power plants using fossil fuels, such as diesel power plants (among small power plants, the vast majority of them, for example, in Russia - about 96%), gas piston power plants, low-power gas turbine plants on diesel and gas fuel.
Electricity of the net
Electrical network- a set of substations, switchgears and power lines connecting them, intended for the transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The electrical network provides the ability to output power from power plants, transmit it over a distance, convert the parameters of electricity (voltage, current) at substations and distribute it throughout the territory up to direct power consumers.
Electric networks of modern power systems are multistage, that is, electricity undergoes a large number of transformations on the way from sources of electricity to its consumers. Also, modern electrical networks are characterized by multi-mode, which is understood as the diversity of the load of the network elements in the daily and annual terms, as well as the abundance of modes that arise when various network elements are brought into planned repairs and during their emergency shutdowns. These and other characteristics of modern power grids make their structures and configurations very complex and varied.
Heat supply
The life of a modern person is associated with the widespread use of not only electrical, but also thermal energy. In order for a person to feel comfortable at home, at work, in any public place, all premises must be heated and supplied with hot water for domestic purposes. Since this is directly related to human health, in developed countries, suitable temperature conditions in various kinds of premises are regulated by sanitary rules and standards. Such conditions can be realized in most countries of the world only with a constant supply to the heating object ( heat sink) a certain amount of heat, which depends on the outside temperature, for which hot water is most often used with a final temperature of about 80-90 ° C at consumers. Also, for various technological processes of industrial enterprises, a so-called production steam with a pressure of 1-3 MPa. In the general case, the supply of heat to any object is provided by a system consisting of:
- a heat source, such as a boiler room;
- heating network, for example, from pipelines of hot water or steam;
- a heat sink, for example, a water heating battery.
District heating
A characteristic feature of centralized heat supply is the presence of an extensive heating network, from which numerous consumers (factories, buildings, living quarters, etc.) are fed. For district heating, two types of sources are used:
- Combined Heat and Power ( CHP);
- Boiler houses, which are divided into:
- Hot water;
- Steam.
Decentralized heat supply
A heat supply system is called decentralized if the heat source and heat sink are practically combined, that is, the heating network is either very small or absent. Such heat supply can be individual, when separate heating devices are used in each room, for example, electric, or local, for example, heating a building with its own small boiler room. Typically, the heating capacity of such boiler houses does not exceed 1 Gcal / h (1.163 MW). The capacity of heat sources for individual heat supply is usually quite small and is determined by the needs of their owners. Types of decentralized heating:
- Small boiler rooms;
- Electrical, which is divided into:
- Direct;
- Accumulation;
Heating network
Heating network is a complex engineering and construction structure used to transport heat using a heat carrier, water or steam, from a source, CHP or boiler house, to heat consumers.
Energy fuel
Since most of the traditional power plants and heating sources generate energy from non-renewable resources, the issues of extraction, processing and delivery of fuels are extremely important in the energy sector. In traditional power engineering, two types of fuel are used that are fundamentally different from each other.
Fossil fuels
Gaseous
natural gas, artificial:
- Blast furnace gas;
- Distillation products of petroleum;
- Underground gasification gas;
Liquid
Natural fuel is oil, artificial are the products of its distillation:
Solid
Natural fuels are:
- Fossil fuel:
- Vegetable fuel:
- Wood waste;
- Fuel briquettes;
Artificial solid fuels are:
Nuclear fuel
The main and fundamental difference between nuclear power plants and thermal power plants is in the use of nuclear fuel instead of organic fuel. Nuclear fuel is obtained from natural uranium, which is mined:
- In mines (France, Niger, South Africa);
- In open pits (Australia, Namibia);
- In-situ leaching (Kazakhstan, USA, Canada, Russia).
Energy systems
Power system (power system)- in a general sense, a set of energy resources of all types, as well as methods and means for their receipt, transformation, distribution and use, which ensure the supply of consumers with all types of energy. The energy system includes the systems of electric power, oil and gas supply, coal industry, nuclear energy and others. Usually, all these systems are combined on a national scale into a single energy system, on the scale of several regions - into interconnected energy systems. The combination of individual power supply systems into a single system is also called inter-industry fuel and energy complex, it is primarily due to the interchangeability of various types of energy and energy resources.
Often an energy system in a narrower sense is understood as a set of power plants, electrical and heat networks, which are interconnected and linked by common modes of continuous production processes of conversion, transmission and distribution of electrical and thermal energy, which allows centralized control of such a system. In the modern world, consumers are supplied with electricity from power plants that may be located near consumers or may be remote from them at considerable distances. In both cases, electricity is transmitted via power lines. However, in the case of remoteness of consumers from the power plant, the transmission has to be carried out at increased voltage, and between them to build step-up and step-down substations. Through these substations, with the help of electric lines, power plants are connected to each other for parallel operation for a common load, also through heat points with the help of heat pipelines, only at much smaller distances they connect CHP and boiler houses. The combination of all these elements is called power system, with such a combination, significant technical and economic advantages arise:
- significant reduction in the cost of electricity and heat;
- a significant increase in the reliability of electricity and heat supply to consumers;
- increasing the efficiency of operation of various types of power plants;
- reduction of the required reserve capacity of power plants.
Such huge advantages in the use of power systems led to the fact that by 1974 only less than 3% of the total amount of electricity in the world was generated by separately operating power plants. Since then, the power of energy systems has been continuously increasing, and from the smaller ones, powerful united systems have been created.
see also
Notes (edit)
- 2017 Key World Energy Statistics(unspecified)(PDF). http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/ 30. IEA (2017).
- Under the general editorship of Corresponding Member RAS
Probably everyone paid attention to the division of people according to the degree of success and attractiveness for material wealth. Some can easily create a happy family, while others earn a lot of money without straining. What's most interesting is that it is much more difficult to find a person who is successful in all areas at once, so that there is happiness in the family and money flows like a river. But a lot of individuals complain about being successful in only one area. As a rule, it is much more difficult to achieve success in another area, and sometimes even impossible. This happens because each of us has the energy of one dominant color. The color of the energy depends on what earth resources we will attract. Each person has one main color in the energy, which serves as a magnet for his inherent benefits. However, this same color cannot attract benefits that are not characteristic of it.
What is energy. Why does its color depend.
Energy is a shell of energy that surrounds us, which we create ourselves. All our thoughts, goals, priorities, attitude towards ourselves and the world around us, principles and actions affect its color and saturation. If a person is confident in himself, loves himself, has high self-esteem, knows his own way, is energetic, successful and successful then his energy will be yellow. If he is energetic, sexy, loves to rule and dominate, knows how to work at full strength, then his energy will most likely be red.
There are 10 such colors in total. Of these, three colors are not successful and not pure: brown, black and gray. The rest are: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and purple. Let's summarize: the color of our energy depends on the direction of our thinking and perception of the world. Thus, the benefits that are inherent in our color are attracted to us. It works as follows: the direction of our thoughts is reflected in the unconscious, which launches a certain energy center, and that, in turn, begins to develop a certain energy color. The degree of attraction of accompanying benefits depends on the saturation of the energy shell and its color. The saturation of energy, in turn, is determined by the degree of satisfaction with oneself, one's life, energy breakdowns and weeds. Having learned to think in a certain way, it is possible to change or saturate the energy.
What is energy. Primary colors.
Most often, one energy color dominates for each person, but sometimes another one is mixed with it, but in a weaker form. For example, a mixture of yellow energy with orange or green with an admixture of blue is often found. Now in more detail about the main colors of energy.
Red energy is characteristic of people of strong-willed, domineering, selfish, loving and able to dominate, as well as take leading positions. They are often assertive, sexy, able-bodied, and aggressive. The energy of these people attracts power, sex with various partners, an active and busy life, and sometimes even extreme adventures. It is inherent in people with red energy to achieve a set goal, not being embarrassed in the methods of achieving it.
The orange color of energy is suitable for selfish people who love and know how to enjoy life, often lazy. They love calmness, slowness in decision-making, envelop themselves in comfort and try not to overwork. The energy of such people attracts pleasure and enjoyment of life, tranquility, work for pleasure, comfort and coziness.
Yellow energy is characteristic of individuals who are selfish, self-confident, who love themselves, have high self-esteem, are able to enjoy success and believe in good luck. The energy of these people attracts luck, success, money, fame, as well as the good attitude of other people. Yellow energy tends to be in the spotlight and at the peak of success.
Green energy is inherent in people who love all life around them. As a rule, such people are altruistic, fair and principled. The energy of such people attracts love, justice, goodness. Green energy can easily build strong and happy family relationships.
Blue energy is characteristic of light, creative and sociable individuals. Carriers of blue energy attract ease in business and life. They strive for creative self-realization.
Blue energy is inherent in people who rely on their intellect, think over their actions one step ahead, and have developed logical thinking. Blue energy attracts intellectual work and a well-planned life with a minimum of emotions. People with blue energy tend to grow professionally. They accept only the logical world, while rejecting logically inexplicable information.
Violet energy is characteristic of spiritually developed individuals who prefer the spiritual to the material world, possessing a fair amount of wisdom, having the richest inner world and having a huge impact on the people around them. Sages are typical representatives of the violet energy. Spiritual knowledge is attracted to the violet energy and an opportunity is provided to influence the development of other people.
Now a few words about unsuccessful energy drinks, which include black, brown and gray. Unfortunately, more than sixty percent of the world's people are carriers of such energetics. But there is also a positive moment - the percentage of bad energy drinks is decreasing. This happens due to an increase in the standard of living and the gradual spiritual improvement of people.
Black energy is characteristic of people who are spiteful, envious, vindictive, dissatisfied with themselves and their lives, negative, with a strong blackness. Black energy brings evil to the world, wishing people the worst. This energy attracts everything that it desires for others.
People with brown energy include persons who have a pessimistic outlook on life, with developed complexes, who do not love themselves, do not respect themselves, and have low self-esteem. Often such people are not bad, and sometimes even fair and noble, but a developed blackness interferes with a pure perception of the world, which brings in negative, develops complexes and brings bad luck. Brown energy attracts setbacks, disappointments, stress, stagnation in business and a difficult personal life.
Gray energy is characteristic of persons with a punctured energy shell, which deprives a person of vital energy and strength. Breakdown occurs due to the individual's dissatisfaction with himself or the world around him, self-flagellation and other influences of the blackness. The gray energy is trying to hide in its world from the adversity and people around it, which prevents them, first of all, from success, luck and other benefits of the modern world. Gray energy is so devoid of energy that it makes it invisible to the universe.
What is energy. How to develop it.
Any energy can be developed and made more attractive for the benefits of the universe. Energy can not only be forged and saturated, but even changed depending on the circumstances. It is possible to train energy both by working on your thinking and perception of the world, and by influencing the energy centers. There is a wonderful and unique methodology for the development of energy. You can learn it by attending the training "four leaps to success". You can study the details of the training "four leaps to success" by going to.
Betting on the construction of large power plants, we are forced to build extended networks for the transmission of energy. Their cost, maintenance, as well as transmission losses lead to an increase in the tariff by 4-5 times compared to the cost of the generated energy.
Vladimir Mikhailov, member of the expert council on the delineation of powers under the President of Russia
There are people who claim that small energy is good.
There are others who argue that small energy is "heresy" and the only correct option is large energy. They say there is a scale effect, as a result of which "big electricity" is cheaper.
Take a look around. Both in the West and in the East, small power plants are being actively built, both in addition to and in place of large power plants.
Small power plants today are not much inferior to their "big brother" in terms of efficiency, but they gain solidly in the flexibility of work, as well as the speed of construction and commissioning.
In fact, in this publication I will show that today the "big" power industry is unlikely to be able to single-handedly cope with the task of reliable and inexpensive power supply to Russian consumers. Including, for specific reasons, not directly related to the energy sector.
RUB 69,000 per kW - the cost of the Sochinskaya CHPP ...
As you know, the larger the construction site, the cheaper its unit cost. For example, the cost of creating small power plants with heat recovery is about $ 1,000 per kilowatt of installed electrical capacity. The cost of large stations should be within 600-900 USD / kW.
And now, what is the situation in Russia.
The unit cost of the Sochi CHPP (2004) was about $ 2,460 per kilowatt.
Installed electric capacity: 79 MW, heat capacity: 25 Gcal / hour.
Investment volume: 5.47 billion rubles.
The construction was carried out within the framework of the federal target program "South of Russia"
Investment program of RAO "UES of Russia" (publication date - autumn 2006): plans to spend 2.1 trillion (2,100,000,000,000) rubles for the construction of power plants and networks. This is the most expensive program in Russia. It exceeds all investment expenditures of the federal budget together with the investment fund for the next year (807 billion rubles). It is larger than the Stabilization Fund (2.05 trillion rubles).
For the construction of one kilowatt of capacity, on average, about $ 1100.
Former Deputy Energy Minister, ex-Chairman of the Board of Directors of RAO "UES" Viktor Kudryavy; "The investment program of RAO" UES "is overstated by 600-650 billion rubles."
For the new dispatching system "EES" paid German Siemens about 80 million euros, although, according to the expert of the Center for the Study of Regional Problems Igor Tekhnarev, similar products have already been developed by domestic specialists and cost from 1 to 5 million euros. Almost $ 7 million more. RAO "UES" gave Microsoft to legalize the holding's corporate software. As one of Ko's interlocutors joked, even the presidential administration cannot afford this.
Conclusion: the cost of building power plants is artificially overstated by RAO "UES" by two to four times. It is clear that the money goes into the "right pocket". Well, they are taken from the budget (read, our taxes) or included in the cost of tariffs and connection fees.
Boris Gryzlov: "The management of RAO" UES of Russia "pays more attention to the payment of bonuses to its employees than to the development of the industry"
The statement that the Department of RAO "UES of Russia" is not concerned with the well-being of the company, but of the Department itself is obvious to many:
- Chairman of the State Duma Boris Gryzlov (October 11, 2006): "Unfortunately, we must state that the measures that have been carried out by RAO" UES of Russia "so far have not led to the elimination of the danger of serious accidents and the danger of a significant increase in tariffs for the population. There are statements about upcoming power outages in a number of regions in winter, and it’s not hard to imagine what consequences such outages can lead to, for example, during frosts - we are talking about the health and even about the lives of our citizens.
- Head of the Institute for Globalization Problems Mikhail Delyagin: "The reform of the electric power industry is diverting all the forces of RAO" UES "and many related business structures to redistribute assets," cut "financial flows and divert them into their own pockets. All other issues remained on the periphery of the attention of the management of RAO" UES " "- not because it is bad, but because this is how the reform was conceived and arranged."
And the Department does not hesitate to talk about the catastrophic state of the energy sector, in which RAO "UES of Russia" is naturally not to blame:
- Member of the Management Board of RAO "UES of Russia" Yuri Udaltsov: "In 2004, RAO" UES of Russia "satisfied only 32% of all applications for connection. In 2005, this figure dropped to 21%. It is assumed that the number of people connected to the electricity supply will continue to fall: in 2006 to 16%, and in 2007 to 10%. "
- Anatoly Borisovich Chubais: "The physical capabilities of the country's energy system are coming to an end, which was warned about several years ago."
Conclusion: in a situation where
- the country's electricity industry is crumbling
- those who have to build "saw" financial flows
to speak about the absence of an alternative to "big" energy is, to put it mildly, unreasonable.
Energy accident at the Chagino substation affected Moscow and four regions
Unfortunately, there is no need to talk about the reliability of power supply today. Depreciation of equipment in the power industry is in the region of 70-80%.
Many remember the accident at the Chagino substation, after which rolling blackouts swept across the European part of Russia. Let me remind you just some of the consequences of this event:
- As a result of numerous accidents at substations, electricity was cut off in most parts of the capital of Russia. In the south of Moscow - in the area of Kapotnya, Maryino, Biryulevo, Chertanovo, the electricity went out at about 11:00. There was also no electricity on Leninsky Prospekt, Ryazanskoye Highway, Entuziastov Highway and in the Ordynka area. Orekhovo-Borisovo, Lyubertsy, Novye Cheryomushki, Zhulebino, Brateevo, Perovo, Lyublino were left without electricity ...
- The electricity went out in 25 cities of the Moscow region, in Podolsk, in the Tula region, Kaluga region. Residential buildings and industrial facilities were left without electricity. Accidents occurred at some especially dangerous industries.
- The air conditioning systems did not work, the electricity went out in hospitals and morgues. City transport stopped. Traffic lights turned off on the streets - traffic jams formed on the roads. In a number of Moscow districts, residents were left without water. The pumping stations were not supplied with electricity, and accordingly, the water supply stopped. Stalls and shops have closed in the city, as even in supermarkets refrigerators are "melting".
- Direct losses of the Petelinskaya poultry farm 14,430,000 rubles. (422,000 euros) - 278.5 thousand heads of poultry died.
- The URSA plant almost lost its main equipment - a glass furnace. However, there were still production and financial losses: the plant did not produce 263 tons of fiberglass. The production downtime was 53 hours, the losses from which exceeded 150 thousand euros.
The Moscow accident on May 25, 2005 is the most famous, but it is one of hundreds of small and large accidents that occur in Russia every year.
On the website "Power supply of regions of Russia" in the section "Reliability of traditional power supply" you can see a selection of materials from the press about accidents, power shortages in your region.
This compilation is not a complete collection of facts, but you can get some idea of the situation with the reliability of electricity supply.
By the way, one of the loudest was the statement by Anatoly Chubais, Chairman of the Management Board of RAO "UES of Russia," about a list of 16 Russian regions that could experience limitations in electricity consumption in the winter of 2006-2007.
These are Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Dagestan, Karelian, Komi, Kuban, Leningrad (including St. Petersburg), Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Perm, Sverdlovsk, Saratov, Tyvinsk, Tyumen, Ulyanovsk and Chelyabinsk energy systems.
Last year, only the Moscow, Leningrad and Tyumen power systems were at risk ...
Conclusion: accidents and statements by Chubais A.B. tell us about the low reliability of traditional power supply. Unfortunately, we are waiting for new accidents ...
A little about small energy
Small-scale energy has its advantages
At first, a huge advantage of quick commissioning of facilities (lower capital costs, shorter production times for equipment and construction of a "box", lower fuel volumes, much lower costs for power lines)
This will make it possible to "muffle" a very significant energy shortage before the commissioning of large power facilities
Secondly, competition always has a beneficial effect on the quality and cost of services
I hope that the successes of small-scale energy will push to more active increase in the efficiency of "large" energy
Thirdly, small power plants require less space and do not lead to high concentrations of harmful emissions
This fact can and should be used in the process of providing electricity and heat to our future winter Pearl, the capital of the 2014 Olympic Games - the city of Sochi
Due to the fact that small-scale gas energy is a fairly young industry, there are also problems, the presence of which must be recognized and addressed:
At first, the lack of a legal framework in relation to small power plants (for autonomous heat-generating sources, at least something, but there is)
Secondly, the actual impossibility to sell surplus electricity to the Network
Thirdly, significant difficulties in obtaining fuel (in the overwhelming majority of cases, natural gas)
Conclusion: small-scale power generation in Russia has significant potential, which will take time to fully develop
Outcomes
I am sure that power engineers of different "weight" categories should coexist in our country. Each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
And only in cooperation can you get effective Energy.
| Sourse of information - |
Before starting to consider the issues of the electric power industry, it is necessary to understand what energy is in general, what problems does it solve, what role does it play in human life?
Energy is an area of human activity, which includes the receipt (extraction), processing (transformation), transportation (transmission), storage (except for electrical energy), distribution and use (consumption) of energy resources and energy carriers of all types. Energy has developed, deep, internal and external connections. Its development is inseparable from all aspects of human activity. Such complex structures with a variety of external and internal connections are considered large systems.
The definition of a large energy system (TSB) contains the conditions for dividing a large system into subsystems - the hierarchy of its structure, the development of connections between subsystems, the unity of tasks and the presence of independent goals for each subsystem, the subordination of particular goals to a common one. Such subsystems include fuel power engineering, nuclear power engineering, hydropower engineering, heat power engineering, electric power engineering and other subsystems. Electricity occupies a special place in this series, not only because it is the subject of our study, but mainly because electricity is a special type of energy with specific properties, which should be discussed in more detail.
1.2. Electricity is a special type of energy
The specific properties of electricity include:
- the possibility of obtaining it from other (almost any) types of energy (from mechanical, thermal, chemical, solar and others);
- the possibility of converting it into other types of energy (into mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, into other types of energy);
- the possibility of converting it into electrical energy of any required parameters (for example, in voltage from microvolts to hundreds and even thousands of kilovolts - "The highest-voltage three-phase alternating current line with a length of 1610 km was laid in Russia and Kazakhstan and transmits current with a voltage of 1200 (1150) kV ");
- the possibility of transmission over significant (thousands of kilometers) distances;
- a high degree of automation of production, transformation, transmission, distribution and consumption;
- the impossibility (yet) of storage in large quantities for a long time: the process of production and consumption of electrical energy is a one-time act;
- relative ecological purity.
Such properties of electricity have led to its widespread use in industry, transport, in everyday life, in almost any field of human activity - this is the most common type of energy consumed.
1.3. Electricity consumption. Consumer load graphs
A large number of various consumers are involved in the process of consuming electrical energy. Energy consumption by each of them is uneven throughout the day and year. It can be long and short-term, periodic, regular or random, depending on working days, weekends and holidays, on the work of enterprises in one, two or three shifts, on the duration of the bright part of the day, air temperature, etc.
The following main groups of consumers of electrical energy can be distinguished: - industrial enterprises; - construction; - electrified transport; - Agriculture; - household consumers and the service sector of cities and workers' settlements; - auxiliary needs of power plants, etc. Electricity receivers can be asynchronous electric motors, electric ovens, electrothermal, electrolysis and welding installations, lighting and household appliances, air conditioning and refrigeration units, radio and television installations, medical and other special-purpose installations. In addition, there is a technological consumption of electricity associated with its transmission and distribution in electrical networks.
| Rice. 1.1. Daily load curves |
The power consumption mode can be represented by load graphs. A special place among them is occupied by daily load graphs, which are a continuous graphic representation of the mode of electricity consumption by the consumer during the day (Fig.1.1, a). It is often more convenient to use step-approximated load curves (Fig. 1.1, b). They have received the greatest application.
Each electrical installation has a characteristic load schedule. As an example, Fig. 1.2 shows daily schedules: municipal consumers of the city with predominantly lighting load (Fig. 1.2, a); light industry enterprises with work in two shifts (Fig. 1.2, b); an oil refinery with work in three shifts (Fig. 1.2, c).
The graphs of electrical loads of enterprises of various industries, cities, workers' settlements make it possible to predict the expected maximum loads, the mode and size of electricity consumption, and reasonably design the development of the system.
In connection with the continuity of the production and consumption of electricity, it is important to know how much electricity needs to be generated at any given time, to determine the dispatch schedule for the generation of electricity by each power plant. For the convenience of drawing up dispatch schedules for electricity generation, daily schedules of electricity consumption are divided into three parts (Figure 1.1, a). The lower part where R<R nights min is called basic. There is a continuous consumption of electricity throughout the day. The middle part where R nights min<R< R days min is called half-peak. Here the load increases in the morning hours and decreases in the evening. The upper part where P> P days min is called peak. Here, during the daytime, the load is constantly changing and reaches its maximum value.
1.4. Electricity production. Participation of power plants in power generation
Currently, in our country, as in the rest of the world, most of the electricity is produced in powerful power plants, where some other type of energy is converted into electricity. Depending on the type of energy that is converted into electricity, there are three main types of power plants: thermal (TPP), hydraulic (HPP) and nuclear power plants (NPP).
On thermal power plants the primary source of energy is fossil fuel: coal, gas, fuel oil, oil shale. Among thermal power plants, first of all, it is necessary to highlight condensing power plants (CES). These are, as a rule, powerful power plants located near the production of low-calorific fuel. They carry a significant share in covering the load of the power system. The efficiency factor of the IES is 30 ... 40%. The low efficiency is due to the fact that most of the energy is lost along with the hot exhaust steam. Special thermal power plants, the so-called combined heat and power plants (CHP), allow a significant part of the energy of the exhaust steam to be used for heating and technological processes in industrial enterprises, as well as for domestic needs (heating, hot water supply). As a result, the CHPP efficiency reaches 60 ... 70%. At present, CHPPs in our country provide about 40% of all electricity produced. The peculiarities of the technological process at these power plants, where steam turbine units (STP) are used, imply a stable mode of operation without abrupt and deep changes in the load, work in the base part of the load graph.
In recent years, gas turbine units (GTU) have found application at thermal power plants, in which gaseous or liquid fuel, when burned, creates hot exhaust gases that spin up the turbine. The advantage of TPPs with gas turbines is that they do not require feed water and, as a result, a whole range of related devices. In addition, GTUs are very mobile. It takes several minutes to start and stop them (several hours for STP), they allow deep regulation of the generated power and therefore can be used in the half-peak part of the load curve. The disadvantage of the GTU is the absence of a closed coolant cycle, in which a significant amount of thermal energy is emitted with the exhaust gases. In this case, the efficiency of the gas turbine plant is 25 ... 30%. However, the installation of a waste heat boiler at the exhaust gas turbine plant can increase the efficiency up to 70 ... 80%.
On hydroelectric power plants the energy of the moving water in the turbine is converted into mechanical energy, and then in the generator - into electrical energy. The power of the plant depends on the difference in water levels (pressure) created by the dam and on the mass of water passing through the turbines per second (water flow). Hydroelectric power plants provide more than 15% of all electricity generated in our country. A positive feature of the hydroelectric power station is its very high mobility (higher than that of a gas turbine plant). This is due to the fact that the hydraulic turbine operates at ambient temperature and does not require time-consuming warm-up. Consequently, hydroelectric power plants can be used in any part of the load schedule, including the peak one.
Pumped storage power plants (PSPP) occupy a special place among HPPs. The purpose of the PSPP is to level the daily load schedule for consumers and increase the efficiency of TPPs and NPPs. During the hours of minimum load, PSPP units operate in pumping mode, pumping water from the lower reservoir to the upper one, thereby increasing the load of TPPs and NPPs; during the hours of maximum load, they operate in a turbine mode, discharging water from the upper reservoir and unloading thermal power plants and nuclear power plants from short-term peak loads. In this case, the efficiency of the system as a whole increases.
On nuclear power plants the technology for the production of electrical energy is almost the same as at the IES. The difference is that nuclear power plants use nuclear fuel as the primary source of energy. This imposes additional security requirements. After the Chernobyl disaster, these power plants should be built no closer than 30 km from settlements. The operating mode should be as at the IES - stable, without deep regulation of the generated power.
The load of all consumers must be distributed among all power plants, the total installed capacity of which slightly exceeds the maximum maximum load. The coverage of the basic part of the daily schedule is imposed on: a) NPPs, the power regulation of which is difficult; b) at CHPPs, the maximum efficiency of which takes place when the electric power corresponds to the heat consumption (the passage of steam in the low-pressure stage of the turbines into the condensers should be minimal); c) at a hydroelectric power station in an amount corresponding to the minimum water flow required for sanitary requirements and navigation conditions. During a flood, the participation of hydroelectric power plants in covering the base part of the system's schedule can be increased so that after filling the reservoirs to the design levels, they do not uselessly discharge excess water through the spillway dams. The coverage of the peak part of the schedule is assigned to hydroelectric power plants, pumped storage power plants and gas turbine units, the units of which allow frequent switching on and off, and a rapid change in load. The rest of the graph, partially leveled by the load of the PSP when operating in pumping mode, can be covered by the IES, the operation of which is most economical when the load is uniform (Fig. 1.3).
In addition to those considered, there are a significant number of other types of power plants: solar, wind, geothermal, wave, tidal and others. They can use renewable and alternative energy sources. Considerable attention is paid to these power plants throughout the modern world. They can solve some of the problems facing humanity: energy (fossil fuel reserves are limited), environmental (reduction of emissions of harmful substances during the production of electricity). However, these are very costly technologies for generating electricity because alternative energy sources are, as a rule, low-potential sources. This circumstance makes it difficult to use them. In our country, the share of alternative energy accounts for less than 0.1% of electricity generation.
In fig. 1.4 shows the participation of different types of power plants in the production of electricity.
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| Rice. 1.4. |
1.5. Electrical power system
The development of the electric power industry began in the second half of the 19th century with the construction of small power plants near and for specific consumers. It was mainly the lighting load: the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Kremlin in Moscow, etc. The power supply was carried out mainly on direct current. However, the invention in 1876 by P.N. Yablochkov. transformer determined the further development of the power industry on alternating current. The ability to change the voltage parameters by transformers made it possible, on the one hand, to coordinate the parameters of the generators and combine them for parallel operation, and on the other hand, to increase the voltage and transmit energy over long distances. With the appearance in 1889 of a three-phase asynchronous electric motor, developed by Dolivo-Dobol'skiy M.O., the development of electrical engineering and power engineering received a powerful impetus.
The widespread use of simple and reliable asynchronous electric motors at industrial enterprises has led to a significant increase in the electrical power of consumers, and after them - the power of power plants. V 1914 year the highest power of the turbine generators was 10 MW, the largest hydroelectric power station had a capacity 1.35 MW, the largest thermal power plant had a capacity 58 MW, the total capacity of all power plants in Russia is 1.14 GW... All power plants were operated in isolation, and cases of parallel operation were exceptional. The highest tension mastered before World War I was 70 kV.
December 22, 1920 at the 8th Congress of Soviets, the GOELRO plan was adopted, calculated for 10-15 years and providing for the construction of 30 new regional thermal power plants and hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity 1.75 GW and construction of networks 35 and 110 kV for transferring power to load nodes and connecting power plants for parallel operation. V 1921 year created first power systems: MOGES in Moscow and Electrotok in Leningrad. An energy system is understood as a set of power plants, power transmission lines, substations and heat networks connected by a common modes and continuity of production, conversion, transmission, distribution of electrical and thermal energy.
With the parallel operation of several power plants, it was necessary to ensure an economical distribution of the load between the stations, regulate the voltage in the network, and prevent disruptions in stable operation. The obvious solution to these problems was centralization: subordination of the work of all stations of the system to one responsible engineer. This is how the idea of dispatch control was born. In the USSR, for the first time, in 1923, the duty engineer of the 1st Moscow station began to perform the functions of a dispatcher, and in 1925, a dispatch center was organized in the Mosenergo system. In 1930, the first control points were created in the Urals: in the Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk and Perm regions.
The next stage in the development of energy systems was the creation of powerful transmission lines that unite individual systems into larger interconnected energy systems (UES).
By 1955, three ECOs were operating in the USSR, which were not connected with each other:
- ECO Center(Moscow, Gorkovskaya, Ivanovskaya, Yaroslavl power systems);
- IES South(Donbass, Dnieper, Rostov, Volgograd energy systems);
- URES of the Urals(Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, Perm energy systems).
In 1956, two long-distance power transmission circuits were put into operation 400 kV Kuibyshev - Moscow connecting the UPS of the Center and the Kuibyshev energy system. With this unification for the parallel operation of the power systems of various zones of the country (Center and the Middle Volga), the beginning of the formation of the Unified Power System (UES) of the European part of the USSR was laid. In 1957, the ODE of the Center was renamed into the ODE of the UES of the European part of the USSR.
In July 1958, the first section was commissioned ( Kuibyshev - Bugulma) single-circuit long-distance power transmission 400 kV Kuibyshev - Ural... The energy systems of the Cis-Urals (Tatarskaya and Bashkirskaya) were connected for parallel operation with the IES of the Center. In September 1958, the second section was put into operation ( Bugulma - Chrysostom) 400 kV power transmission Kuibyshev - Ural. The power systems of the Urals were connected to parallel operation with the IES of the Center. In 1959, the last section was put into operation ( Zlatoust - Shagol - South) 400 kV power transmission Kuibyshev - Ural. The normal mode of the UES of the European part of the USSR was the parallel operation of the power systems of the Center, the Middle Volga, the Urals and the Urals. By 1965, as a result of the unification of the energy systems of the Center, the South, the Volga region, the Urals, the North-West and the three Transcaucasian republics, the creation of the Unified Energy System of the European part of the USSR was completed, the total installed capacity of which exceeded 50 million kW.
The beginning of the formation of the UES of the USSR should be attributed to 1970. At this time, the UPS operates in parallel with the UPS of the Center (22.1 GW), the Urals (20.1 GW), the Middle Volga (10.0 GW), the North-West (12.9 GW), the South (30.0 GW) ), The North Caucasus (3.5 GW) and Transcaucasia (6.3 GW), including 63 power systems (of which 3 power regions). Three IES - Kazakhstan (4.5 GW), Siberia (22.5 GW) and Central Asia (7.0 GW) - operate separately. IES East (4.0 GW) is in the stage of formation. The gradual formation of the Unified Energy System of the Soviet Union through the interconnection of the united energy systems was basically completed by 1978, when the IES of Siberia joined the UES, which by that time was already connected with the IES of the East.
In 1979, the parallel work of the UES of the USSR and the UES of the CMEA member countries began. With the incorporation of the unified energy system of Siberia into the UES of the USSR, which has electrical connections with the power system of the Mongolian People's Republic, and the organization of parallel operation of the UES of the USSR and the UES of the CMEA member countries, a unique interstate association of power systems of socialist countries with an installed capacity of more than 300 GW was created, covering a vast territory from Ulan Bator to Berlin.
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 into a number of independent states led to disastrous consequences. The planned socialist economy collapsed. The industry practically stopped. Many businesses have closed. The threat of complete collapse looms over the energy sector. However, at the cost of incredible efforts, it was possible to preserve the UES of Russia, restructure it, and adapt it to new economic relations.
The modern Unified Energy System of Russia (Fig. 1.5) consists of 69 regional energy systems, which, in turn, form 7 united energy systems: East, Siberia, Ural, Middle Volga, South, Center and North-West. All power systems are connected by intersystem high-voltage power lines with a voltage of 220 ... 500 kV and above and operate in a synchronous mode (in parallel). The electric power complex of the UES of Russia includes more than 600 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW. At the end of 2011, the total installed capacity of power plants of the UES of Russia amounted to 218,235.8 MW. All stations generate about one trillion kWh of electricity annually. The grid facilities of the UES of Russia have more than 10,200 power transmission lines of 110 ... 1150 kV voltage class.
The energy systems of Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Ukraine and Estonia operate in parallel with the UES of Russia. The energy systems of Central Asia - Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan - operate in parallel with the UES of Russia through the energy system of Kazakhstan. Through the device of the Vyborg conversion complex, together with the UES of Russia, the power system of Finland operates, which is part of the power grid of Scandinavian power systems NORDEL. Electricity networks of Russia are also used to supply the selected regions of Norway and China.
 | Rice. 1.5. Unified Energy System of the Russian Federation |
The interconnection of individual energy systems in the UES of the country provides a number of technical and economic benefits:
The reliability of power supply to consumers is increased due to more flexible maneuvering of reserves of individual power plants and systems, the total power reserve is reduced;
The possibility of increasing the unit capacity of power plants and installing more powerful units on them is provided;
The total maximum load of the combined system is reduced, since the combined maximum is always less than the sum of the maximums of the individual systems;
The installed capacity of the interconnected power system is reduced due to the different times of load peaks in power systems located at a considerable distance in the direction from east to west ("latitudinal effect");
Facilitates the ability to set economically more profitable modes for any power plants;
The efficiency of using various energy resources is increasing.
1.6. Electricity of the net
The unified power system, as shown above, has a clear hierarchical structure: it is divided into unified power systems, which in turn are divided into regional power systems. Each power system is an electrical network.
Electric networks are an intermediate link in the source-consumer system; they ensure the transmission of electricity from sources to consumers and its distribution. Electric networks are conventionally subdivided into distribution (consumer), district (supply) and backbone.
Electricity receivers or large consumers of electricity (plant, enterprise, combine, agricultural enterprise, etc.) are directly connected to the distribution electric networks. The voltage of these networks is 6 ... 20 kV.
Regional electrical networks are intended for the transport and distribution of electricity in the territory of some industrial, agricultural, oil and gas production and (or) the like. district. These networks, depending on the local characteristics of a particular power system, have a nominal voltage of 35 ... 110 kV.
Backbone electrical networks with main power lines at voltages of 220 ... 750 (1150) kV provide powerful connections between large nodes of the power system, and in the interconnected power system - links between power systems and power interconnections.
SMALL ENERGY OF RUSSIA
CLASSIFICATION, OBJECTIVES, APPLICATION
Alexey Mikhailov, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor
Alexander Agafonov, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor
Victor Saidanov, Ph.D., associate professor
Military Engineering and Technical University, St. Petersburg
Small-scale power engineering allows the consumer not to depend on the centralized power supply and its state, to use the sources of energy production that are optimal for the given conditions. Naturally, such technologies find their place in both industrialized and developing regions with different climates.
Until now, publications on small-scale energy have appeared in our magazine sporadically. Now the editors are planning to make this topic one of the key ones and present it regularly, including within the framework of a special section. Today about the tasks of the Russian small-scale power industry, its role in ensuring the country's energy security, the possibilities for increasing the reliability of energy supply - in the material of the specialists of the Military Engineering and Technical University.
There is currently no generally accepted term “small-scale energy”. In the electric power industry, power plants with a capacity of up to 30 MW with units of a unit capacity of up to 10 MW are most often referred to as small power plants. Typically, such power plants are divided into three subclasses:
- microelectric power plants with a capacity of up to 100 kW;
- mini-power plants with a capacity of 100 kW to 1 MW;
- small power plants with a capacity of more than 1 MW.
Small electric power industry in Russia today is about 49,000 power plants (98.6% of their total) with a total capacity of 17 million kW (8% of the total installed capacity of power plants in Russia), operating both in power systems and autonomously. The total annual electricity generation at these power plants reaches 5% of the generation of all power plants in the country. Considering the above data, the average capacity of small power plants is approximately 340 kW. Energy security and small energy
Currently, the importance of small-scale power generation is increasing due to the changing socio-economic situation in the country. Small-scale energy plays an important role in ensuring the reliability of power supply and energy security (ES) of electricity consumers, which is an important component of the national security of the country and is interpreted as the state of protection of citizens, society, the state, the economy from the threats of a shortage of all types of energy and energy caused by internal and external factors. resources. According to the situational criterion, when analyzing electronic security, there are three main options that correspond to normal operating conditions, critical situations and emergencies.
EB under normal functioning conditions is associated with the need to fully meet the justified requirements for energy resources. In extreme conditions (that is, in critical and emergency situations), EB requires guaranteed provision of the minimum required amount of energy and energy resources.
An acute shortage of investment resources, underfunding of investments in the fuel and energy complex and many other economic threats are directly affecting the energy security of our country. Due to the significant development of a technical resource by power equipment, accidents, explosions, man-made fires, as well as natural disasters have an increasing impact on EB.
The events of recent years have shown a significant instability in the provision of electricity and heat to consumers of various categories from centralized energy systems. One of the reasons for this is the state of "postponed crisis" in the country's energy sector, caused by the rapid aging of the main equipment, the lack of necessary investments for the renovation and construction of new energy facilities and their repair, and difficulties with the supply of fuel.
Another reason for the loss of energy supply is natural (primarily climatic) disasters, which in some cases lead to severe consequences for large territories and settlements. Centralized energy supply systems are also highly vulnerable from a military point of view. For example, using relatively inexpensive warheads that scatter conductive filaments or graphite dust, NATO managed to disable up to 70% of Yugoslavia's power systems in just two days.
In addition, the strategists of the nuclear powers consider a "blinding strike" as one of the options for starting a war: an explosion over the enemy's territory at a high altitude of a nuclear weapon, including a special one, with an enhanced output of electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic pulse (EMP) of a high-altitude explosion covers vast territories (with a radius of several thousand kilometers) and can disable not only control and communication systems, but also power supply systems, primarily by inducing overvoltages on overhead and cable power lines. It is characteristic that one of the IEC standards recommends checking the stability of energy systems to the effects of EMP of a high-altitude nuclear explosion. As far as is known, practically no work in this direction is being carried out in Russia.
Centralized energy supply systems are also vulnerable to terrorist attacks.
The risk of loss of power supply due to the above reasons is very significant. It is difficult to eliminate it by means of centralized energy supply for the same reasons. However, the problem of increasing the safety of critical facilities can be solved by means of small-scale power generation.
The state should encourage an increase in the energy security of facilities through the construction of its own low-capacity power plants, for example, by reducing taxes or canceling them for a certain time from the moment the power plant is put into operation (there is experience of such encouragement abroad).
Despite the relatively modest share of small-scale energy in the overall energy balance of the country in comparison with large-scale energy, which is the main focus of our science and industry, the importance of small-scale energy in the life of the country can hardly be overestimated.
First, according to various estimates, from 60 to 70% of the territory of Russia is not covered by centralized power supply. More than 20 million people live on this vast territory and people's livelihoods are mainly provided by means of small energy.
Secondly, a wide area of application of small-scale energy facilities is backup (sometimes it is called emergency) power supply to consumers that require increased reliability and do not allow interruptions in the supply of energy in case of accidents in centralized power supply zones. Thirdly, small-scale power generation can be competitive in those zones where large-scale power engineering has until now been considered as uncontested. For example, in industrial enterprises, when a constant increase in fees for connecting to centralized networks or for an increase in capacity pushes consumers to build their own energy sources.
In fig. 1 presents the classification of small-scale power plants (PP) of various characteristics, which are now widely used in the Russian energy market.
Let us consider the possibilities and prospects of using various types of power plants in the above-mentioned main areas of their application, as well as the current state of small-scale power generation, its characteristic problems and possibilities in ensuring the reliability of power supply and EB.
In the zones of decentralized energy supply, the role of small-scale energy in the provision of EB is decisive. Low-power working (permanent) power plants provide constant power supply to facilities located in regions where there are no centralized power supply systems, or remote from these systems at such a distance that the construction of power lines is less cost-effective than the creation of a working power plant. Workers of power plants must meet the energy requirements of the facilities in full in the normal operation mode and in the minimum guaranteed amount in critical and emergency situations.
For such facilities, all aspects of ensuring electronic safety (availability on the market, price, quality, method of transportation, creation of fuel reserves; technical and economic characteristics, resource, condition of power equipment, the possibility of its replacement and modernization, etc.) are of no less importance. than for large energy facilities. Moreover, since the zones of decentralized energy supply mainly cover the northern and northeastern parts of the territory of our country with a harsh climate, difficult and expensive conditions for the delivery of goods, remoteness from supply centers, and maneuvering resources and capacity at small facilities is difficult, ES problems for such facilities become especially acute.
Working power plants are, as a rule, stationary and above all must, as far as possible, meet the requirements of a long service life and a low unit cost of the generated electricity. However, the workers of small-scale power plants in these indicators, of course, are inferior to large power plants of centralized power supply systems.
Today, diesel power plants (DPP) are predominant in the small electric power industry. Of the 49 thousand small power plants in Russia, about 47 thousand are diesel. Such widespread use of diesel power plants is determined by a number of their important advantages over other types of power plants:
- high efficiency (up to 0.35–0.4) and, therefore, low specific fuel consumption (240–260 g / kWh);
- speed of start-up (units-tens of seconds), full automation of all technological processes, the possibility of long-term operation without maintenance (up to 250 hours or more);
- low specific consumption of water (or air) for cooling engines;
- compactness, simplicity of auxiliary systems and technological process, making it possible to manage with a minimum number of maintenance personnel;
- low demand for building volumes (1.5–2 m3 / kW), speed of construction of station buildings and equipment installation (prefabrication degree 0.8–0.85);
- the possibility of modular design of power plants, minimizing construction work at the site of use.
The Russian industry offers a wide selection of DEU in the entire required range of capacities and designs (Table 1). However, it should be noted that our domestic installations are significantly inferior to the best foreign models of this technique, primarily in terms of weight and size indicators, noise characteristics and environmental indicators. In addition, for example, a DEU based on a Waukesha P9390G diesel engine with a rated power of 800 kW has a specific fuel consumption of 0.215 kg / kW h and a service life of 180,000 hours before overhaul.
Table data. 1 indicate that all diesel power plants with a power range from 315 to 2500 kW have relatively high values of the motor resource (32000–100000 hours) and high fuel efficiency (values of the fuel utilization factor 0.33–0.4). The cost of electricity generated by the DPP is 5–7.5 rubles / kWh, and the cost of 1 kW of installed capacity is about 5–6 thousand rubles. In the cost of electricity, the share of the fuel component (for operation on diesel fuel) reaches 80–85%. Diesel electric heating stations
Working diesel electric thermal power plants (DEPS) are becoming widespread, providing combined generation of electric and thermal energy due to the complex utilization of heat losses. At such electric heating stations, passive or active waste heat boilers are switched on in the diesel exhaust tract, in which the heat of hot gases is transferred to the water of the object's heat supply system. Heat pumps can also be included in the heat circuit of the DETS to increase the temperature level of the water cooling for the diesel engine to the level at which it can be used in the heat supply system. Research carried out at the Military Engineering and Technical University has shown that the use of DEPS is especially effective for small objects with an electrical power consumption of up to several thousand kilowatts and a relatively limited heat consumption with a ratio between heat and electrical load from 1.0 to 4.0. The fuel utilization factor for separate generation of electricity from diesel power plants and heat from the boiler house at such facilities is in the range of 0.45–0.65. The use of DETS increases this coefficient to 0.8–0.85.
Gas-diesel and gas piston power plantsRecently, more and more attention, both around the world and in our country, has been paid to gas-diesel (GDES) and gas-piston (GPES) power plants that use natural gas as fuel. At current selling prices for diesel fuel and natural gas, the fuel component of the cost of electricity for gas-diesel power plants is several times less than that of conventional diesel power plants. Along with high efficiency, GDES and GPPs have good environmental characteristics, since the composition of their exhaust gases meets the strictest world environmental standards. When using gas, the service life of the diesel unit itself is also significantly increased.
The use of GDES and GPES is advisable in areas with a gas supply system. In these conditions, in terms of the cost of electricity, they can compete with centralized power supply systems using powerful traditional power plants, and in terms of the payback period of capital investments, they can significantly outstrip them. In areas without gas supply systems, it is possible to use GDES and GPPs using imported liquefied natural gas. However, the economic aspect of this variant of their application requires additional analysis.
Unfortunately, GDES and GPES have not yet found wide application in our country, although they are already widely used abroad. The characteristics of power plants produced in our country with piston engines running on gas are given in table. 2, and combined power plants with integrated heat recovery systems (let's call them mini-CHP) - in table. 3.
Data analysis table. 2 indicates that at present in Russia there is a serial production of power plants with a power range from 100 to 2500 kW based on internal combustion engines operating on gas and gas-diesel cycles. At the same time, all power plants, with the exception of 100 and 200 kW, have relatively high indicators in terms of resource and fuel efficiency. The cost of electricity generated by such stations is reduced due to the fuel component to 0.5–1 rubles / kWh, and the cost of installed capacity increases by about 1.5 times compared to diesel power plants.
The efficiency of the mini-CHP is quite high. So, for a mini-CHP with an electric power of 100 kW and a thermal power of 120 kW, the cost of electric energy is 6 rubles / kWh, and the total energy (electric and thermal) is 2.5 rubles / kWh. The payback period for mini-CHP is 2.2 years. For comparison: a mini-CHP based on a Deutz gas piston engine TCG2016V12 with a rated electric power of 580 kW and a thermal power of 556 kW has a specific gas consumption with a calorific value of 33520 kJ / Nm3 - 0.26 Nm3 / kWh, a fuel utilization factor of 0.8 and the resource before overhaul is 64,000 hours.
On average, the cost of energy for mini-CHP plants operating on diesel fuel is 3–3.5 rubles / kWh, and for gas fuel - 0.4–0.6 rubles / kWh. The cost of installed capacity for such stations is about 15–20 thousand rubles / kW.
Gas turbine power plants (GTU) are still relatively modestly used in small-scale power engineering, which have exceptionally high weight and size indicators, even in comparison with DEU of short-term use. Their specific mass power is 0.11–0.14 kW / kg, while for DEU this indicator is in the range of 0.03–0.05 kW / kg. However, these installations have, in comparison with the DEU, lower efficiency (about 0.25–0.29), increased fuel consumption, require a large amount of air for cooling, and are very noisy. Therefore, GTUs are mainly used in mobile standby and autonomous power plants.
Unfortunately, domestic gas turbines currently have significantly worse performance compared to foreign ones. The characteristics of some types of gas turbines manufactured in our country are shown in table. 4, and GTU with integrated heat recovery - in table. 5.
