Vocabulary is a very important part of language science. She studies words and their meanings. It's no secret: the richer a person's linguistic stock, the more beautiful and imaginative his speech. Most of the new words can be learned by reading. It often happens that a new word is found in a book or magazine, in which case a dictionary of lexical meanings will help, it is also called an explanatory one. The most common are those issued by V.I.Dahl and S.I. Ozhegov. They are the ones that modern language science trusts.
Vocabulary wealth of the Russian language
Language, including Russian, is a developing phenomenon. New cultures, inventions of science and technology appear, one civilization replaces another. Of course, all this is reflected in the language. Some words appear, some disappear. It is the vocabulary that vividly reacts to these changes. All this constitutes the richness of the language. K. Paustovsky gave a very colorful explanation of the set of words, saying that for each surrounding phenomenon or object there will be a corresponding "good" word, or even more than one.
Scientists have proven that for one person to understand another, it is enough to have 4-5 thousand words in stock, but this is not enough for a beautiful, figurative speech. The Russian language is one of the most beautiful, so it is simply necessary to use its wealth. Moreover, knowledge of individual words with their interpretations is not enough (for this you can simply learn a dictionary of lexical meanings). It is much more important to know related words, their figurative meaning, to understand and use antonyms, to use homonymous units.
Lexical meaning of the word
The word is the most important unit of any language. It is from them that combinations are made and subsequently sentences with which people communicate with each other. How can you tell one word from another? With the help of phonetic design. Also, lexical meaning will help with this. This delimits words. They can denote, for example, objects, people or living beings ( table, teacher, wolf); natural phenomena ( wind, frost), actions ( run, watch), signs ( beautiful, pink).
Over the centuries, words can change their lexical meaning. Take the word garden... Until the 20th century, this word also denoted a garden. In modern times, the lexical meaning has changed: garden now it is a fenced-in place where vegetables are grown.
There are words whose lexical meaning is a certain image that is easy to imagine and depict: wood, wardrobe, flower... For others, it is very abstract: love, grammar, music... The lexical meaning of the Russian language is summarized in explanatory dictionaries. There are several ways of interpretation: words with the same meaning. For example, way - road... Some dictionaries offer a detailed explanation: way- a certain place in space through which they move.
Why you need to know the lexical meaning
It is very important to know the lexical meaning - this will save you from some spelling mistakes. For example:
- Trying on wedding dresses is a tedious but enjoyable process.
- She was always good at reconciling enemies.
In the first example, the word "try on" is used in the meaning of "try on", so at the root you should write e... The second sentence is about peace, so the letter is required and fundamentally.
Not only words, but also morphemes differ in lexical meaning. So, the prefix at- it is used when it comes to the incompleteness of an action, immediate proximity, approaching or joining; pre- in cases where the highest degree of something is meant ( very funny - very funny, but: move in (attachment), sit down (incompleteness), seaside (close to the sea).
There are also roots that have different lexical meanings. These are such as - poppy-/-mok-; -equal-/-equal-. If the word means immersion in a liquid, you should write - poppy- (dipping cookies in milk), another thing is the meaning "to pass, absorb liquid", in this case, the spelling is required - mok- (wet feet). Root - equal- should be written when it comes to equality ( the equation); -equal- used in the meaning of something smooth, even ( trim bangs).
Unambiguous and ambiguous words
The wealth of words in the Russian language is made up of those units that have several or only one lexical meaning. These are unambiguous and ambiguous words. The former have only one interpretation: birch, scalpel, Moscow, pizza... As can be seen from the examples, the group of unambiguous words includes proper names, recently emerged or foreign words, also narrowly targeted. These are all kinds of terms, names of professions, names of animals.
There are much more polysemantic words in the language, that is, those that have several meanings. As a rule, interpretations unfold around a specific feature or meaning. The explanatory dictionary will tell you that the word is polysemous. The meanings of such tokens are listed below the numbers. Let's take the word "earth" as an example. He has several interpretations:
- One of the planets of the solar system.
- Land - opposition to the concepts of "water" and "sky".
- Soil is a fertile layer that allows you to grow all kinds of crops.
- Territory owned by someone.
- For some countries, it is a federal unit.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word
All polysemous words can contain direct or figurative interpretation. If you come across the task "Explain the lexical meaning of words", you need to look in the explanatory dictionary. There, next to the value, it will be indicated whether it is direct or figurative. The first is basic; the second was formed on the basis of the main one according to the principle of similarity.
For example, consider the word "hat". First, its main meaning is a headdress with small fields. On the basis of the similarity, a figurative interpretation was formed: the upper part of an object, extended and flat - mushroom or nail cap.
It is figurative meanings that give speech a special figurativeness, on their basis, such tropes as a metaphor are created (hidden comparison: sheaf of hair), metonymy (contiguity of signs: silver plate) and synecdoche (used part instead of whole: the peasant was actually a slave).
Sometimes there are cases when only a figurative meaning appears in the language, and to complete a task such as "Determine the lexical meaning of words", you will need not only an explanatory, but also an etymological dictionary. For example, this was the case with the adjective "red". Its direct meaning “beautiful” has survived only in ancient toponyms (“Red Square”) or folklore (proverbs).
Homonyms
The meanings of words can be compared, contrasted. The program for grades 5-6 studies such relationships. The lexical meaning of homonyms, synonyms and antonyms is very interesting. Consider all these kinds of words.
Homonyms are those words that are identical in pronunciation or spelling, but their meaning is completely different. So the words carnation(flowers) and carnation(pointed rods for holding materials together) are spelled in the same way and pronounced differently. Another example: scythe- the type of hairstyle, and scythe- agricultural tool. Homonyms can also be grammatical. So, in the phrases "light the oven" and "bake the pies". Word bake is a noun in the first case and a verb in the second. The concepts of homonymy and ambiguity should not be confused. The first does not imply any similarity between concepts, while the second is built on the principle of the similarity of any feature.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words with identical lexical meaning. For example, the words "friend, buddy, comrade, shirt-guy" have the meaning of a close, trusted person. However, synonyms still differ in shades of meaning. Friend, for example, denotes a particularly close person.
Synonyms also have different stylistic connotations. So, shirt boy used in colloquial speech. As a rule, synonyms are words of one part of speech, but they can be stable combinations. Knowledge of the phenomenon of synonymy helps to avoid spelling errors. So, to find out the correct spelling of the particle not with nouns or adjectives, you must follow the algorithm: "determine the lexical meaning and try to find a synonym without not: enemy - enemy".
Antonyms
Antonyms are words that differ diametrically in lexical meaning: friend - enemy; go - run; deep - shallow; up down... As you can see, the phenomenon of antonymy is typical for any parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The use of such words gives a speech special expressiveness, helps to convey especially important thoughts to the listener or reader, therefore, very often words that are opposite in meaning are found in folk sayings - proverbs. For example, "Lay softly, but sleep hard." In this case, "soft - hard" are antonyms.
As you can see, the Russian language is very diverse, so the topic of the interpretation of words has been studied for several years. In addition, it is included in the main school exams, where there is, for example, the task "Explain the lexical meaning of words" or "Choose a synonym / antonym / homonym for a word" and so on.
Types of lexical meanings of words in Russian
In this article we will consider the types of lexical meanings of words and present their most famous classification, created by V.V. Vinogradov.
What is lexical meaning?
As you know, a word has two meanings - grammatical and lexical. And if the grammatical meaning is abstract and inherent in a large number of words, then the lexical is always individual.
It is customary to call the lexical meaning the correlation of objects or phenomena of reality with a certain sound complex of a language unit, fixed in the consciousness of a native speaker. That is, the lexical meaning denotes the content inherent in a particular word.
Now let's look at what the types of lexical meanings of words are based on. And then let's look at one of the most popular classifications.
Types of lexical values
Semantic correlation of different words of the Russian language allows you to identify different types of lexemes. Today, there are many systematizations of such values. But the most complete is the classification proposed by V. V. Vinogradov in his article entitled "The main types of lexical meanings of words." We will analyze this typology further.
By correlation
By nomination (or correlation), it is customary to distinguish two meanings of a lexeme - direct and figurative.
Direct meaning, it is also called the main or main, is a meaning that reflects the phenomenon of reality, the real world. For example: the word "table" means a piece of furniture; “Black” is the color of charcoal and soot; "To boil" means to bubble, boil, evaporate from heat. This semantics is permanent and is subject only to historical changes. For example: "table" in ancient times meant "reign", "throne" and "capital".
The main types of lexical meanings of a word are always subdivided into smaller ones, which we proved in this paragraph, speaking of direct and figurative meanings.
Returning to the main topic, we can add that words in their direct meaning are less than others depending on the context and other words. Therefore, it is believed that such values have the least syntagmatic connectivity and the greatest paradigmatic conditioning.
Portable
The types of lexical meanings of words were identified on the basis of living Russian speech, in which a language game is very often used, part of which is the use of words in figurative meanings.
Such meanings arise as a result of the transfer of the name of one object of reality to another on the basis of common features, similarity of functions, etc.
Thus, the word got the opportunity to have several meanings. For example: "table" - 1) in the meaning of "piece of equipment" - "machine table"; 2) in the meaning of "food" - "to get a room with a table"; 3) in the meaning of "department in an institution" - "round table".
The word "boil" also has a number of figurative meanings: 1) in the meaning of "manifestation in a high degree" - "work is in full swing"; 2) excessive expression of emotions - "boil with indignation."
Figurative meanings are based on the convergence of two concepts with the help of various kinds of associations that are easily understood by native speakers. Very often, indirect meanings are highly imaginative: black thoughts, seething with indignation. These figurative phrases are quickly fixed in the language, and then get into explanatory dictionaries.
Figurative meanings with a pronounced imagery differ in their stability and reproducibility from the metaphors invented by writers, publicists and poets, since the latter are strictly individual in nature.
However, very often figurative meanings lose their figurativeness for native speakers. For example, “sugar bowl handles”, “pipe elbow”, “chime of the clock” are no longer perceived by us as figurative phrases. This phenomenon is called extinct imagery.
Types of lexical meanings of words by origin
Depending on the degree of semantic motivation (or by origin), the following are distinguished:
- Motivated words (secondary or derivatives) are derived from derivational affixes and meanings of the derivative stem.
- Unmotivated words (primary or non-derivative) - they do not depend on the meaning of the morphemes that make up the word.
For example: the words “build”, “table”, “white” are considered unmotivated. To motivated - "building", "desktop", "whitewash", as these words were formed from unmotivated, in addition, the primary words help to understand the meaning of the newly formed lexemes. That is, "whitewash", formed from "white", means "make white".
But not everything is so simple, the motivation of some words does not always manifest itself so clearly, since the language changes, and it is not always possible to find the historical root of the word. Nevertheless, if an etymological analysis is carried out, then it is often possible to find an ancient connection between seemingly completely dissimilar words and explain their meanings. For example, after etymological analysis, we learn that the words "feast", "fat", "cloth", "window", "cloud" come from "drink", "live", "twist", "eye", "drag" respectively. Therefore, it is not always possible for a non-specialist to distinguish an unmotivated word from a motivated one the first time.
Types of lexical meanings of words by collocation
Depending on the lexical combination of meanings, words can be divided into:
- Free - are based only on subject-logical connections. For example: “drink” can only be combined with words that denote liquid (tea, water, lemonade, etc.), but can never be used with words like “running”, “beauty”, “night”. Thus, the combination of such words will be governed by the subject compatibility or incompatibility of the concepts that they denote. That is, "freedom" in the combination of such words is very conditional.
- Not free - such words are limited in their ability to lexically combine. Their use in speech depends on both the subject-logical factor and the linguistic factor. For example: the word "lower down" can be combined with the words "eyes", "look", "eyes", while these words cannot be correlated with other lexemes - they do not say "lower your leg".
Non-free types of lexical meanings of words in Russian:
- Phraseologically related - are realized exclusively in stable (or phraseological) combinations. For example: sworn enemy - sworn friend is not used, unless it is an author's language game.
- Syntactically conditioned - it is realized only in those cases when the word is forced to perform an unusual function for it. For example, the words "hat", "oak", "log" become predicates, characterizing a person as narrow-minded, stupid, muddled, insensitive, lacking in initiative. Fulfilling such a role, the word always acquires figurativeness and is ranked among the type of figurative meanings.
The syntactically determined meanings also include those dictionary constructions that can be realized only in certain syntactic conditions. For example: "vortex" takes on a figurative meaning only in the form of genus. p. - "whirlwind of events."
By function
The types of hyphenation of the lexical meaning of words can be distinguished depending on the nature of the functions performed:
- Nominative - the name comes from the word "nomination", and denotes the naming of objects, phenomena and their qualities.
- Expressive-semantic - in such words, the connotative (emotional-evaluative) seme becomes the predominant seme.
An example of a nominative word: "tall person" - this phrase informs the listener that the person who is given the characteristic is tall.
An example of an expressive-semantic word: in the same case as described above, the word "tall" is replaced by the word "lanky" - this is how a disapproving, negative assessment of this growth is added to the information about high growth. Thus, the word "lanky" is an expressive synonym for the word "tall".
By the nature of the connection
The main types of lexical meanings of Russian words, depending on the nature of the connection in the lexical system of some meanings with others:
- Relative meanings are words opposed to each other according to some criterion: good - bad, far - close.
- Autonomous meanings are relatively independent words denoting specific objects: a chair, a flower, a theater.
- Deterministic meanings are words conditioned by the meaning of other words, since they are expressive or stylistic variants of them: the word "nag" is due to the word "horse", "beautiful", "magnificent" - "good".
conclusions
Thus, we have enumerated the types of lexical meanings of words. Briefly, you can name the following aspects that formed the basis of the classification presented by us:
- Subject-conceptual connections of words or paradigmatic relations.
- Syntagmatic relationship or the relationship of words to each other.
- Derivative or word-formative connections of lexemes.
Thanks to the study of the classification of lexical meanings, it is possible to better understand the semantic structure of words, to understand in more detail the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern language.
What is lexical meaning? We need to give examples!
Sasha Markhakshinov
Lexical meaning is the correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most essential ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which the general properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: "African cloven-hoofed ruminant with a very long neck and long legs", that is, the features that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed
Pavel kiyamov
Evgeny Dzerzhinsky
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, that is, the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of the speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that arises not as a result of a direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of a direct meaning to another object due to various associations ... Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (straight); - the front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird beak (portable); - toe (shoe noses).
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, that is, the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of the speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that arises not as a result of a direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of a direct meaning to another object due to various associations ... Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (straight); - the front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird beak (portable); - toe (shoe noses).
Kiseleva tatiana
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, that is, the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of the speakers. lexical meaning of a word A direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc. A figurative meaning is such a meaning that arises not as a result of a direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of a direct meaning to another object due to various associations ... Examples: nose - the organ of smell, located on the face of a person, the muzzle of an animal (straight); - the front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable); - bird beak (portable); - toe (shoe noses).
What is the lexical meaning of the word ??? rule = (
Irina robertovna makhrakova
The lexical meaning of a word is its interpretation, this is what the word means.
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● selection of synonyms;
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Words can have one meaning - they are called unambiguous, and they can have several meanings (two or more) - they are called polysemous.
Values can be direct - these are primary, initial values, and they can be figurative - these are secondary values arising from the transfer of primary values to other objects, signs, actions. 
Examples of the interpretation of the lexical meaning of a word:
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Alexandra wild
The lexical and grammatical meanings of the word differ.
The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of a word with certain phenomena of reality.
All words of the language have lexical meaning, but the meanings of the independent and service parts of speech differ. Independent parts of speech call objects, actions, signs, quantities (person, run, fast, twelve), and service parts express the relationship between words in a phrase and a sentence or add additional semantic shades to the sentence (on, in, through, because, because , whether, -ka).
The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic tic in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, as well as the meaning of the grammatical form.
The lexical meaning of the word lies in the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning in the affixes.
For example, the lexical meaning of the word "house" is "a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it", and the grammatical meaning will be that it is a noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, that it is is able to be defined by an adjective, change in cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
1. What is the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word? 2. Tell us about unambiguous and ambiguous words; direct and n
1. What is the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word? 2. Tell us about unambiguous and ambiguous words; direct and figurative meanings of the word. 3. What expressive means of language do you know, based on the figurative meaning of the word?
Irina robertovna makhrakova
THE LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD is its interpretation, this is what the word means.
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The lexical meaning of words is explained in explanatory dictionaries. There are several ways to interpret words:
● by means of a description of an object, feature, action, etc .;
● selection of synonyms;
● using antonyms / antonyms;
● selection of words of the same root.
Words can have one meaning - they are called SINGLE-VALUES, and they can have several meanings (two or more) - they are called MULTI-VALUES.
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VALUES can be DIRECT - these are the primary, initial meanings of words, and they can be PORTABLE - these are secondary meanings arising from the transfer of primary meanings to other objects, signs, actions. 
PORTABLE MEANINGS OF WORDS - the basis of such figurative means of language as METAPHOR, METONYMY, PERSONALIZATION, so that the use of words in a figurative meaning gives speech, the language of works of art brightness, imagery, expressiveness.
An example of the interpretation of the lexical meaning of a word:
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EXCEPT THE LEXICAL MEANING, the words of the significant parts of speech have the GRAMMATIC meaning. This is the meaning of a number, gender, case, person, for example:
● the ending -IT in the verb SEES expresses the grammatical meaning of the singular, 3rd person;
● the ending -А in the verb LOOKED expresses the grammatical meaning of the singular, feminine, and together with the formative suffix -Л- also the meaning of the past tense;
● the ending -У in the noun COUNTRY expresses the grammatical meaning of the feminine gender, singular, nominative;
● the ending -YMI in the adjective Mysterious expresses the grammatical meaning of the plural, accusative case.
Anton ulyanchenko
The lexical meaning of a word is essentially its definition,
Grammatical is the function that this word carries in a sentence (for example, it is a subject, predicate, object)
Unambiguous words - words with one meaning, polysemantic - with many meanings. For example, cough is an unambiguous word for example, and a shoe is an ambiguous (both shoes and a buffer for stopping trains)
Direct meaning - words and expressions taken literally. For example: a creak at the table.
The figurative meaning of the word is that which is perceived as a metaphor, not literally. For example, reluctantly.
The lexical meaning of a word is the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the minds of the speakers.
Most of the words name objects, their signs, quantity, actions, processes and act as full-valued, independent words, performing a nominative function in the language (lat. Nominatio - name, name). Possessing the same grammatical and syntactic meanings and functions, these words are combined into the categories of nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words of the category of state. Their lexical meaning is complemented by grammatical ones. For example, the word newspaper refers to a specific subject; the lexical meaning indicates that this is "a periodical in the form of large sheets, usually daily, devoted to the events of current political and social life." The noun newspaper has grammatical meanings of gender (feminine), number (this subject is thought of as one, not many) and case. The word I read calls an action - "to perceive what is written, saying aloud or reproducing to oneself" and characterizes it as real, occurring at the moment of speech, performed by the speaker (and not by other persons).
Of the significant parts of speech, pronouns and modal words are devoid of the nominative function. The first only point to objects or their signs: I, you, such, so many; they receive a specific meaning in speech, but cannot serve as a generalized name for a number of objects of the same type, characteristics or quantity. The second express the speaker's attitude to the expressed thought: Probably, mail has already arrived.
Service parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, particles) also do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name objects, signs, actions, but are used as formal grammatical linguistic means.
The lexical meanings of a word, their types, development and changes are studied by lexical semantics (semasiology) (gr. SЇemasia - designation + logos - teaching). The grammatical meanings of the word are considered in the grammar of the modern Russian language.
All objects and phenomena of reality have their own names in the language. Words indicate real objects, our attitude towards them, which arose in the process of knowing the world around us. This connection of the word with the phenomena of reality (denotations) is of a non-linguistic nature, and nevertheless it is the most important factor in determining the nature of the word as a sign unit.
Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard or touched at a given moment, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.
A concept is a reflection in the minds of people of general and essential features of the phenomena of reality, ideas about their properties. Such signs can be the form of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object, etc. The concept is the result of generalizing the mass of single phenomena, in the process of which a person is distracted from insignificant signs, focusing on the main, basic ones. Without such abstraction, that is, without abstract representations, human thinking is impossible.
Concepts are formed and fixed in our minds with the help of words. The connection of words with a concept (the significative factor) makes the word an instrument of human thinking. Without the ability of a word to name a concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts by words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one of the many people and name any, we use the word man. To designate all the richness and variety of colors of living nature, there are words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. The movement of various objects in space is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, icebreaker and even ice, rain, snow, etc.) ).
Explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language most succinctly reflect the systemic connections of words. They represent, with varying degrees of completeness and accuracy, lists of words that make up the lexical system in all its diversity and complexity of its functioning in the language. So, the word island does not indicate the geographical position, size, name, shape, fauna, flora of any particular island, therefore, abstracting from these particular features, we call this word any part of the land, surrounded on all sides by water (in the ocean, sea, lake, river) Thus, in words, those essential features and properties of objects are fixed that make it possible to distinguish a whole class of objects from other classes.
However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express conjunctions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names. Special mention should be made of the latter.
There are proper names that name individual concepts. These are the names of prominent people (Shakespeare, Dante, Lev Tolstoy, Chaliapin, Rachmaninov), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America). By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of an object that is unique of its kind.
Personal names of people (Alexander, Dmitry), surnames (Golubev, Davydov), on the contrary, do not give rise to a certain idea of a person in our minds.
Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law), based on the distinctive features of professions, degree of kinship, make it possible to form some idea of the people named by these words.
Animal nicknames can approximate generic names. So, if the horse's name is Bulany, this indicates its gender and color, Squirrel is usually called animals with white hair (although this can also be called a cat, a dog, and a goat). So, different nicknames are related to generic names in different ways.
Types of lexical meanings of words in Russian
Comparison of different words and their meanings makes it possible to distinguish several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
By the way of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished. The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is such a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings:
- A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs.
- The colors of soot, coal.
- Seethe, gurgle, evaporating from strong heat (about liquids). These values are stable, although historically they can change. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant throne, reign, capital.
The direct meanings of words least of all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, they say that direct meanings have the greatest paradigmatic conditioning and the least syntagmatic coherence.
Figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
So, the word table has several figurative meanings:
- A piece of special equipment or part of a machine of a similar shape: operating table, raise the machine table.
- Food, food: rent a room with a table.
- A department in an institution in charge of some special circle of affairs: information desk.
The word black has such figurative meanings:
Dark, as opposed to something lighter called white: black bread.
- Darkened, darkened: black from tan.
- Kurnoi (only full form, obsolete): black hut.
- Gloomy, bleak, heavy: black thoughts.
- Criminal, malicious: black treason.
- Not the main one, ancillary (only the full form): the back door in the house.
- Physically hard and unskilled (full form only): hard work, etc.
The word boil has the following figurative meanings: 1. "Manifest to a strong degree": the work is in full swing. 2. "Show something with force, to a strong degree": seethe with indignation.
As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly correlated with the concept, but come closer to it according to various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Figurative meanings can retain imagery: black thoughts, black betrayal; seethe with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.
In reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are individual in nature.
However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, the figurativeness is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative names such as a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a clock, and so on. In such cases, they speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word, of dry metaphors.
Direct and figurative meanings are highlighted within one word.
2. According to the degree of semantic motivation, unmotivated meanings (non-derivative, primary) are distinguished, which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word; motivated (derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, the words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. The words canteen, table, eat, build, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness are inherent in motivated meanings, they are, as it were, “produced” from the motivating part, derivational formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative basis.
For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient relationship of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to highlight the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with the words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag (envelop) Thus, the degree of motivation of a particular meaning words may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while to a non-specialist, the semantic connections of this word seem lost.
3. As far as possible lexical compatibility, the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first ones are based only on subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink is combined with words for liquids (water, milk, tea, lemonade, etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The consistency of words is governed by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts denoted by them. Thus, the "freedom" of combining words with unrelated meanings is relative.
Non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win is combined with the words victory, superior, but not combined with the word defeat. You can say to lower your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you cannot - “lower your hand” (leg, briefcase).
Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The first ones are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend (you cannot swap the elements of these phrases).
Syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in a sentence. So, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, acquire the meanings "stupid person"; "stupid, insensitive person"; "a sluggish, uninitiated person, a muddler." V.V. Vinogradov, who was the first to distinguish this type of meanings, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These values are always figurative and by the way of nomination they are referred to as figurative values.
As part of syntactically determined meanings, words are also distinguished constructively limited meanings, which are realized only under the conditions of a certain syntactic structure. For example, the word vortex with the direct meaning "gusty circular movement of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case acquires a figurative meaning: a whirlwind of events is "rapid development of events."
4. By the nature of the functions performed, lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is nomination, naming phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) sign is predominant. For example, in the phrase “tall” person, the word “tall” indicates great growth; this is its nominative meaning. And the words lanky, long in combination with the word man not only indicate great growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for the neutral word high.
5. By the nature of the relationship of some meanings with others in the lexical system of the language, the following can be distinguished:
- autonomous meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designating mainly specific objects: a table, a theater, a flower;
- the correlative meanings that are inherent in words opposed to each other on any grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age;
- deterministic meanings, that is, those "which are, as it were, conditioned by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ..." For example: nag (compare stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse); beautiful, wonderful, great (cf. good).
Thus, the modern typology of lexical meanings at its core has, firstly, conceptual-subject connections of words (i.e., paradigmatic relations), secondly, derivational (or derivational) connections of words, and thirdly, the relationship of words to each other. friend (syntagmatic relationship). The study of the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand the semantic structure of a word, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.
- Sm Ulukhanov I. S. Word-formation semantics in the Russian language and the principles of its description M., 1977 P. 100–101
- Shmelev D.N. The meaning of the word // Russian language: Encyclopedia. M., 1979.S. 89.
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Self-test questions
- What is called the lexical meaning of a word?
- Which section of the science of language studies the lexical meaning of a word?
- What words perform a nominative function in speech? What does it consist of?
- What words are devoid of a nominative function?
- What does the term "concept" mean?
- What connection is established between a concept and a word?
- What words do not denote concepts?
- What types of lexical meanings of words stand out in modern Russian?
- What is the direct and figurative meaning of the word?
- What is the motivated and unmotivated meaning of words?
- What is the difference between free and non-free meanings of words?
- What are the features of phraseologically related and syntactically determined meanings of words expressed?
- What distinguishes autonomous meanings of words?
- What are the correlative meanings of words?
- What distinguishes the deterministic meanings of words?
Exercises
3. Select words in sentences that have free (nominative) and non-free (phraseologically related and syntactically determined) meanings.
1. Leisure for me to sort out your guilt, puppy! (Cr.) 2. Now I have been given leisure forever. (Sim.) 3. Fighters are sleeping, for whom leisure. (Tv.). 4. Cranberry is a creeping marsh plant with red sour berries. 5. Like cranberries! 6. Rumors and speculations reappeared, and this spreading cranberry was talked about everywhere. 7. The white birch under my window was covered with snow, like silver. (EU) 8. White work is done by white, black work is done by black (M.). 9. He is not a tenant in this world. 10. The tenant came late and did not bother the hostess. 11. The girl slept from her face, lost weight. 12. The heat subsided. 13. What a goose! 14. A noisy caravan of geese stretched to the south. (P.) 15. This is not the first time this gripping goose has been here. 16. Blue fog, snow expanse. (EU). 17. She is a blue stocking, not a woman.
4. Highlight words in the text that have nominative, phraseological related and syntactically determined meanings.
Senya was lying on the sofa, all gray, wrinkled, time, it seemed, was already a burden for him. ... - I do not believe! No I do not believe! -What are you talking about? Ryazantsev asked. “I don’t believe that in old age a person should reproach himself for what is wrong, not how he lived his youth. - Why not? - That's why! What right is the old, seemingly no longer a tenant, what right does he have to judge the young, living? ..
They agreed that they would write a book together, because Senya alone would not have time to finish it. When Senya was very bad, he lay on his sofa and shouted that it was not doctors, veterinarians who were treating him, Ryazantsev told him: “Listen, Senya, we need to finish the book this year.” And Senin's thoughts came into complete, sometimes even perfect order. ... When later consciousness began to come to him only from time to time, he even then cared more about the book. It was impossible to expect anything else from him, but suddenly Senya began to express judgments that were unusual for him. Said once:
- We barely know each other.
- Who are we? Ryazantsev asked.
- People ... Radio, television, cinema - all this shows us in breadth. Quantitatively. Externally. But we are losing one primitive - the old, kind, centuries-old genre - the genre of friendly conversation. How would people not lose in this ... Consider.
Sena could say: "Consider" - he left, Ryazantsev remained in this life.
(S. Zalygin.)
5. Indicate in the text the words that perform the nominative function and are devoid of it; words that designate and do not designate concepts, as well as indicate single concepts. In addition, indicate words that have different types of meanings: direct and figurative, motivated and unmotivated, free and non-free, nominative and expressive-synonymous. Highlight words with autonomous, correlative and deterministic meanings.
1. The book began to be printed. It was called "In Defense of the Disadvantaged".
The typesetters tore the manuscript to bits, and each typed only his own scrap, which began with half a word and had no meaning. So, in the word "love" - "liu" remained with one, and "bov" went to another, but it did not matter, since they never read what they were typing.
- So that it was empty for him, this hack! Here is anathema handwriting! - said one and, grimacing with anger and impatience, closed his eyes with his hand. The fingers of the hand were black with leaden dust, dark leaden shadows lay on the young face, and when the worker coughed up and spat, his saliva was painted the same dark and deathly color.
2. Books stood in colorful rows on the shelves, and behind them the walls were not visible; the books were piled high on the floor; and behind the store, in two dark rooms, lay all the books, books. And it seemed that the human thought constrained by them was silently shuddering and tearing out, and there was never in this kingdom of books real silence and real peace.
A gray-bearded gentleman with a noble expression spoke respectfully to someone on the phone, swore in a whisper: “idiots!” And shouted.
- Bear! - and, when the boy entered, made his face ignoble and fierce and shook his finger. - How many times do you need to shout? Bastard!
The boy blinked in fright, and the gray-bearded gentleman calmed down. With his foot and hand, he pulled out a heavy bundle of books, wanted to lift it with one hand - but immediately could not, and threw it back on the floor.
- Take it to Egor Ivanovich.
The boy took the ligament with both hands and did not raise it.
- Alive! - shouted the master.
The boy lifted and carried.
- Why are you crying? A passerby asked.
The bear was crying. Soon a crowd gathered, an angry policeman came with a saber and a pistol, took Mishka and books and drove them all together in a cab to the police station.
- What is there? - asked the guard on duty, looking up from the paper he was composing.
- An unbearable burden, your honor, - answered the angry policeman and poked Mishka forward.
The police officer approached the bundle, still stretching as he walked, putting his legs back and protruding his chest, heaved a deep sigh and slightly lifted the books.
- Wow! He said with pleasure.
The brown paper broke off at the edge, and the policeman pulled it back and read the title, In Defense of the Disadvantaged.
LEAD, lower lead, church. lead; to know what, to know, to have information about what, news, statement, knowledge. And we did not know and did not know such a misfortune. | Manage or rule, manage, dispose by right. The head is in charge of the parish. Who knows how ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
He reaps without sowing, threshes on other people's currents. Sown from a basket, and grew a little. You can't knead the dough with amine; do your prayer, but put in flour! God help me, but don't lie on your side! Pray to God, but work yourself! Do not sit idly by, so there will be no boredom! WITH …
Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
Husband. the name of the sixth letter of the Church and Russian alphabet, e. | Yes, 3rd person, present vr., ch. be, it is omitted, meaning, in the Russian language where it is used, in other languages, for example. he is good, he is angry, etc .; but it is peculiar to language, ... ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
I eat, but we do not know what to do. We eat, we eat, and the work is ahead. See WORK CELEBRATION ... IN AND. Dahl. Russian proverbs
Writer of the Petrovsky time, b. near Moscow in 1652 or 1653, died on February 1, 1726 in St. Petersburg. His father was a quitrent peasant in the palace village of Pokrovskoye near Moscow, which is now part of the city of Moscow. The village is ... ...
- (in monasticism Theodosius; died February 17, 1650) enjoyed great influence among the Moscow boyars and greatly contributed to the election of Mikhail Feodorovich Romanov to the tsar. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Feodorovich, in 1613-1619 ... Big biographical encyclopedia
Fyodor Ivanovich Sheremetev (in monasticism Theodosius; died February 17 (27), 1650) Russian military and statesman of the Time of Troubles and the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov; a boyar from an old noble family of the Sheremetevs In 1598 ... ... Wikipedia
ZOSIMA AND SAVVATIUS- Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky. Icon. 1st floor XVI century (GMMK) Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky. Icon. 1st floor XVI century (GMMK) Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, with their lives. Icon. Ser. 2nd floor XVI century (State Historical Museum) Reverends ... ... Orthodox encyclopedia
Boyarin and voivode, writer, born. in 1528, d. in 1583 for the first time the name of the prince. Kurbsky is found in 1549, when he accompanied Tsar John IV to the Kazan campaign with the rank of steward, and was in the Esauls together with the brother of Tsarina Anastasia ... ... Big biographical encyclopedia
Words in Russian have 2 meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the second type is abstract, then the first is individual. In this article, we will provide the main types of lexical meanings of a word.
The lexical meaning, or, as it is sometimes called, the meaning of the word, shows how the sound shell of the word relates to objects or phenomena of the world around us. It is worth noting that it does not contain the whole complex of features characteristic of a particular subject.
In contact with
What is the lexical meaning of a word?
The meaning of the word reflects only features that make it possible to distinguish some objects from others. Its center is the stem of the word.
All types of lexical meanings of a word can be divided into 5 groups depending on:
- correlation;
- origin;
- compatibility;
- functions;
- the nature of the connection.
This classification was proposed by the Soviet scientist Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov in the article "The main types of lexical meanings of a word" (1977). Below we will consider this classification in detail.
Types by correlation
From the nominative point of view (that is, according to correlation), all meanings of the word are divided into direct and figurative. Direct the meaning is basic. It is directly related to how this or that letter and sound form relates to the concept that has developed in the minds of native speakers.
So, the word "cat" denotes a small predatory animal from the feline family, belonging to the order of mammals that exterminate rodents. A "knife" is a tool that is used to cut; consists of a blade and a handle. Green adjective indicates the color of the growing foliage.
Over time, the meaning of the word can change, obeying the currents characteristic of a particular time in the life of the people. So, back in the 18th century, the word "wife" was used in the sense of "woman." It began to be used much later to designate a "spouse" or "a woman who is married to a man". Similar changes have occurred with the word "husband".
Figurative meaning the word is derived from the main one. With its help, one lexical unit is endowed with the properties of another on the basis of common or similar features. Thus, the adjective "dark" is used to characterize a space that is immersed in darkness or in which there is no light.
But at the same time, this token is quite often used in a figurative meaning. So, the adjective "dark" can characterize something unclear (for example, manuscripts). It can also be used in relation to a person. In this context, the adjective "dark" would indicate that a person, in question, uneducated or ignorant.
As a rule, value transfer occurs according to one of the following characteristics:
As you can see from the examples given, the figurative meanings developed in words are somehow connected with the main one. Unlike author's metaphors, which are widely used in fiction, figurative lexical meanings are stable and are found in the language much more often.
It is worth noting that in the Russian language there is often a phenomenon when figurative meanings lose their figurativeness. Thus, the combinations "teapot spout" or "teapot handle" have become closely included in the Russian language and are familiar to its speakers.
Lexical meanings by origin
All lexical units existing in the language have their own etymology. However, upon careful examination, you will notice that the meaning of some units is easily deduced, while in the case of others it is rather difficult to understand what a particular word means. Based on this difference, a second group of lexical meanings is distinguished - by origin.
From the point of view of origin, two types of meanings are distinguished:
- Motivated;
- Unmotivated.
In the first case, we are talking about lexical units formed by adding affixes. The meaning of a word is derived from the meaning of the stem and affixes. In the second case, the meaning of the lexeme does not depend on the meaning of its individual components, that is, it is non-derivative.
So, the words "run", "red" are classified as unmotivated. Their derivatives are motivated: "run", "escape", "blush". Knowing the meaning of the lexical units underlying them, we can easily deduce the meaning of the derivatives. However, the meaning of motivated words is not always so easy to deduce. Sometimes an etymological analysis is required.
Lexical meanings depending on collocation
Each language imposes certain restrictions on the use of lexical units. Some units can only be used in a specific context. In this case, we are talking about the compatibility of lexical units. From the point of view of compatibility, two types of values are distinguished:
- free;
- not free.
In the first case, we are talking about units that can be freely combined with each other. However, such freedom cannot be absolute. It is very arbitrary. So, with the verb “open” such nouns as “door”, “window”, “cover” can be freely used. At the same time, the words "packaging" or "crime" cannot be used with it. Thus, the meaning of the lexeme "open" dictates to us the rules, by which certain concepts may or may not be combined with it.
Unlike free units, the compatibility of units with a non-free value is severely limited. As a rule, such lexemes are part of phraseological phrases or are syntactically conditioned.
In the first case, the units are related phraseological meaning... For example, the words “play” and “nerves”, taken separately, lack the semantic component of “intentionally annoy”. And only when these lexemes are combined in the phraseological unit "to play on the nerves", they acquire this meaning. The adjective “bosom” cannot be used together with the word “enemy” or “comrade”. According to the norms of the Russian language, this adjective is combined only with the noun "friend".
Syntactic meaning is acquired by a word only when it performs an unusual function in a sentence. So, a noun can sometimes act in a sentence as a predicate: "And you are a hat!"
Functional types of lexical values
Each lexical meaning carries a specific function. With the help of some units of language, we simply name objects or phenomena. We use others to express some kind of assessment. There are two types of functional values:
- nominative;
- expressive and semantic.
Lexemes of the first type do not carry additional (evaluative) features. As an example, we can cite such linguistic units as “look”, “person”, “drink”, “make noise”, etc.
Lexemes belonging to the second type, on the contrary, contain an evaluative attribute. They are separate linguistic units, stand out in a separate dictionary entry and act as expressively colored synonyms to their neutral equivalents: "look" - "stare", "drink" - "plump".
Lexical meanings by the nature of the relationship
Another important aspect of the meaning of a word is its relationship with other lexical units of the language. From this point of view, the following are distinguished types of lexical meanings:
- correlative (lexemes that are opposed to each other on the basis of some attribute: "big" - "small");
- autonomous (independent from each other lexical units: "hammer", "saw", "table");
- determinatives (lexemes with expressive meaning, conditioned by the meaning of other lexical units: "huge" and "hefty" are determinants for the adjective "big").
Given by V.V. Vinogradov's classification quite fully reflects the system of lexical meanings in the Russian language. However, the scientist does not mention another equally important aspect. In any language, there are words that have more than one meaning. In this case, we are talking about unambiguous and ambiguous words.
Unambiguous and ambiguous words
As mentioned above, all words can be divided into two large groups:
- unambiguous;
- ambiguous.
Unambiguous lexemes are used to refer to only one specific object or phenomenon. Often the term "monosemantic" is used to denote them. The category of unambiguous words includes:
However, there are not many such lexemes in the Russian language. Polysemantic or polysemantic words are much more widespread.
It is important to note that the term "polysemy" should in no way be confused with "homonymy". The difference between these linguistic phenomena lies in the presence of a connection between the meanings of words.
For example, the word "escape" can mean:
- leaving the place of serving a sentence (imprisonment) of their own free will, thanks to a well-developed plan or by chance.
- young plant stem with buds and leaves.
As you can see from this example, the given values are not related. Thus, we are talking about homonyms.
Let's give another example - "paper":
- material that is made from cellulose;
- document ( transfer).
Both meanings have one semantic component, so this lexeme belongs to the ambiguous category.
Where can you find the lexical meaning of a word?
In order to find out what a particular word means, you need to refer to the explanatory dictionary. They give the exact definition of the word. Turning to the explanatory dictionary, you can not only find out the meaning of the lexical unit of interest, but also find examples of its use. In addition, describing the meaning of a word helps to understand the difference between synonyms. All vocabulary in the explanatory dictionary is arranged alphabetically.
Such dictionaries are usually intended for native speakers. However, foreigners studying Russian can also use them.
As an example, you can cite the following dictionaries:
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" - V.I. Dahl;
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" - S.I. Ozhegov;
- "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" - D.N. Ushakov;
- "Dictionary of Russian onomastic terminology" - A.V. Superanskaya.
As mentioned above, in the explanatory dictionary you can find the lexical meanings of words in the Russian language and examples of their use. However, this is far from all the information that this type of dictionaries provides. They also provide information on the grammatical and stylistic features of lexical units.
Lexical meaning of a word in Russian with examples.
Lexical meaning of the word- this is its content, i.e. the correlation between the sound complex and the object or phenomenon of reality, historically fixed in the minds of the speakers.
Direct value is called one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc.
Portable is such meaning, which arises as a result of not direct correlation with an object, but through the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations. Examples of:
nose - an organ of smell located on a person's face, an animal's muzzle (straight);
- the front part of the vessel, aircraft (portable);
- bird beak (portable);
- toe (shoe noses).
Synonyms, antonyms.
Synonyms- words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept in different ways. Synonyms can differ from each other in a shade of meaning, stylistic coloring, etc.
gift, gift, tribute, present, present
dress up, get dressed, run out of clothes, get dressed up, get dressed up
Antonyms- words of different sounds, which express opposite, but correlative concepts.
There is nothing in the world stronger and powerless the words.
Lie- the religion of slaves and masters. Truth- the god of a free man.
Contextual synonyms and antonyms- these are words that in general use are not synonyms / antonyms, but acquire similar or opposite meanings in context.
They came together: wave and stone,
Poems and prose, ice and fire
Not so different among themselves ( antonyms).
The vocabulary is outdated and new.
Histories- these are outdated words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that denoted.
* veche, oprichnik
Archaisms- words that have been replaced by synonyms in the process of language development.
* barber - hairdresser, drink - poet, cheeks - cheeks, bed - bed
Neologisms- new words that appear in the language as a result of new concepts, phenomena, qualities
* home theater, merchandiser, reception.
Phraseologisms.
Phraseologisms- stable combinations of words that have a holistic meaning.
* work up your sleeves
* throw yourself headlong
Analysis of the task.
In which of the following sentences is the phraseological unit found?
1) We often carry with us the most sacred image and books.
2) We know perfectly well that a true book cannot be read only once.
3) Like magic signs, the truth and beauty of the book are absorbed gradually.
4) So, the book depository is the first gate of enlightenment.
Phraseologism is a stable combination of words, where words are used in a figurative sense, therefore we must look for a phrase that looks like a proverb by its external features. In all sentences, only one phrase is stable: first gate.
