Recently told the following:
“I can stand in front of eighth graders and say: who wants to be an aerospace engineer who builds an airplane that is 20% more energy efficient than the one your parents flew? But it doesn't work. However, if I ask: who wants to be an aerospace engineer who designs an airplane that will navigate the tenuous atmosphere of Mars? I will get the best students in the class. "
It is important for state security
The world's leading countries must detect and prevent hostile intent or terrorist groups that may deploy weapons in space or attack navigation, communications and surveillance satellites. And although the United States, Russia and China in 1967 signed an agreement on the inviolability of territory in outer space, other countries can covet it. And it is not a fact that the treaties of the past can be revised.
Even if these leading nations do most of the exploration of nearby space, they will need to be confident that companies can mine minerals on the moon or asteroids without worrying about being terrorized or usurped. It is very important to set up diplomatic channels in space, with possible military use.
We need space raw materials
There is gold, silver, platinum and other valuable substances in space. A lot of attention has been drawn to the activities of private companies that involve mining on asteroids, but space miners will not have to go far to find rich resources.
The moon, for example, is a potentially lucrative source of helium-3 (used for MRI and as a potential fuel for nuclear power plants). On Earth, helium-3 is so rare that its price reaches $ 5,000 per liter. The moon could also be potentially rich in rare earth elements like europium and tantalum, which are in high demand for use in electronics, solar panels and other advanced devices.
States can work together peacefully
We have previously mentioned the ominous threat of international conflict in outer space. But everything can be peaceful, if we remember the cooperation of different countries on the International Space Station. The US space program, for example, allows other countries, large and small, to join forces in space exploration.
International cooperation in the space field will be extremely mutually beneficial. On the one hand, the big costs would be shared among everyone. On the other hand, it would help establish close diplomatic relations between countries and create new jobs for both sides.
It would help answer the big question.
Almost half of the people on Earth believe that there is life somewhere in space. A quarter of them think that aliens have already visited our planet.
However, all attempts to find signs of other creatures in the sky turned out to be fruitless. Perhaps because the earth's atmosphere prevents messages from reaching us. That is why those who are looking for extraterrestrial civilizations are ready to deploy even more orbiting observatories like. This satellite will be launched in 2018 and will be able to search for chemical signs of life in the atmospheres of distant planets outside our solar system. This is just the beginning. Perhaps additional cosmic efforts will help us finally answer the question of whether we are alone.
People need to quench their thirst for research
Our primitive ancestors spread from East Africa all over the planet, and since then we have not stopped moving. We're looking for fresh territory outside of Earth, so the only way to satisfy this primal desire is to embark on a multi-generational interstellar journey.
In 2007, former NASA administrator Michael Griffin (pictured above) distinguished between "acceptable reasons" and "real reasons" for space exploration. Acceptable reasons might include economic and national advantages. But real reasons will include things like curiosity, competition, and legacy.
“Who among us is not familiar with this wonderful magical thrill when we see something new, even on TV, that we have never seen before? - said Griffin. "When we do something for real reasons, not content with acceptable ones, we produce our best accomplishments."
We need to colonize space to survive
Our ability to launch satellites into space helps us observe and combat pressing problems on Earth, from wildfires and oil spills to the depletion of aquifers that humans need to supply drinking water.
But our population growth, greed and frivolity lead to serious environmental consequences and damage to our planet. 2012 estimates suggested that the Earth could support between 8 and 16 billion people - and its population has already crossed the 7 billion mark. Perhaps we need to be prepared to colonize another planet, and the sooner the better.
The history of space exploration is the most striking example of the triumph of the human mind over recalcitrant matter in the shortest possible time. Only a little more than fifty years have passed since the man-made object first overcame gravity and developed sufficient speed to enter Earth's orbit - nothing by the standards of history! Most of the planet's population vividly remembers the times when the flight to the moon was considered something from the realm of fantasy, and those who dreamed of piercing the heavenly heights were recognized, at best, as insane for society, harmless. Today, spacecraft not only “plow the vastness”, successfully maneuvering in conditions of minimal gravity, but also deliver cargo, astronauts and space tourists to Earth's orbit. Moreover, the duration of a flight into space can now be as long as you like: the watch of Russian cosmonauts on the ISS, for example, lasts 6-7 months. And over the past half century, man managed to walk on the Moon and photograph its dark side, made Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Mercury happy with artificial satellites, “recognized by sight” distant nebulae with the help of the Hubble telescope and is seriously thinking about the colonization of Mars. And although it has not yet been possible to make contact with aliens and angels (at least officially), let's not despair - after all, everything is just beginning!
Space dreams and pen tests
For the first time, progressive mankind believed in the reality of flight to distant worlds at the end of the 19th century. It was then that it became clear that if the aircraft was given the speed necessary to overcome gravity and kept for a sufficient time, it would be able to go beyond the Earth's atmosphere and gain a foothold in orbit, like the Moon, revolving around the Earth. The problem was in the engines. Existing at that time copies either extremely powerfully, but briefly "spat" with energy emissions, or worked on the principle of "gasp, shake and go to itself little by little." The first was more suitable for bombs, the second for carts. In addition, it was impossible to regulate the thrust vector and thereby influence the trajectory of the vehicle's motion: the vertical launch inevitably led to its rounding, and as a result the body fell to the ground without reaching space; horizontal, with such a release of energy, threatened to destroy all living things around (as if the current ballistic missile was launched flat). Finally, at the beginning of the 20th century, researchers drew attention to the rocket engine, the principle of operation of which was known to mankind since the turn of our era: the fuel burns in the rocket body, simultaneously lightening its mass, and the released energy moves the rocket forward. The first rocket capable of propelling an object beyond gravity was designed by Tsiolkovsky in 1903.
View of the Earth from the ISS
The first artificial satellite
Time passed, and although two world wars greatly slowed down the process of creating rockets for peaceful use, space progress did not stand still. The key moment of the post-war period was the adoption of the so-called package layout of rockets, which is still used in astronautics today. Its essence is the simultaneous use of several rockets, placed symmetrically with respect to the center of mass of the body, which needs to be injected into the Earth's orbit. Thus, a powerful, stable and uniform thrust is provided, sufficient for the object to move at a constant speed of 7.9 km / s, which is necessary to overcome the earth's gravity. And on October 4, 1957, a new, or rather the first, era in space exploration began - the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, just like everything ingenious called simply "Sputnik-1", with the help of the R-7 rocket, designed under the leadership of Sergei Korolev. The silhouette of the R-7, the progenitor of all subsequent space rockets, is still recognizable in the ultra-modern Soyuz launch vehicle, which successfully sends into orbit "trucks" and "cars" with astronauts and tourists on board - the same four "legs" of the packet scheme and red nozzles. The first satellite was microscopic, just over half a meter in diameter and weighed only 83 kg. It completed a full orbit around the Earth in 96 minutes. The "stellar life" of the iron pioneer of astronautics lasted three months, but during this period he traveled a fantastic path of 60 million km!
The first living things in orbit
The success of the first launch inspired the designers, and the prospect of sending a living creature into space and returning it safe and sound no longer seemed unrealizable. Just a month after the launch of Sputnik-1, the first animal, the dog Laika, went into orbit on board the second artificial Earth satellite. Her goal was honorable, but sad - to test the survival of living beings in space flight. Moreover, the return of the dog was not planned ... The launch and launch of the satellite into orbit were successful, but after four orbits around the Earth, due to an error in the calculations, the temperature inside the spacecraft rose excessively, and Laika died. The satellite itself rotated in space for another 5 months, and then lost speed and burned up in the dense layers of the atmosphere. The first shaggy cosmonauts who, upon their return, greeted their “senders” with joyful barks, were the textbook Belka and Strelka, who set off to conquer the heavens on the fifth satellite in August 1960. Their flight lasted just over a day, and during this time the dogs managed to fly around the planet 17 times. All this time, they were watched from the monitors in the Flight Control Center - by the way, it was because of the contrast that white dogs were chosen - after all, the image was then black and white. As a result of the launch, the spacecraft itself was also finalized and finally approved - in just 8 months, the first person will go into space in a similar device.
In addition to dogs, both before and after 1961, monkeys (macaques, squirrel monkeys and chimpanzees), cats, turtles, as well as every little thing - flies, beetles, etc., visited space.
In the same period, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite of the Sun, the Luna-2 station managed to softly land on the planet's surface, and the first photographs of the side of the Moon invisible from Earth were obtained.
April 12, 1961, divided the history of space exploration into two periods - "when man dreamed of the stars" and "since man conquered space."
Man in space
April 12, 1961, divided the history of space exploration into two periods - "when man dreamed of the stars" and "since man conquered space." At 09:07 Moscow time, the Vostok-1 spacecraft with the world's first cosmonaut on board, Yuri Gagarin, was launched from the launch pad No. 1 of the Baikonur cosmodrome. Having made one orbit around the Earth and having covered a distance of 41 thousand km, 90 minutes after the start, Gagarin landed near Saratov, becoming for many years the most famous, revered and beloved person on the planet. His "let's go!" and "everything is very clear - black space - blue earth" were included in the list of the most famous phrases of mankind, his open smile, ease and cordiality melted the hearts of people around the world. The first manned flight into space was controlled from Earth, Gagarin himself was more of a passenger, albeit perfectly prepared. It should be noted that the flight conditions were far from those that are now offered to space tourists: Gagarin experienced eight to tenfold overloads, there was a period when the ship literally tumbled, and behind the windows the skin was burning and the metal melted. During the flight, several failures occurred in various systems of the spacecraft, but fortunately, the astronaut was not injured.
Following the flight of Gagarin, significant milestones in the history of space exploration rained down one after another: the world's first group space flight was completed, then the first woman-cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova (1963) went into space, the flight of the first multi-seat spacecraft took place, Alexei Leonov became the first a man who made a spacewalk (1965) - and all these grandiose events are entirely the merit of Russian cosmonautics. Finally, on July 21, 1969, the first manned landing on the moon took place: the American Neil Armstrong took the same "big, small step".
The best view in the solar system
Astronautics - today, tomorrow and always
Today, space travel is taken for granted. Hundreds of satellites and thousands of other necessary and useless objects fly above us, seconds before sunrise from the bedroom window you can see the planes of the International Space Station's solar panels flashing in the rays still invisible from the earth, space tourists with enviable regularity go to "surf the open spaces" (thereby embodying into reality the mocking phrase "if you really want, you can fly into space") and the era of commercial suborbital flights is about to begin with almost two departures daily. The exploration of space by controlled vehicles is completely amazing: there are pictures of stars that exploded long ago, and HD images of distant galaxies, and strong evidence of the possibility of life on other planets. Billionaire corporations are already agreeing on plans to build space hotels in Earth's orbit, and projects for the colonization of neighboring planets do not seem to be an excerpt from the novels of Asimov or Clark for a long time. One thing is clear: once overcoming the gravity of the earth, humanity will again and again strive upward, to the endless worlds of stars, galaxies and universes. I would only like to wish that the beauty of the night sky and the myriad of twinkling stars, still alluring, mysterious and beautiful, as in the first days of creation, never leave us.
Space reveals its secrets
Academician Blagonravov dwelled on some of the new achievements of Soviet science: in the field of space physics.
Beginning on January 2, 1959, with each flight of Soviet space rockets, a study of radiation at large distances from the Earth was carried out. The so-called outer radiation belt of the Earth, discovered by Soviet scientists, has undergone a detailed study. The study of the composition of particles of radiation belts using various scintillation and gas-discharge counters located on satellites and space rockets made it possible to establish that electrons of significant energies up to a million electron volts and even higher are present in the outer belt. When decelerated in the shells of spacecraft, they create intense penetrating X-rays. During the flight of the automatic interplanetary station towards Venus, the average energy of this X-ray radiation at distances from 30 to 40 thousand kilometers from the center of the Earth was determined, amounting to about 130 keV. This value changed little with a change in distance, which makes it possible to judge the constant energy spectrum of electrons in this region.
Already the first studies showed the instability of the outer radiation belt, the displacement of the maximum intensity associated with magnetic storms caused by solar corpuscular streams. The latest measurements from an automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus showed that although intensity changes occur closer to the Earth, the outer boundary of the outer belt, in a quiet state of the magnetic field, remained constant for almost two years both in intensity and in spatial location. Recent studies have also made it possible to construct a model of the Earth's ionized gas envelope based on experimental data for a period close to the maximum solar activity. Our studies have shown that at altitudes less than a thousand kilometers, atomic oxygen ions play the main role, and starting from heights lying between one and two thousand kilometers, hydrogen ions prevail in the ionosphere. The length of the outermost region of the Earth's ionized gas envelope, the so-called hydrogen "corona", is very large.
The processing of the results of measurements carried out on the first Soviet space rockets showed that at altitudes from about 50 to 75 thousand kilometers outside the outer radiation belt, fluxes of electrons with energies exceeding 200 electron volts were detected. This allowed us to assume the existence of the third outermost belt of charged particles with a high flux intensity, but less energy. After the launch in March 1960 of the American Pioneer V space rocket, data were obtained that confirmed our assumptions about the existence of a third belt of charged particles. This belt, apparently, is formed as a result of penetration of solar corpuscular streams into the peripheral regions of the Earth's magnetic field.
New data were obtained regarding the spatial location of the Earth's radiation belts, and an area of increased radiation was discovered in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, which is associated with the corresponding earth magnetic anomaly. In this region, the lower boundary of the Earth's inner radiation belt drops to 250 - 300 kilometers from the Earth's surface.
The flights of the second and third satellite ships provided new information, which made it possible to draw up a map of the distribution of radiation by ion intensity over the surface of the globe. (The speaker demonstrates this card to the audience).
For the first time, currents created by positive ions, which are part of the solar corpuscular radiation, were recorded outside the Earth's magnetic field at distances of the order of hundreds of thousands of kilometers from the Earth, using three-electrode charged particle traps installed on Soviet space rockets. In particular, at the automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus, traps oriented to the Sun were installed, one of which was intended to register solar corpuscular radiation. On February 17, during a communication session with an automatic interplanetary station, its passage through a significant flux of corpuscles (with a density of the order of 10 9 particles per square centimeter per second) was recorded. This observation coincided with the observation of a magnetic storm. Such experiments open the way to establishing quantitative relationships between geomagnetic disturbances and the intensity of solar corpuscular streams. On the second and third satellite ships, the radiation hazard caused by cosmic radiation outside the earth's atmosphere was studied in quantitative terms. The same satellites were used to study the chemical composition of the primary cosmic radiation. The new equipment installed on the satellite ships included a photographic emulsion device designed to expose and develop stacks of thick-layer emulsions directly on board the ship. The results obtained are of great scientific value for elucidating the biological effect of cosmic radiation.
Flight technical problems
Further, the speaker dwelled on a number of significant problems that ensured the organization of manned space flight. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of methods of launching a heavy ship into orbit, for which it was necessary to have powerful rocket technology. We have created such a technique. However, it was not enough to tell the ship a speed exceeding the first space speed. It was also necessary to have a high accuracy of launching the spacecraft into a pre-calculated orbit.
It should be borne in mind that the requirements for the accuracy of orbital motion will increase in the future. This will require correcting the movement using special propulsion systems. The problem of trajectory correction is related to the problem of a maneuver of a directed change in the flight trajectory of a spacecraft. Maneuvers can be carried out with the help of impulses imparted by the jet engine on separate specially selected sections of the trajectories, or with the help of thrust acting for a long time, for the creation of which electric propulsion type engines (ionic, plasma) are used.
As examples of maneuvers, one can point to a transition to a higher-lying orbit, a transition to an orbit that enters the dense layers of the atmosphere for braking and landing in a given area. The latter type of maneuver was used during the landing of Soviet satellite ships with dogs on board and during the landing of the Vostok satellite ship.
To carry out a maneuver, perform a number of measurements and for other purposes, it is necessary to ensure the stabilization of the satellite ship and its orientation in space, which is maintained for a certain period of time or changed according to a given program.
Turning to the problem of returning to Earth, the speaker dwelled on the following issues: deceleration of speed, protection from heating when moving in dense layers of the atmosphere, ensuring landing in a given area.
The deceleration of the spacecraft, which is necessary for damping the space velocity, can be carried out either with the help of a special powerful propulsion system, or by decelerating the spacecraft in the atmosphere. The first of these methods requires a very large amount of weight. The use of atmospheric resistance for braking allows relatively small additional weights to be dispensed with.
The complex of problems associated with the development of protective coatings when the vehicle is braked in the atmosphere and the organization of the entry process with overloads acceptable for the human body is a complex scientific and technical problem.
The rapid development of space medicine has put on the agenda the issue of biological telemetry as the main means of medical control and scientific medical research during space flight. The use of radio telemetry leaves a specific imprint on the methodology and technique of biomedical research, since a number of special requirements are imposed on the equipment placed on board spacecraft. This equipment should have a very light weight, small dimensions. It should be designed for minimum power consumption. In addition, the onboard equipment must operate stably in the active area and during descent, when vibrations and overloads are present.
Sensors designed to convert physiological parameters into electrical signals must be miniature and designed for long-term operation. They should not create inconvenience to the astronaut.
The widespread use of radiotelemetry in space medicine forces researchers to pay serious attention to the design of such equipment, as well as to match the volume of information required for transmission with the capacity of radio channels. Since the new challenges facing space medicine will lead to further deepening of research, to the need to significantly increase the number of recorded parameters, it will be necessary to introduce information storage systems and coding methods.
In conclusion, the speaker dwelled on the question of why for the first space travel it was the option to fly around the Earth in orbit that was chosen. This option represented a decisive step towards the conquest of outer space. They ensured the study of the question of the effect of flight duration on a person, solved the problem of controlled flight, the problem of descent control, entry into the dense layers of the atmosphere and a safe return to Earth. In comparison, the recent flight in the United States appears to be of little value. It could be of value as an intermediate option for checking the state of a person during the stage of acceleration, during overloads during descent; but after Yuri Gagarin's flight, there was no longer any need for such a check. In this variant of the experiment, the element of sensation undoubtedly prevailed. The only value of this flight can be seen in checking the operation of the developed systems that ensure entry into the atmosphere and landing, but, as we have seen, the verification of similar systems developed in our Soviet Union for more difficult conditions was reliably carried out even before the first manned space flight. Thus, the achievements obtained in our country on April 12, 1961, with what has so far been achieved in the United States, cannot be compared in any way.
And no matter how hard they try, the academician says, people who are hostile towards the Soviet Union to belittle the successes of our science and technology with their fabrications, the whole world assesses these successes properly and sees how our country has pulled ahead along the path of technological progress. I personally witnessed the delight and admiration that were caused by the news of the historic flight of our first cosmonaut among the broad masses of the Italian people.
The flight was extremely successful
Academician N.M.Sissakian made a report on the biological problems of space flights. He described the main stages in the development of space biology and summed up some of the results of scientific biological research related to space flights.
The speaker gave the biomedical characteristics of the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin. In the cockpit, the barometric pressure was maintained within 750 - 770 millimeters of mercury, air temperature - 19 - 22 degrees Celsius, relative humidity - 62 - 71 percent.
In the pre-launch period, about 30 minutes before the launch of the spacecraft, the heart rate was 66 per minute, the respiratory rate was 24. Three minutes before the launch, some emotional stress manifested itself in an increase in the pulse rate to 109 beats per minute, breathing continued to remain even and calm.
At the moment of the launch of the spacecraft and the gradual acceleration of speed, the heart rate increased to 140-158 per minute, the respiration rate was 20-26. Changes in physiological parameters in the active phase of the flight, according to the telemetric recording of electrocardiograms and pneumograms, were within acceptable limits. By the end of the active site, the heart rate was already 109, and the respiration rate was 18 per minute. In other words, these indicators have reached the values characteristic of the moment closest to the start.
During the transition to zero gravity and in flight in this state, the indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems consistently approached the initial values. So, already at the tenth minute of weightlessness, the pulse rate reached 97 beats per minute, breathing - 22. The work capacity was not disturbed, the movements retained coordination and the necessary accuracy.
On the descent site, during the braking of the apparatus, when overloads arose again, short-term, quickly transient periods of increased respiration were noted. However, already when approaching the Earth, breathing became even, calm, with a frequency of about 16 per minute.
Three hours after landing, the heart rate was 68, respiration - 20 per minute, that is, values characteristic of a calm, normal state of Yu. A. Gagarin.
All this testifies to the fact that the flight was extremely successful; the cosmonaut's well-being and general condition in all phases of the flight was satisfactory. The life support systems were working fine.
In conclusion, the speaker dwelled on the most important current problems of space biology.
Space exploration began from the most ancient times, when man was just learning to count by the stars, highlighting the constellations. And only just four hundred years ago, after the invention of the telescope, astronomy began to develop rapidly, bringing new discoveries to science.
The 17th century became a transitional century for astronomy, then the scientific method began to be applied in space exploration, thanks to which the Milky Way, other star clusters and nebulae were discovered. And with the creation of a spectroscope that is able to decompose the light emitted by a celestial object through a prism, scientists have learned to measure data from celestial bodies, such as temperature, chemical composition, mass and other measurements.
Starting from the end of the 19th century, astronomy entered a phase of numerous discoveries and achievements, the main breakthrough of science in the 20th century was the launch of the first satellite into space, the first manned flight into space, spacewalk, landing on the moon and space missions to the planets of the solar system. The inventions of super-powerful quantum computers in the 19th century also promise many new studies, both of already known planets and stars, and the discovery of new distant corners of the universe.
Material from Uncyclopedia
Not so many years have passed since the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite in 1957, but in this short period of time space research has managed to occupy one of the leading places in world science. Feeling himself a citizen of the Universe, man naturally wanted to get to know his world and its surroundings better.
Already the first satellite transmitted valuable information about the properties of the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, about the features of the passage of radio waves through the ionosphere. The second satellite laid the foundation for a whole scientific direction - space biology: on board it, a living creature, the dog Laika, went into space for the first time. The third orbital flight of the Soviet apparatus was again devoted to the Earth - the study of its atmosphere, magnetic field, the interaction of the air shell with solar radiation, and the meteoric environment around the planet.
After the first launches, it became clear that space exploration should be carried out purposefully, according to long-term scientific programs. In 1962, in the Soviet Union, launches of automatic satellites of the Kosmos series began, the number of which is now approaching 2,000. phenomena in the upper atmosphere and near-earth space.
Satellites "Electron" and orbiting automatic observatories "Forecast" told about the Sun and its decisive influence on earthly life. Studying our star, we also comprehend the secrets of distant stars, get acquainted with the work of a natural thermonuclear reactor, which has not yet been built on Earth. From space we saw the "invisible sun" - its "portrait" in ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays, which do not reach the Earth's surface due to the opacity of the atmosphere in these parts of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. In addition to automatic satellites, Soviet and American cosmonauts carried out long-term studies of the Sun on orbiting space stations.
Thanks to research from space, we have better learned the composition, structure and properties of the upper atmosphere and ionosphere of the Earth, their dependence on solar activity, which made it possible to increase the reliability of weather forecast and radio communication conditions.
The "Cosmic Eye" made it possible not only to re-evaluate the "external data" of our planet, but also to look into its bowels. From orbits, geological structures are better detected, regularities in the structure of the earth's crust and the distribution of minerals necessary for man are traced.
Satellites allow viewing huge water areas in a matter of minutes, transferring their images to oceanographers. The orbits receive information about the directions and speed of winds, zones of origin of cyclonic eddies.
In 1959, the study of the Earth's satellite, the Moon, began with the help of Soviet automatic stations. The Luna-3 station, having flown around the moon, first photographed its reverse side; Luna-9 performed a soft landing on an Earth satellite. To have a clearer idea of the entire moon, long-term observations from the orbits of its artificial satellites were necessary. The first of them - the Soviet station "Luna-10" - was launched in 1966. In the fall of 1970, the station "Luna-16" went to the Moon, which, having returned to Earth, brought with it samples of lunar soil rocks. But only long-term systematic studies of the lunar surface could help selenologists understand the origin and structure of our natural satellite. Such an opportunity was soon provided to them by self-propelled Soviet scientific laboratories - lunar rovers. The results of space exploration of the Moon provided new data on the history of the origin of the Earth.
The characteristic features of the Soviet program of planetary studies — the planned, consistent, gradual complication of the tasks to be solved — were especially clearly manifested in the studies of Venus. The last two decades have brought more information about this planet than the entire previous more than three centuries of its study. At the same time, a significant part of the information was obtained by Soviet science and technology. The descent vehicles of the automatic interplanetary stations "Venus" more than once made landings on the surface of the planet, probed its atmosphere and clouds. Soviet stations also became the first artificial satellites of Venus.
Since 1962, Soviet automatic interplanetary stations have been launched to the planet Mars.
Astronautics is also studying planets more distant from the Earth. Today, television images of the surfaces of Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn and their moons can be viewed.
Astronomers who received space technology at their disposal, naturally, did not limit themselves to studying only the solar system. Their instruments, carried out of the atmosphere, opaque to short-wave cosmic radiation, aimed at other stars and galaxies.
The invisible rays emanating from them - radio waves, ultraviolet and infrared, X-ray and gamma radiation - carry the most valuable information about what is happening in the depths of the Universe (see Astrophysics).
Before us, secrets will be laid bare
The distant worlds will shine ...
A. Blok
INTRODUCTION
The UNIVERSE is the eternal mystery of being, an alluring mystery forever. For there is no end to knowledge. There is only a continuous overcoming of the boundaries of the unknown. But as soon as this step is taken, new horizons open up. And behind them are new secrets. It was, and it always will be. Especially in the knowledge of the Cosmos. The word "cosmos" comes from the Greek "kosmos", synonymous with the astronomical definition of the universe. The Universe means the entire existing material world, unlimited in time and space and infinitely diverse in the forms that matter takes in the process of its development. The universe studied by astronomy is a part of the material world, which is accessible to research by astronomical means corresponding to the achieved level of development of science.
Near space, explored by spacecraft and interplanetary stations, and deep space, the world of stars and galaxies, are often distinguished.
The great German philosopher Immanuel Kant once remarked that there are only two things worthy of genuine surprise and admiration: the starry sky above us and the moral law within us. The ancients believed: both are inextricably linked. Space determines the past, present and future of humanity and each individual person. In the language of modern science, all information about the Universe is encoded in Man. Life and Space are indissoluble.
Man was constantly striving for Heaven. First - with thought, eyes and on the wings, then - with the help of aeronautical and flying vehicles, spaceships and orbital stations. Even in the last century, no one even suspected the existence of galaxies. The Milky Way was not perceived by anyone as an arm of a giant cosmic spiral. Even with modern knowledge, it is impossible to personally see such a spiral from the inside. It is necessary to retire many, many light years beyond its limits to see our Galaxy in its true spiral guise. However, astronomical observations and mathematical calculations, graphic and computer modeling, as well as abstract theoretical thinking allow you to do this without leaving your home. But this became possible only as a result of a long and thorny development of science. The more we learn about the Universe, the more new questions arise.
THE MAIN TOOL OF ASTRONOMS
The whole history of the study of the Universe is, in essence, searches and finds of means that improve human vision. Until the beginning of the 17th century. the naked eye was the only optical instrument for astronomers. All astronomical technology of the ancients was reduced to the creation of various goniometric instruments, as accurate and durable as possible. Already the first telescopes immediately sharply increased the resolving and penetrating power of the human eye. Gradually, receivers of invisible radiation were created and now we perceive the Universe in all ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum - from gamma radiation to ultra-long radio waves.
Moreover, corpuscular radiation receivers have been created that capture the smallest particles - corpuscles (mainly nuclei of atoms and electrons), coming to us from celestial bodies. The aggregate of all receivers of cosmic radiation are capable of detecting objects from which rays of light reach us for many billions of years. In fact, the entire history of world astronomy and cosmology is divided into two parts that are not equal in time - before and after the invention of the telescope. The twentieth century in general has extraordinarily pushed the boundaries of observational astronomy. To the extremely improved optical telescopes were added new, previously completely unseen - radio telescopes, and then X-ray (which are applicable only in airless space and in open space). Also, with the help of satellites, gamma telescopes are used to record unique information about distant objects and extreme states of matter in the Universe.
To register ultraviolet and infrared radiation, telescopes with objectives made of arsenic tri-sulfur glass are used. With the help of this equipment, it was possible to discover many previously unknown objects, to comprehend important and amazing laws of the Universe. So, near the center of our galaxy, a mysterious infrared object was discovered, the luminosity of which is 300,000 times the luminosity of the Sun. Its nature is still unclear. Other powerful sources of infrared radiation, located in other galaxies and extragalactic space, have also been recorded.
INTO OPEN SPACE!
The universe is so huge that astronomers have not yet been able to establish how big it is! However, thanks to the latest advances in science and technology, we have learned a lot about space and our place in it. In the past 50 years, people have been able to leave Earth and study stars and planets not only by observing them through telescopes, but also by receiving information directly from space. The satellites being launched are equipped with sophisticated equipment, with the help of which amazing discoveries were made, in the existence of which astronomers did not believe, for example, black holes and new planets.
Since the launch of the first artificial satellite into outer space in October 1957, many satellites and robotic probes have been sent off the planet. Thanks to them, scientists "visited" almost all the main planets of the solar system, as well as their satellites, asteroids, comets. Such launches are carried out constantly, and nowadays new generation probes continue their flight to other planets, extracting and transmitting all information to Earth.
Some rockets are designed to only reach the upper atmosphere and are not fast enough to go into space. To get out of the atmosphere, the rocket needs to overcome the gravitational force of the Earth, and this requires a certain speed. If the speed of the rocket is 28,500 km / h, then it will fly with an acceleration equal to the force of gravity. As a result, it will continue to fly around the Earth in a circle. To completely overcome the force of gravity, the rocket must move at a speed greater than 40 320 km / h. Having entered orbit, some spacecraft, using the gravitational energy of the Earth and other planets, can thereby increase their own speed for a further dash into space. This is called the sling effect.
TO THE BOUNDARIES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Satellites and space probes have repeatedly been launched to the inner planets: the Russian "Venus", the American "Mariners" to Mercury and "Viking" to Mars. Launched in 1972-1973. American probes "Pioneer-10" and "Pioneer-11" have reached the outer planets - Jupiter and Saturn. In 1977, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were also launched to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Some of these probes still continue to fly at the very borders of the solar system and will send information to Earth until 2020, and some have already left the solar system.
FLIGHTS TO THE MOON
The Moon closest to us has always been and remains a very attractive object for scientific research. Since we always see only that part of the Moon that is illuminated by the Sun, the invisible part of it was of particular interest to us. The first flyby of the Moon and photographing its reverse side was carried out by the Soviet automatic interplanetary station "Luna-3" in 1959. If until recently scientists simply dreamed of flying to the Moon, today their plans go much further: earthlings consider this planet as a source of valuable rocks and minerals. From 1969 to 1972, the Apollo spacecraft, launched into orbit by the Saturn-5 launch vehicle, made several flights to the moon and delivered people there. And on July 21, 1969, the first man set foot on the Silver Planet. They were Neil Armstrong, the commander of the American spacecraft Apollo 11, and Edwin Aldrin. Astronauts collected samples of lunar rock, conducted a series of experiments on it, data on which continued to flow to Earth for a long time after their return. Two expeditions aboard the spacecraft Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 made it possible to accumulate some information about human behavior on the Moon. The created protective equipment helped the astronauts to live and work in a hostile vacuum and abnormal temperatures. The lunar attraction turned out to be very favorable for the work of the astronauts, who did not find any physical or psychological difficulties.
The space probe Prospector (USA) was launched in September 1997. After a short flight in low-earth orbit, it rushed to the Moon and entered its orbit five days after launch. This American probe is designed to collect and transmit to Earth information about the composition of the surface and the interior of the Moon. There are no cameras on it, but there are instruments for carrying out the necessary research directly from orbit, from a height.
The Japanese space probe "Lunar-A" is designed to study the composition of the rocks that form the lunar surface. Lunar-A, while in orbit, sends three small probes to the moon. Each of them is equipped with a seismometer for measuring the strength of "moonquakes" and an instrument for measuring the deep heat of the moon. All data received by them are transmitted to Lunar-A, which is in orbit at an altitude of 250 km from the Moon.
Although the man has already visited the moon several times, he never found any life there. But interest in the question of the population of the Moon (if not in the present, then in the past) is intensified and fueled by various reports of Russian and American researchers. For example, about the discovery of ice at the bottom of one of the lunar craters. Other materials on this topic are also being published. You can refer to the note by Albert Valentinov (scientific observer of the "Rossiyskaya Gazeta") in its issue of May 16, 1997. It tells about secret photographs of the lunar surface, kept with seven seals in the Pentagon's safes. The published photographs show the destroyed cities in the area of the Ukert crater (the image itself was taken from a satellite). One photo clearly shows a giant embankment 3 km high, similar to a city wall with towers. Another photo shows an even more huge hill, already consisting of several towers.
