Home Useful properties of fruits Psychological features of late youth - students. Development of the self-concept during adolescence

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Psychological features of late youth - students. Development of the self-concept during adolescence

Adolescence is one of the most confused and contradictory in psychological and pedagogical ideas and theories. The confusion and inconsistency of ideas can be explained (as in adolescence) by the emerging character of the age itself in the history of civilization. According to the hypothesis of D.B. Elkonin (1996) on the historical content of childhood, both adolescence and adolescence are historically young and therefore have not acquired their cultural and historical forms and mechanisms of development.

Adolescence is a period of individual life in which the ability to actively, practically correlate goals, resources and conditions for solving the problems of building one's own life, a perspective characteristic of an adult (solving a professional, production problem; manifestation of a social position; implementation of socially significant deed or action; building your own family, etc.).

Youth not so long ago stood out as an independent period in a person's life, historically referring to the "transitional stage" of maturation, maturation. If in animals the onset of adulthood is quite closely related to the possibility of independent existence and procreation, then in human society, the criterion for growing up is not just physical maturity, but also the mastery of culture, a system of knowledge, values, norms, social traditions, readiness for the implementation of various types of labor.

Youth is divided into early and late. Early adolescence is the second stage of a person's life, called maturation or transitional age, the content of which is the transition from childhood to adulthood. Let's define the age range of this stage, because the terminology in the field of growing up is somewhat confusing. Within the transition from childhood to adulthood, the boundaries between adolescence and adolescence are conditional and often intersect. No one will call a 13-year-old boy a youth, and an 18-19-year-old boy a teenager, but the age between 14-15 and 16-17 years does not have this certainty and in some cases refers to adolescence, and in others - to the end of adolescence. In the scheme of age periodization of ontogenesis, the boundaries of adolescence are designated between 17-21 years for boys and 16-20 years for girls, but in physiology, its upper limit is often pushed back to 22-23 years for boys and 19-20 years for girls. In connection with the phenomenon of acceleration, the boundaries of adolescence have shifted downward and at present this period of development covers approximately the age from 10-11 to 14-15 years. Accordingly, youth begins earlier. Early adolescence is the senior school age - 15-17 years old. At this time, the growing child is on the verge of real adult life. Late adolescence is considered a period in the life of a young person, which is characterized by independence in solving the problems of building his own life, the perspective characteristic of an adult (solving a professional, production problem; manifestation of a social position; implementation of a socially significant act or action; building his own family, etc.) ). Late adolescence is attributed to 20-23 years.

The boundaries of adolescence are associated with the age of mandatory participation of a person in public life. Youth is the age of compulsory participation in elections of government bodies. In adolescence, a person makes a choice of an internal position and this is a very difficult job. A young person who has turned to the analysis and comparison of universal values and his own inclinations and value orientations will have to consciously destroy or accept the historically conditioned norms and values that determined his behavior in childhood and adolescence. In addition, modern ideas of the state, new ideologues and false prophets are precipitatingly attacking it. He chooses for himself a non-adaptive or adaptive position in life, while he believes that it is the position he has chosen that is the only one acceptable to him and, therefore, the only correct one.

Youth is aimed at finding its place in the world. But no matter how intellectually she is ready to comprehend everything that exists, she does not know much, there is still no experience of real practical and spiritual life among loved ones and other people.

Youth is often considered stormy, uniting it in one period with adolescence. The search for your place in this world, the search for the meaning of life can become especially intense. New needs of an intellectual and social order arise, the satisfaction of which will become possible only in the future. For some, this period may be stressful, while for others, smoothly and gradually move to a turning point in their lives. With a successful course of early adolescence, a high school student is pleased with a calm, orderly way of life, they are not characterized by romantic impulses, they have good relations with parents and teachers. But at the same time, children are less independent, more passive, sometimes more superficial in their attachments and hobbies. In general, it is believed that the searches and doubts characteristic of adolescence lead to the full formation of the personality. Those who have gone through them are usually more independent, creative in their attitude, have more flexible thinking, allowing them to make independent decisions in difficult situations compared to those whose personality formation process took place at that time easily. There are two more options for development. These are, firstly, rapid, abrupt changes, which, due to the high level of self-regulation, are well controlled, without causing sharp emotional breakdowns. High school students define their life goals early and persistently strive to achieve them. However, their reflection and emotional sphere are less developed. Another option is associated with a particularly painful search for their own path. Such children are not confident in themselves, and do not understand themselves well. They have insufficient development of reflection, lack of deep self-knowledge. Such children are impulsive, inconsistent in actions and relationships, not responsible enough. They often reject the values of their parents, but instead are unable to offer anything of their own.

The main psychological acquisition of early adolescence is the discovery of one's inner world. Having acquired the ability to immerse himself in himself, in his experiences, the young man re-opens a whole world of new emotions, the beauty of nature, the sounds of music. He (the young man) begins to perceive and comprehend his emotions no longer as derivatives of some external events, but as a state of his own I. Along with the awareness of his uniqueness, originality, dissimilarity to others comes a feeling of loneliness. The youthful self is still vague, vague, it is often experienced as a vague anxiety or a feeling of inner emptiness that needs to be filled with something. Hence, the need for communication grows and at the same time its selectivity, the need for solitude, increases.

Thus, adolescence is the period of life after adolescence to adulthood, including the age from 16-17 years old to 22-23 years old.

Youth is viewed as the psychological age of the transition to independence, the period of self-determination, the acquisition of mental, ideological and civic maturity, the formation of a worldview, moral consciousness and self-awareness.

Allocate early adolescence (from 15 to 18 years old) and late adolescence (from 18 to 23 years old).

In adolescence, the process of physical maturation of the personality is completed. This age accounts for many critical social events: obtaining a passport, the onset of criminal liability, the possibility of marriage. At this age, the task of choosing a profession arises, many begin their labor activity.

In youth, the time horizon expands - the future becomes the main dimension; the personality rushes into the future, the path of life and the choice of profession are determined.

In the 9th and 11th grade, the student finds himself in a situation of “choice” - completion or continuation of education.

The social situation of development in early adolescence is the “threshold” of independent life.

Early adolescence (senior school age) is characterized by extreme uneven development, both interpersonal and intraindividual.

The transition from early youth to late adolescence is marked by a change in developmental accents: the period of preliminary self-determination is completed and the transition to self-realization is carried out.

The crisis of 17 years arises at the turn of the usual school life and a new adult life. If a teenager leaves school at the age of 15, then the crisis shifts to that age.

Leading youth activities- educational, professional and professional self-determination. At this age, there is a selective attitude towards school subjects, attending preparatory courses for admission to a university.

In high school, a psychological readiness for self-determination is formed, which includes:

the formation of theoretical thinking, the foundations of the scientific and civil worldview, self-awareness and developed reflection;
development of needs (take the position of an adult, the need for communication, work, moral attitudes, holistic orientations);
the formation of prerequisites for individuality as a result of the development and awareness of their needs and interests.

Thinking in youth- formal-logical and formal-operational. This is abstract, theoretical, hypothetical-deductive thinking, not related to the specific conditions of the external environment.

The interest in school and learning among high school students is noticeably increasing, since learning acquires a direct life meaning associated with the future. The need for independent acquisition of knowledge is growing.

The amount of memory increases, rational methods of voluntary memorization of material are applied. The mastery of complex intellectual operations of analysis and synthesis, theoretical generalization and abstraction, argumentation and proof is improved, critical thinking develops.

Special abilities are developed, often associated with a professional field (mathematics, technical, etc.). The individual's own thoughts, feelings, and actions become the subject of his mental examination and analysis, the ability to distinguish between contradictions between thoughts, words and actions arises. There is an opportunity to create ideals (family, society, morality).

Young men and women tend to formulate broad philosophical generalizations, to theorize and hypothesize.

Preliminary self-determination, the construction of life plans for the future is the central psychological neoplasm of adolescence.

E. Erickson considered the search for self-determination as a search for personal identity. He believed that identity crisis includes a number of confrontations:

time perspective or vague sense of time;
self-confidence or shyness;
experimenting with different roles or fixing on one role;
sexual polarization or bisexual orientation;
leader / follower relationship or uncertainty of authority;
ideological conviction or confusion in the value system.

Much research is devoted to the development and quality of the self-concept. A negative self-concept (low self-esteem and low level of aspirations, weak self-confidence) has a negative effect and leads to social passivity, loneliness, degradation, aggressiveness and crime.

The desire to know oneself as a person leads to reflection, to profound introspection. Self-knowledge and knowledge of others leads to the formulation of self-improvement tasks.

In adolescence, value orientations are developed, a worldview is formed as a system of generalized ideas about the world as a whole, other people, about oneself.

In adolescence, the sphere of feelings is actively developing, in general, an optimistic state of health, an increased vitality is characteristic. The emotional sphere is much richer in content and subtler in shades of experience, the inner sensitivity and ability to empathize increases.

The assessments of the environment are often categorical and straightforward.

Communication of boys and girls with adults, with parents presupposes a growing democratization of relationships, the influence of parents on many important issues remains predominant.

The content of communication with adults includes the problems of finding the meaning of life, knowing oneself, life plans and ways of their implementation, professional interests, and relationships between people. Effective interaction with close adults is possible only in conditions of cooperation based on mutual understanding and mutual support. Trust in communication is the most important basis for a new harmony of parent-child relations.

Communication with peers continues to play an important role in the lives of young men. At this age, there is an increase in the need for communication, an expansion of its circle, as well as a deepening and individualization of communication. Friendships are more selective, intimate, and deeper. However, typical of age, exactingness and criticality in relation to another, uncompromising, egocentricity, give rise to difficulties and tension in relationships.

In early adolescence, more than in previous age stages, the need for privacy is manifested. In solitude, roles are played that are inaccessible to them in real life.

The manifestation of love in adolescence usually takes the form of sympathy, passion, love, or the form of friendship-love. In all its manifestations, first love is an important test in adolescence, largely influencing the development of a person.

Leading activity- personal self-determination (transposed into the future), associated with the formation of value orientations, the solution to the question of the meaning of life.

The core of the personality- self-awareness. Zaporozhets came to the conclusion that the core of the personality is emotions, Davydov - with creativity, Leontiev - motivation. The personality is polyphonic (there is an intersection of the axes). In American psychology, a person is determined by character traits, in Russian psychology by content characteristics.

The beginning of the establishment of true socio-psychological independence in all spheres, including material and financial self-sufficiency, self-service, independence in moral judgments, political views and actions. Awareness of contradictions in life (between the norms of morality, asserted by people and their actions, between ideals and reality, between abilities and capabilities, etc.).

The period of adolescence is a period of self-determination.

Self-determination- social, personal, professional, spiritual and practical - is the main task of adolescence.

The process of self-determination is based on choice of future field of activity... However, professional self-determination is associated with the tasks of social and personal self-determination, with the search for an answer to the questions: who to be? and what to be ?, with the definition of life prospects, with the design of the future.

With the transition from adolescence to adolescence, there is a change in attitude towards the future: if a teenager looks at the future from the position of the present, then the young man looks at the present from the perspective of the future... The choice of a profession and type of educational institution inevitably differentiates the life paths of young men and women, lays the foundation for their socio-psychological and individual psychological differences. Learning activity becomes educational and vocational, realizing the professional and personal aspirations of boys and girls. The leading place among high school students is occupied by motives associated with self-determination and

preparation for an independent life, with further education and self-education. These motives acquire personal meaning and become significant. The overwhelming majority of boys and girls are students either in a general education school or in secondary vocational or special educational institutions. At the same time, a certain part of boys and girls begin their independent labor activity.

The main patterns of development in adolescence are concretized in the specific content and conditions of the education and development of a young person.

A characteristic acquisition of early adolescence is the formation of life plans... The life plan as a set of intentions gradually becomes a life program, when the subject of reflection is not only the final result, but also the ways to achieve it.

Life plan is a plan of potential actions. There are a number of contradictions in the content of the plans. Boys and girls are realistic enough in their expectations related to their future professional activity and family. But in the field of education, social advancement and material well-being, their claims are often overstated. At the same time, a high level of aspirations is not supported by an equally high level of professional aspirations.

The main contradiction in the life prospects of boys and girls is lack of independence and readiness for dedication for the sake of the future realization of their life goals... The goals that future graduates set for themselves, while remaining untested for their correspondence to their real capabilities, often turn out to be false and suffer from "fantasy". Sometimes, having barely tried something, young people experience disappointment both in their plans and in themselves. The intended perspective can be either very specific, and then not flexible enough for its implementation to be completed with success; or too general, and makes it difficult to successfully implement by uncertainty.

One of the achievements of this stage is a new level of development of self-awareness.

opening your inner world in all its individual integrity and uniqueness.

striving for self-knowledge.

the formation of personal identity, a sense of individual self-identity,

continuity and unity.

self respect

the formation of a personal way of being, when in many life collisions a young person

can say aloud: "I am personally responsible for this!"

Youth covers the period of life from the end of adolescence from 20-23 years old to about 30 years old when a person "is more or less established in adulthood" (A.V. Tolstykh). The upper limit of youth is extended by some authors to 35 years. Youth is the time of creating a family, the time of mastering the chosen profession, determining the attitude towards social life and one's role in it. In youth, the most complex types of professional activity are most accessible, communication occurs most fully and intensively, relations of friendship and love are most easily established and most fully developed. Youth is considered the best time for self-realization.

Youth is characterized by an optimal combination of psychological, physiological, social and other factors that favor choosing a life partner and creating a family.

This is the age the greatest sexual activity, the time when the woman's body is better adapted to the birth of the first child. People most easily get to know and adapt to the conditions of life together, also in their youth. Despite the sensitivity of youth to the creation of a family and all the favorable factors accompanying this age, the problem of choosing a life partner is not always successfully solved. More than 50% of divorces occur in youth.

Second side social development situation in this period - mastering the chosen profession... In adolescence, there is a personal and professional self-determination, a choice of life path. And in his youth, a person asserts himself in the chosen business, acquires professional skill. Younger vocational training ends. The terms have been significantly extended due to scientific and technological progress. In youth, a person is maximally efficient, withstands the greatest physical and mental stress, and is most capable of mastering complex methods of intellectual activity. It is easiest to acquire all the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary in the chosen profession, develop special personal and functional qualities (organizational skills, initiative, courage and resourcefulness, necessary in a number of professions, clarity and accuracy, speed of reaction, etc.).

Establishment and development of friendly ties is an important aspect of life in youth. Friendship during this period reaches a new quality level. The definition of friendship as a type of essential connections with the world allows us to talk about the spontaneity, naturalness of its appearance.

Friendship is the result of one or another consonance that is significant for its subjects. You can only meet a loved one.

Youth crisis: Most people are in crisis at the age of 30. People have a change in the idea of their life, often even the old way of life is destroyed. Looking back at the path traveled, the individual sees how, in the current and outwardly prosperous life, his personality is not perfect. There is a reassessment of values, which entails introspection and a critical revision of one's own personality. So, the crisis of 30 years arises as a result of the failure to realize a life plan. If, at the same time, values are also rethought, then we are talking about the fact that the life plan in general turned out to be wrong.

The crisis of 30 years is often called a crisis of meaning in life... The search for the meaning of existence is associated with this period. This quest, like the entire crisis in general, marks the transition from youth to maturity.

CHARACTERISTIC OF YOUTH AGE

Youth is a certain stage of human maturation and development, which lies between childhood and adulthood. The word "youth" denotes the phase of transition from dependent childhood to independent and responsible adulthood, the completion of physical, in particular sexual maturation, and, on the other hand, the attainment of social maturity. But in different societies this happens in different ways. Biologically, this is the period of completion of physical maturation. The social status of youth is not uniform. Youth is the final stage of primary socialization.

The main psychological acquisition of early adolescence is the discovery of one's inner world, which is facilitated by the emergence of new questions about oneself. Many high school students tend to exaggerate their own uniqueness. In adolescence, temporal perceptions expand to include the future, personal and social perspectives.

Personal and professional self-determination is the central neoplasm of this age period. Self-determination, personality stabilization in early youth are associated with the development of a worldview - a system of clear, worthy beliefs that express a person's attitude to the world, his value orientations

Youth is a decisive stage in the formation of a worldview, because it is at this time that both his cognitive and his emotional and personal prerequisites ripen. Adolescence is characterized not only by an increase in the amount of knowledge, but also by a tremendous expansion of the mental outlook of a senior pupil, the appearance of theoretical interests in him and the need to reduce a variety of factors to a few principles.

With the expansion of the high school student and the accumulation of interests, there is a need to reduce the variety of factors to a few principles. A high school student begins to think about the meaning of life, tries to understand his life not as a series of random, scattered events, but as a whole process with a certain direction, a certain meaning.

The worldview search includes the social orientation of the individual, that is, the awareness of oneself as a particle, an element of a social community, the choice of one's future social position and ways of achieving it.

A characteristic feature of early adolescence is the formation of life plans. The life plan arises, on the one hand, as a result of the generalization of the goals that the individual sets for himself, as a result of the construction of a "pyramid" of his motives, the formation of a stable core of value orientations that subdue private, passing aspirations. On the other hand, it is the result of specifying goals and motives.

In adolescence, a reassessment of values takes place, hierarchies of vital values are built, since a global issue at this age. This is a question about the meaning of life. A characteristic feature of early adolescence is the formation of life plans. The life plan arises on the one hand, as a result of generalization of goals, as a consequence of the construction of a "pyramid" of motives, the formation of a stable core of value orientation. On the other hand, it is the specification of goals and motives. The life plans of high school students both in content and in the degree of their maturity, social realism and the time perspective covered are very different.

From a dream, from an ideal desired future, from the construction of values that are significant for the personality of a high school student, a life plan constantly looms.

Each high school student has his own system of value orientations, in which value is built into a certain hierarchical relationship.

In the process of identifying the value orientation of students, two main parameters must be taken into account:

a) the degree of formation of the hierarchical structure of value orientations;

The first parameter is very important for assessing the level of personal maturity of a student, since the interiorization of values occurs if a person has the ability to look out of a multitude of phenomena that provide value to him, and then turn them into a system, depending on the conditions of existence, goals. The student must have a high level of personal development for "compiling a system of value orientations."

The focus, the content of value orientations helps to understand what values are included in the structure of the value orientations of the individual, and depending on this, it is possible to determine what goals the activities of the senior pupil are aimed at.

Analysis of the content side of value orientations can show the extent to which the identified value orientations of the student correspond to the social standard, the norms of society.
Depending on what values the student can focus on, what the student can strive for in life, what he can create in this life, get what he sees as a personal goal, we can talk about his social and civic maturity. The personal maturity of a senior pupil can be judged by how much the content side of value orientations characteristic of this age period will correspond to the interests of society.

Early adolescence (15 - 17 years old)

... For early adolescence, striving for the future is characteristic ...

... striving for the future only then has a beneficial effect on the formation of the personality when there is satisfaction with the present. Under favorable conditions for development, a young man strives for the future, not because he feels bad in the present, but because it will be even better ahead. ...

I AM A CONCEPT AS A FACTOR OF PERSONAL SELF-DETERMINATION IN EARLY YOUTH

CHAPTER 3. PRACTICAL STUDY OF I-CONCEPTS AS A FACTOR OF PERSONAL SELF-DETERMINATION IN EARLY YOUTH

The aim of the study is to establish the relationship between the content of the self-concept and the process of personal self-determination in early adolescence. The object of the research is boys and girls aged 15-16 (106 people). Subject of study. the relationship of self-concept and personal self-determination in early adolescence. The main hypothesis of the study. there is a correlation between the content characteristics of the self-concept and personal self-determination in early adolescence. Working hypothesis of the study. the content characteristics of the self-concept, influencing the process of personal self-determination in early adolescence, differ for boys and girls. To achieve the goal of research and test hypotheses in the practical part of the work, the following tasks were solved: 1. Determine the indicators for assessing the characteristics of the process of personal self-determination in early adolescence. 2. Investigate the content characteristics of the self-concept and personal self-determination of boys and girls 15-16 years old. 3. To reveal the correlation between the self-concept of boys and girls and the process of their personal self-determination. 4. Determine the differences in the nature of the relationship between self-concept and personal self-determination between boys and girls. To solve the set tasks, the following research methods were used. - comparative method; - ascertaining experiment; - testing; - methods of primary and secondary data processing. The novelty of our research lies in the fact that a) we consider the self-concept as a factor of personal self-determination; b) we determine the indicators of personal self-determination in early adolescence through the indicators of the meaningfulness of the life of the individual. The practical significance of our research is that a) the indicators of personal self-determination that we have identified can be used as test ones in further studies of the driving forces of personality development in early youth, b) concretization of the connection between the self-concept and personal self-determination in early youth allows us to identify those characteristics of the system ideas about oneself, the dynamics of which can affect the success of the personal self-determination of young men and women at that age stage of personality development. The research was carried out in February-March 1999 among 10th grade pupils of secondary schools in Magnitogorsk: boys (44 people) and girls (62 people) aged 15-16 years. Considering the importance of motivation to participate in the study for obtaining reliable results, we interested boys and girls in the fact that: a) participation in the study could be anonymous (in this case, only the initials of the subject were indicated); b) after processing the data, the results were communicated to each participant in the study (we handed out leaflets with their results to each and conducted a group consultation on their interpretation). All techniques were carried out on the same day, which made it possible to exclude the influence of temporary situational factors. These organizational measures, in our opinion, made it possible to increase the reliability of the results obtained. In our study, we used the following techniques. 1. Methodology "Personal differential" (LD); 2. Technique "Polar Profiles" (PP); 3. Methodology T. Leary; 4. Questionnaire of socio-psychological adaptation (SPA); 5. Test of meaningful life orientations (LSS); 6. Methodology of M. Rokich's value orientations; 7. Methodology "Type of psychological improvement" (TPP). Now let us determine the indicators by which we evaluated the content of the self-concept and personal self-determination and justify the choice of methods of our research.

Determination of indicators of personal self-determination in early adolescence At the very beginning of our research, we are faced with the fact that the lack of development of a unified theory of self-determination in adolescence and adolescence affects practical developments for research in this area. The study of personal self-determination as a psychological phenomenon presupposes the presence of certain criteria for assessing its content, those indicators by which we can judge the success and failure of its course. Although M.R. Ginzburg and offers in his later work (see) criteria for assessing personal self-determination in adolescence, however, they do not disclose specific methods and techniques by which one could obtain information about the nature of self-determination in the framework of a specific psychological research. Therefore, the first task that we face in our study is to determine the indicators of the process of personal self-determination, by which one can judge the nature of its course. Considering that the most capacious definition of personal self-determination is the process of forming a single semantic system in which ideas about oneself and the world are merged, we associate the success of personal self-determination with indicators of the meaningfulness of a person's life. The basis for the theoretical and empirical typology of the meanings of life was laid by W. Frankl, who considered the desire for a person's search and realization of the meaning of his life as an innate motivational tendency inherent in all people and being the main engine of behavior and personality development. The main thesis of his doctrine of the pursuit of meaning can be formulated as follows. a person strives to find meaning and feels frustration or vacuum if this desire remains unfulfilled. V. Frankl has repeatedly pointed to early adolescence as a sensitive period in the search for the meaning of one's existence. The development of V. Frankl's ideas in Russian psychology led to the creation of a test for the meaningfulness of life. The results obtained in the factor analysis of the test of meaningfulness of life. allowed researchers D.A. Leontiev, M.O. Kalashnikov and O.E. Kalashnikova to conclude that the meaningfulness of life is not an internally homogeneous structure. Based on factorization, the test of meaningfulness of life was transformed into a test of meaningful life orientations, which includes, along with the general indicator of meaningfulness of life, five factors that can be considered as components of the meaning of a person's life. The obtained factors are divided into two groups. The first includes actually meaningful orientations: goals in life, richness of life (process of life) and satisfaction with self-realization (productivity of life). It is easy to see that these three categories correspond to purpose (future), process (present) and result (past). The two remaining factors characterize the internal locus of control, with which, according to research, the meaningfulness of life is closely related. moreover, one of them characterizes the general ideological belief that control is possible - the locus of control of life (controllability of life), and the second reflects the belief in one's own ability to exercise such control - the locus of control-I (I am the master of life). Applying the LSS test to early adolescence, in our opinion, one should dwell on several important points. First. When analyzing the content of test statements carried out in the process of selecting research methods, we noted the inadequacy for early adolescence of statements on the scale "Satisfaction with self-realization (life performance)" part of it. In the process of carrying out the LSS technique, many subjects had difficulties in answering the statements of this scale. for example: "How can I assess whether my life has turned out exactly as I dreamed, if I have not yet had time to put it together?" or "How can I answer whether I have achieved success in the implementation of my life plans, if I did not have the opportunity to implement them?" Such difficulties can be explained by the fact that early adolescence is the period of the emergence of the conscious "I" and only the first stage of its development, active existence. Therefore, it is quite natural that there is still no past experience of the activity of one's "I", by which one could judge the success of self-realization. We find another explanation in M.R. Ginzburg, who, in the life field of the individual, distinguishes the psychological past, present and future, from a psychological point of view, existing as experience (in the age aspect as a result of the implementation of age-related tasks), as efficiency (self-development, self-knowledge) and as a project (providing a semantic and temporal perspective ). The formation of personal identity (the closest concept in the English language literature to the concept of self-determination) is a psychological task of adolescence and early adolescence; the emerging identity integrates all prior child identifications. When applied to early adolescence, the sequence of prior childhood identifications is a psychological past. The emerging identity itself encompasses the psychological present (including the psychological past in a filmed form) and the psychological future. Therefore, when considering personal self-determination in early youth, M.R. Ginzburg considers it reasonable to consider the psychological present and psychological future, excluding the psychological past from consideration, since for this age, the past (child) is filmed in the present, i.e. in fact, there is also the present past in the present. Taking into account the above facts, we consider it reasonable to exclude the statements of the “Satisfaction with self-realization” scale from the characteristics of personal self-determination in early adolescence. Second. The question arises about the applicability of the remaining statements of the LSS test to subjects aged 15-16 years, because at first glance, this test is designed for a later age. The authors of the LSS test do not specifically stipulate the lower limit of its applicability. After analyzing the content of the test statements, we came to the conclusion about the adequacy of their applicability in the remaining version to early adolescence. Indirectly, the admissibility of the LSS test on a sample of subjects aged 15-16 is confirmed by the following facts: "55; 11. b) self-actualization test (SAT) (Gozman, Croz, 1987) can be applied to subjects from the age of 14; c) adolescence is a time of preoccupation with "last questions"; d) when completing the remaining test items, the boys and girls did not have any questions or difficulties. Thus, the LSS test allows us to assess the following characteristics of personal self-determination in early adolescence: 1) Goals in life. 2) The process of life or interest and emotional richness of life. 3) Locus of control-I (I am the master of life). 4) Locus of control-life or controllability of life. In our opinion, it is these indicators that characterize the success of the process of personal self-determination in early adolescence, and have a major impact on the personal development of a young person. Our proposed approach to the study of the driving forces of self-determination and personality development in early adolescence is not widespread in the psychological literature today. The test of life-meaning orientations and the theory of the pursuit of the meaning of life V. Frankl is used in most cases, starting from older adolescence (students). Apparently, the application of indicators of the meaningfulness of life in our study to early adolescence is one of the first approbations of the LSS test at an earlier age. Therefore, naturally, the question arises about the ratio of the indicators of the success of personal development identified by us and those indicators that are most common today and are the subject of research in the psychological literature on adolescence and early adolescence. Many researchers note that the greatest achievement of this period is the rapid development of reflection - awareness of oneself and possible transformations in the environment and oneself. Thanks to developing reflection, the perceived attitudes of the personality are consolidated and improved, gaining motivating power in the organization and self-organization of the behavior of a teenager and a young man. As the personality attitudes and values professed by it are more and more represented in reflexive experience, the importance of the influence of personal development forces such as self-esteem, self-activity, acceptance of others, the social orientation of the personality, the desire for domination, the severity of internality in decisions and actions, etc., grows. personal development is reflected in the concept of socio-psychological adaptation, which is increasingly spreading in modern psychological and pedagogical literature. To identify the characteristics of socio-psychological adaptation, the questionnaire of socio-psychological adaptation (SPA scale), developed in 1954 by K. Rogers and R. Diamond, is most often used. The Russified version of this questionnaire was tested on different samples of students in domestic schools and university students. It was used many times when examining secondary and high school students, students of vocational schools, gymnasiums, colleges, etc. "As a measuring tool, the SPA scale has shown a high differentiating ability in diagnosing not only the states of school adaptation-maladjustment, but also the peculiarities of the self-image, its restructuring during critical age periods of development and in critical situations that induce the student to reassess himself and his capabilities. -Diamond, reveals the degree of adaptation-maladjustment in the system of interpersonal relations and as a basis for maladjustment assumes a number of different circumstances: a low level of self-activity, a low level of acceptance of others, that is, confrontation with them, emotional discomfort, which can be very different in nature, strong dependence on others, that is, externality, the desire to dominate. As practice shows, the reasons for the difficulties of a teenager and a young man, which, according to the authors, can be associated with the difficulties of mastering new relationships, a new period in a person's life, are multiple and can be represented by complexes in a variety of combinations. Many researchers, first of all, highlight difficult relationships with parents and peers, a difficult learning process at school, which is difficult to differentiate from interpersonal relationships with peers, parents and teachers, difficulties caused by the development of self-awareness. The experienced difficulties and problems of the adolescent are associated with the most important changes and psychological new acquisitions of this age. At the same time, the difficulties found in the adolescent do not fully and completely reflect the positions and actions of the young man; all aspirations and manifestations of his activity cannot be reduced to them. The psychological neoplasm of early adolescence - personal self-determination - is primarily associated with the difficulties of forming life plans and personal positions. To determine the leading indicators of personal self-determination in early adolescence, we identified the importance of indicators of the meaningfulness of life (the LSS test) and indicators of adaptation-maladjustment in interpersonal relationships (the SPA questionnaire) as the driving forces of personality development during this period. Let's move on to the description of these techniques and the interpretation of their indicators. The Purpose-in-Life Test (PIL) The Purpose-in-Life Test (PIL) is an adapted version of the Purpose-in-Life Test (PIL) by James Crumbaugh and Leonard Maholick. The technique was developed on the basis of the theory of striving for meaning and logotherapy by Viktor Frankl (see) and pursued the goal of empirically validating a number of representations from this theory. Based on factor analysis adapted by D.A. Leontyev's version of this technique, domestic researchers (Leontyev, Kalashnikov, Kalashnikova) created the LSS test, which includes, along with the general indicator of the meaningfulness of life, also five subscales reflecting three specific life-meaning orientations (goals in life, richness in life and satisfaction with self-realization) and two aspects locus of control (locus of control-I and locus of control-life). The LSS test contains 20 pairs of opposite statements, reflecting the idea of the factors of meaningfulness in the life of an individual. The analysis of the content of the statements carried out in our work showed the inadequacy of statements on the subscale "Satisfaction with self-realization or the effectiveness of life" in relation to early adolescence. Therefore, pairs of statements on this scale were excluded from the test when processing and analyzing the data (pp 8,9,12,20, see Appendix). Instructions: "You are offered a pair of opposite statements. Your task is to choose one of the statements that, in your opinion, is more true, and mark one of the numbers 1.2, 3, depending on how confident you are in the choice (or 0, if both statements in your opinion are equally true) ". Data processing was carried out on a 7-point scale in accordance with the test key blank. The minimum and maximum values of the subscales are shown in the table. Interpretation of subscales: 1. Goals in life. Points on this scale characterize the presence or absence of goals in the life of the subject in the future, which give life meaning, focus and time perspective. 2. The process of life or the emotional richness of life. The content of this scale coincides with the well-known theory that the only meaning of life is to live. This indicator indicates whether the subject perceives the very process of his life as interesting, emotionally rich and full of meaning. Low scores on this scale are a sign of dissatisfaction with your life in the present. 3. Locus of control-I (I am the master of life). High scores correspond to the idea of oneself as a strong personality with sufficient freedom of choice to build one's life in accordance with one's goals and ideas about its meaning. Low scores - a person does not believe in his own strength, the ability to control the events of his own life. 4. Locus of control - life or controllability of life, with high scores - the belief that a person is given control over his life, freely make decisions and implement them. Low scores - fatalism, the conviction that a person's life is not subject to conscious control, that freedom of choice is illusory and it is pointless to think about anything for the future. The general indicator of the meaningfulness of life is considered to be the sum of points for all 15 subscales of the LSS test. After the primary data processing and comparison of the mean values according to the Student's t-test, no significant differences were found between the characteristics of the process of personal self-determination of boys and girls.

The social-psychological adaptation questionnaire The SPA questionnaire was developed by K. Rogers and R. Diamond in 1954 to identify the degree of adaptation-maladjustment in the system of interpersonal relations. As grounds for maladjustment, he assumes a number of different circumstances. a low level of self-acceptance, a low level of acceptance of others, that is, confrontation with them, emotional discomfort, which can be very different in nature, a strong dependence on others, that is, externality, a desire for domination. In our study, we used the Russian version of the SPA questionnaire. adapted by A.K. Osnitsky. Instruction: "The questionnaire contains statements about a person, about his way of life: experiences, thoughts, habits, behavior style. They can always be correlated with our own way of life. After listening to the next statement of the questionnaire, try it on to your habits, your way of life. indicate to what extent this statement can be attributed to yourself, in the form for answers, select one (the most suitable, in your opinion) of seven assessment options numbered from "0" to "6": "0" - this is absolutely for me does not apply; "1" - this does not look like me; "2" - I doubt that this can be attributed to me; "3" - I do not dare to attribute this to myself; "4" - this is similar to me, but there is no complete certainty ; "5" - this looks like me; "6" - this is definitely about me. Mark your chosen answer option in the form for answers opposite the serial number of the statement. " The SPA questionnaire contains 101 statements. In our study, we reduced the number of statements to 86. choosing only those that relate to the scales of interest to us (we removed the scales "Deceit" and "Escapism (avoiding problems)"). Data processing takes place in two stages. At the first stage, the calculation is carried out by a simple summation of the points that the subject noted in the answer sheet according to the subscales of the key blank. Subscales of the SPA questionnaire No. Name Number of statements 1. a) Acceptance of oneself 11 b) Non-acceptance of oneself 7 2. a) Acceptance of others 6 b) Non-acceptance of others 7 3. a) Emotional comfort 7 b) Emotional discomfort 7 4. a) Internal control 13 b) External control 8 5. a) Dominance 3 b) Statement 6 At the second stage, the ratio of points of paired scales according to special formulas allows you to calculate integral indicators in percent. Scales of the SPA questionnaire (integral indicators) 1. "Self-activity" S = a / a + 1.6b * 100% 2. "Acceptance of others" L = 1.2 a / 1. 2 a + b * 100% 3. "Emotional comfort" E = a / a + b * 100% 4. "Internality" I = a / a + 1.4 b * 100% 5. Striving for dominance D = 2a / 2a + b * 100 The SPA questionnaire was chosen by us, because allows us to obtain, in our opinion, more accurate data on the phenomena under study due to the greater differentiation of possible answer options and the calculation of integral indicators. Interpretation of scales. 1. Scale "Self-activity". Reflects the degree of friendliness-hostility towards one's own "I". In terms of content, the scale at the positive pole combines self-approval in general and in essential details, self-confidence and positive self-esteem. On the negative pole - a vision of one's own shortcomings, low self-esteem, and a willingness to self-blame. 2. Scale "Acceptance of others". Reflects the level of friendliness-hostility to the people around, to the world. On the positive pole, this is the acceptance of people, approval of their life and attitude towards themselves in general, the expectation of a positive attitude towards themselves from those around them; on the negative pole - a critical attitude towards people, irritation, contempt towards them, expectations of a negative attitude towards oneself. 3. Scale "Emotional comfort". Reflects the nature of the prevailing emotions in the life of the subject. On the positive plane, this is the predominance of positive emotions, a sense of the well-being of one's life; on the negative - the presence of pronounced negative emotional states. 4. Scale "Internality". Reflects to what extent a person feels himself to be an active object of his own activity, and to what extent - a passive object of the actions of other people and external circumstances. High values indicate that a person believes that events occurring to him are the result of his activities. Low scores - a person believes that the events taking place are the result of the action of external forces (accident, other people, etc.). 5. Scale Striving for dominance. Reflects the degree of a person's desire to dominate interpersonal relationships. High rates indicate a tendency to suppress another person, to feel superior to others. Low indicators - tendency to obey, gentleness, submissiveness. After applying the method of comparison according to the Student's average indicators (t-criterion), we did not find significant differences in the indicators of the SPA questionnaire between boys and girls. So, now we turn to the consideration of the relationship between the indicators of personal self-determination, which we have identified (test of LSS) and indicators of adaptation-maladjustment (SPA questionnaire) and the degree of their significance for personality development in early adolescence. At the first stage, we determined the correlation dependences between the indicators of the LSS test and the SPA questionnaire using the method of linear correlation analysis. The correlation method shows how one phenomenon affects another or is related to it in its dynamics. This kind of relationship exists, for example, between quantities that are in causal relationships with each other. Linear correlation analysis allows you to establish direct relationships between variables by their absolute values. We determined the linear correlation coefficients using the Pearson formula. The analysis of the results obtained shows that all indicators of the SPA questionnaire have positive correlations with the indicators of the LSS test (except for the indicator striving for dominance, which is not a criterion for the success of adaptation). In the group of girls, we observe a weak relationship between the life saturation indicator and internality. According to the data obtained, we can say that the indicators of the meaningfulness of life (the LSS test) and the indicators of adaptation-maladjustment in interpersonal relations (the SPA questionnaire) have strong correlations between themselves, i.e. are with each other in significant causal relationships. Thus, we can conclude that the indicators of personal self-determination and indicators of socio-psychological adaptation in interpersonal relations that we have identified, reveal a strong relationship, in their totality, determining the success of personality development in early adolescence. Now we are interested in the significance of each of these indicators in terms of the degree of its influence on personal self-determination in early adolescence, on the success of personality development during this period. To address this issue, we used the method of factor analysis. The factor analysis method (FA) is a correlation method that allows you to determine a set of internal relationships, possible cause-and-effect relationships. existing in the experimental material. As a result of FA, the so-called factors are revealed - the reasons explaining a lot of particular (pair) correlation dependences. A factor is a hypothetical latent variable that explains the relationship between a number of baseline variables. A sign of a variable belonging to a factor is the value of the load of a given variable for that factor, i.e. the coefficient of correlation of the factor with this variable. At the initial stage, the bunches of variables that are most associated with factors are determined. But the task of FA is deeper: the search for the factor structure that is really inherent in the data included in the analysis. The initial data for FA are the intercorrelation matrices of the indicators of the LSS test and the SPA questionnaire, from which we excluded the indicator of the desire to dominate, as it does not correlate with the rest. As a result of the FA, we obtained matrices containing the correlation coefficients of each indicator with the two factors identified in the FA process.

Interpretation of factors. The means of meaningful interpretation of the selected factors are factor loads of variables (indicators) that correlate with it as much as possible (having the greatest loads in terms of components). In our case, a meaningful interpretation of the factors is not needed, since we see that groupings of interrelated variables (indicators) correspond to two psychological concepts. factor A - meaningfulness of life. factor B - social and psychological adaptation. Moreover, the indicator of the saturation of life (interest in life) in girls has a weak connection with the content of the factor of meaningfulness of life. However, in our study, we were not interested in confirming the belonging of the selected indicators of LSS and SPA methods to different psychological phenomena, but in the degree of significance of the influence of each of these indicators on the process of personal self-determination, on the success of personality development in early adolescence. The totality of all indicators of the LSS and SPA methods in our study determines the dimension of the factor space (the General factor), which is meaningfully interpreted by us as personal self-determination. The semantic content of the factor of personal self-determination is determined by those indicators that maximally correlate with it. those. have the highest factor loadings. Therefore, on the basis of factorial loads according to the General factor, we can distinguish a grouping of interrelated variables (indicators) corresponding to personal self-determination. The factorial weight of 0.551 was used as a criterion for the level of significance in the group of girls. in the group of boys the factorial weight is 0.714.

So, based on the factor analysis of the driving forces of personality development in early adolescence, we have determined the indicators of personal self-determination. 1) the presence of goals in life (goals in life), 2) a general worldview belief that it is given to a person to control his life, freely make decisions and implement them (locus of control - life), 3) belief in his own ability to implement such control (locus of control-I), 4) acceptance of oneself as a person, approval of oneself in general and positive self-esteem (self-activity). Moreover, for young men, the most significant for personal self-determination is the general worldview belief in that. that a person is given the opportunity to control his life, and for girls the most significant for the success of personal self-determination is the presence of goals in their life in the future. Apparently, differences in the nature of aspirations are manifested here: young men are more inclined to "philosophizing," thinking on abstract topics than girls, whose aspirations are more often of a more practical, concrete nature. Taking into account the fact that factor analysis was carried out by us for all the requirements for its conduct (the completeness of the FA is 100%), we can be sure of the sufficient validity of the factorial solution we have found and in the future we can use the found set of indicators as a test for measuring the characteristics of personal self-determination in early adolescence.

So, now we turn to the description of the methods that were used in our study to study the self-concept and the analysis of the results obtained with their help.

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DevelopmentI-conceptandin youth

1. I-concept

In adolescence, the self-concept, on the one hand, becomes more stable, and on the other, it undergoes certain changes due to a number of reasons.

First, the physiological and psychological changes associated with puberty cannot but affect the individual's perception of his external appearance.

Secondly, the development of cognitive and intellectual capabilities leads to the complication and differentiation of the L-concentration, in particular, to the emergence of the ability to distinguish between real and hypothetical possibilities.

Finally, thirdly, the requirements emanating from the social environment - parents, teachers, peers - may turn out to be mutually contradictory.

Changing roles, the need to make important decisions regarding the profession, value orientations, lifestyle, etc., can cause role conflict and status uncertainty, which also leaves a clear imprint on the concept during adolescence.

In addition, adults often respond inadequately to the behavior of adolescents: they reproach them for lack of independence and independence and at the same time demand - sometimes without convincing reasons - obedience and conformity.

In this chapter, we discuss the theoretical foundations and research evidence pertaining to L-concentration in early adolescence, as well as the question of the correctness of ideas about the crisis in the sense of identity.

We will try to trace the changes in body image and role-based self-identification, determined by gender, characteristic of a given age period.

Teenage behavior is often paradoxical. Explicit negativism can be combined with explicit conformity, the desire for independence - with requests for help.

Today he is full of enthusiasm and energy, and tomorrow we see that his hands have dropped and he is passively "going with the flow." These sharp, contrasting changes are characteristic features of the transition period from childhood to the moment when society recognizes a person as an adult.

This public recognition of adulthood is determined by a number of criteria - the obligation to fully account for one's actions before the law, the opportunity to participate fully in the affairs of society, to marry, etc. In all these cases, age regulation varies from country to country and may change over time.

Under the influence of certain factors - biological, psychological, social - a person often becomes an adult earlier than he or the people around him would like. In other cases, these factors, on the contrary, delay his development, often to his great chagrin.

Someone wisely noticed that a person becomes an adult two years earlier than his family would like, and two years later than he himself would like.

Coleman (1980) identifies two types of explanations for transitional problems: psychoanalytic and socio-psychological. The first focus on the psychosexual development of the individual and on emotional relationships in the family.

Explanations of the second type are characterized by attention to the social life of the individual, to such categories as role, status, role conflict, role uncertainty, social expectations.

2. Psychoanalytic approach

The central fact for the psychoanalytic approach is the awakening during puberty of forces that are of an instinctive nature, which upset the balance that was established in an earlier, latent period, and lead to an increase in tension and sharp shifts in the emotional sphere.

The result of this kind of return to the genital, according to Freud, phase is the destruction of emotional ties with parents, since the search for the appropriate object of love now extends beyond the family.

Representatives of the psychoanalytic direction tried to give a psychological explanation for those emotional storms and stresses that are characteristic of the inner world of early youth. Blos (1962, 1967) views adolescence as a process of "second individualization" by analogy with "the first individualization, which, in his opinion, ends by the age of four. Both periods, Blos believes, have many similarities.

Both in the first and in the second case, the child is faced with the tasks of adaptation, dictated by the need to achieve greater maturity.

If a person does not have time to adapt to new situations, a danger arises, disrupting the mental balance. This juxtaposition allows Blos to draw a parallel between the transition from complete infant dependence to the relative independence of the preschooler, and in many ways the transition from a child who has not yet reached puberty, living in the confined space of a family, to an adult independence.

The second transition presupposes an internal acceptance of independence both on the part of the parents and on the part of the child himself and the rejection of a certain type of family relationship that forms the basis for the formation of the child's emotional sphere

In order for a child to fall in love with another person in the future and create a new family over time, the place occupied by the parents must free up in his soul.

Despite the similarity of these two periods, there are, of course, significant differences between them.

First of all, the struggle for independence has different outcomes in these cases: if a two-year-old child almost always loses in this struggle, then the young man, as a rule, wins, at least he should win,

Blos' approach to understanding the psychological problems of early adolescence allows him to reveal the significance of regression. This author believes it is to maintain emotional balance.

In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the regressive reaction of an individual means his potential desire in a state of anxiety, neuropsychic tension to return to a more comfortable, "infantile" state experienced before. So, in early childhood, after the birth of a younger brother or sister, a child may insist on the previous forms of treatment and care for him. An adult who is in trouble at work may actualize some childhood hobby, etc.

The behavior of a young man should correspond to the earlier stages of his development, since the formation of individuality and the achievement of independence introduce a certain discord into his inner life, requiring a reassessment of emotional attachments in the family.

According to Bloss, the only way to solve this problem is to ascend to the origins of emotional attachments, a certain revival of infantile forms of behavior.

A young man, Blos believes, needs to get in touch with the attachments of his infancy and early childhood in order to get rid of the tension they generate in his emotional sphere; only after this can the past be blotted out, gone into conscious or unconscious memories.

Bloes cites a number of examples of youthful regression. One of them is the tendency of young people to idealize celebrities - most often movie stars or outstanding athletes.

This, according to representatives of the psychoanalytic trend, is a converted form of love for parents, characteristic of the early phases of a child's development.

Another example is the special emotional state characteristic of adolescence, which can be described as “dissolution” or complete merging with someone or something.

In this state, a young man is able with his whole being to be imbued with such abstract ideas as beauty or nature, to be completely captured by political, religious or philosophical ideals.

Another example of a return to infantile manifestations is the ambivalence of a young man's behavior, his fluctuations from one extreme to another.

The imbalance of thoughts and feelings, which is more characteristic of a young child, inexplicable, at first glance, sudden transitions from hatred to love, from acceptance to repulsion, from joy to despondency, are also a typical form of youthful regression.

The inner conflict of love and hate, the desire for independence and the need for help can cause a rebellion of a young man who does not accept this unstable, contradictory reality.

But various negative reactions can also be a defense mechanism. If a young man accuses his parents of not being modern, backward, or limited, it is, of course, not so difficult for him to break the emotional bonds that bind him to the family: at the same time, he seems to lose nothing, it is easier for him to abandon parental care, to achieve independence.

The experience of loneliness and loss that sometimes occurs in adolescence is in many ways reminiscent of the sadness and grief of an adult who has lost a loved one. Blos calls this state "emotional and object hunger."

Trying to cope with this inner emptiness, the young man is prone to extreme effects and can start feverishly expanding his circle of friends, which often leads to adverse consequences.

Even the desire to do something “for fun” is also a way to overcome emotional depression and feelings of loneliness, which are the flip side of the gained independence.

Emotional and object hunger is satisfied to some extent in the company of peers, which actually serves as a substitute for the family for the young man. Here he acquires a certain emotional experience necessary for individual development, comprehends such aspects of human communication as encouragement, empathy, inclusion, role behavior, identification, separation of group feelings of guilt and anxiety.

Thus, "from the standpoint of psychoanalysis, youth is interpreted as a period of exceptional vulnerability of the personality, caused by the awakening of forces that have an instinctive nature.

Poor adaptability and inconsistency of behavior are explained by internal conflicts and stresses associated with the need to break the emotional ties that developed in childhood in order to build a system of new, adult emotional relationships outside the family.

In this regard, the existence of a transitional period of a blurred self and the search for identity necessary to achieve individual autonomy is determined.

On the whole, however, the picture of adolescent development appears to be rather chaotic, apparently due to the fact that psychoanalysts draw their ideas about adolescence from clinical experience of working with neurotics.

3. Socio-psychological approach

For the socio-psychological approach, the main concepts in the analysis of adolescence are socialization and role.

The main problem, however, is how the standards, values and beliefs specific to a given society affect the expectations and norms associated with the roles of the adolescent, parent, son, daughter, etc.

Socialization and role take on leading importance in adolescence due to the increased cognitive capabilities of the adolescent, an increase in the range of role choices and an expansion of his environment.

Thus, the important characteristics of adolescent development are determined by the process of changing roles.

The strengthening of the adolescent's independence from the usual authorities, the gradual shift of the center of his communication to the company of peers, the increase in the importance of the opinions and assessments of other people lead to role shifts, often inconsistent, due to both cultural and social factors.

At the same time, pubertal phenomena unsettle the teenager. Finally, a change in lifestyle, be it a change of school, a transition from school to a higher educational institution, leaving home or going to work, is associated with the inclusion of a young person in a new system of relationships, with a change in expectations, the emergence of certain hopes for the future.

All this leads to a deep rethinking of the self-concept against the background of an increasingly intense process of socialization.

So, the path of adolescent development is the path of socialization and the development of new social roles, often associated with throwing, uncertainty, inconsistency, conflicts and other difficulties of role choice.

If in childhood the roles for the child are determined by adults, then with the onset of adolescence, the task of independent choice and interpretation of role behavior arises.

Youth should be viewed as a phenomenon determined by the type of culture.

In the early stages of the development of society, youth as such is practically absent, and the transition from childhood to adulthood takes place within a few hours necessary for the ritual initiation ceremony.

More recently, in Great Britain, the period of study was significantly shorter than it is now, and the working life of a young man began quite early.

However, the lengthening of the period of study, dictated by the needs of the technological development of society, led to the appearance of a rather significant gap between physical maturation and the acquisition of social status and privileges of adulthood.

Thanks to this transitional period, young people, on the one hand, have time to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for their future activities, and on the other, they face a number of conflicts and internal fluctuations between dependence and independence, the role of a child and the role of an adult. ...

A young person who is faced with the task of changing roles inevitably also encounters role conflicts, that is, situations in which mutually exclusive expectations inherent in different roles collide.

Let's say a girl feels obligated to spend the evening at home with her widowed mother and at the same time yearns to date a friend for whom she also has affection.

Throughout adolescent development, the individual experiences the effect of consistent or inconsistent expectations of significant others related to his role behavior and facilitating or hindering his adaptation.

The longer the period of study, the longer the young man remains dependent; at the same time, the role of the family is noticeably decreasing, since parents are more and more inclined to relinquish responsibility for their children, and the role of the peers' environment is correspondingly increasing.

Finally, the young man is today in the midst of a maelstrom of conflicting values, standards and role expectations, which are raining down on him by the media, various organizations and associations.

The uncertainty of the process of socialization and autonomization complicates the task of mastering "adult" roles for the younger generation.

So, in contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, social psychology sees the cause of stress and internal tension that is characteristic of adolescence not in internal emotional instability, but in the contradictory nature of the influences that society has on a young person.

These two approaches are united, perhaps, only by the belief that adolescence is a hectic and stormy time and that stress; to which young people are exposed, leave a certain imprint on their self-perception and self-esteem.