Attempts to classify the figures were made in antiquity.

Initially, the figures of thought were divided, which later became an independent group of tropes (metaphor, metonymy, etc.), and figures of speech. The latter were subdivided, according to Quintilian, into figures based on the form of speech (grammatical figures), and figures based on the principles of word placement.

Other common classifications included the division into word figures (alliteration, assonance) and sentence figures (parcellation, ellipsis, multi-union, non-union, etc.)

Rhetorical means make it possible to present the content of the speech visually, captivatingly and convincingly, which means that it helps to actively influence the listener.

“Figures of speech are called sentences and complexes of sentences, which, becoming typical forms, are identically repeated. These are the apt expressions that are always in the language. They are needed to make the message shorter and easier to remember ”(Karl Jaspers).

The means given are different in their value and therefore are used to varying degrees (for example, comparison is more often than exaggeration); these tools provide great opportunities, but in no case should they be used all together in one speech; many means are used in close interconnection, even if they are presented separately for taxonomy purposes (for example, a chain leads to an increase, an image underlies comparison).

An overview of rhetorical means and their impact on the listener

Rhetorical remedy Impact

• 1. Example, detail
• 2. Comparison
• 3. Image (metaphor), figurative row
• 4. Storytelling imagery
• 5. Repeat
• 6. Clarification
• 7. Refining (generalized repeat)
• 8. Call (exclamation)
• 9. Citations
• 10. Crossing (chiasm) Persuasiveness
• 11. Increased tension (climax)
• 12. Opposition (antithesis)
• 13. Chain
• 14. Procrastination (lagging)
• 15. Surprise
• 16. Advance Fascination
• 17. Play on words
• 18. Hint
• 19. Description (paraphrase)
• 20. Exaggeration (hyperbole)
• 21. Seeming contradiction (paradox) Aesthetic Imagery
• 22. Box
• 23. Warning or objection
• 24. Sham question (rhetorical)
• 25. Renaming (synecdoche) Communication (connecting listeners)

There are about a hundred figures themselves, but the simultaneous use of Latin and Greek names, to which names from new languages ​​were added, led to the fact that a much larger number of doublet or synonymous terms began to be used to designate these figures over the centuries.

Paths - (from the Greek. Turn of speech) words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the imagery of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. At the heart of any path is the juxtaposition of objects and phenomena. The tropes include allegory, hyperbole, irony, litota, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paraphrase, synecdoche, comparison, epithet.

An epithet is a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined. Wed in Pushkin: "ruddy dawn"; theorists pay special attention to an epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: "my severe days") and an epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. an oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: "poor luxury").

Metaphor - individual words or expressions converge by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast: "the talk of the waves"; "silk eyelashes"; "chintz sky blue"; the use of the word in a figurative sense: "murmur of the sea".

Metonymy is a kind of metaphor, which consists in replacing one word with another based on the connection between their meanings by contiguity: "Rampant Rome rejoices" (M. Lermontov); "The hissing of frothy glasses" (A. Pushkin).

Impersonation is a kind of metaphor, endowing inanimate or abstract objects, phenomena, events, their qualities and properties, signs and properties of a person (feelings, thoughts, speech, etc.). It is used when describing natural phenomena, things surrounding a person. For example: "A star speaks with a star" (M. Lermontov).

Oxymoron [Greek. - "acute stupidity"] - a deliberate combination of conflicting concepts. Example: "Look, she's happy to be sad / So smartly naked" (Akhmatova). A special case of oxymoron forms a combination of a noun with an adjective contrasting in meaning: "poor luxury" (Nekrasov).

Antithesis is one of the techniques of stylistics, which consists in comparing specific representations and concepts related to each other by a common construction or internal meaning. For example: "Who was nothing, he will become everything." : "I am a tsar, - I am a slave, - I am a worm, - I am a god" (GR Derzhavin) or in the titles - "War and Peace" by L. N. Tolstoy, "Crime and Punishment".

Euphemism is the replacement of a descriptive turn of a word, for some reason, recognized as obscene. Gogol: "get along with a scarf."

What are we learning today?
Surely you have repeatedly heard recommendations for speakers to speak brightly, expressively, emotionally. Easy to say! But what exactly needs to be done to make speech bright, expressive and emotional?
I offer you far from the only and not exhaustive, but nevertheless a simple and effective recipe for how to make your speech imaginative, expressive, vivid, strong, beautiful, convincing and even emotional. The recipe is elementary. It is called "varied vocabulary".
With the help of exercises I suggest you broaden your "outlook of the speaker" and make friends with unusual words, phraseological units and catchphrases.

The words

Exercise: "I liked it"
The purpose of the exercise: to diversify your usual positive assessments and ways of expressing joy, delight, pleasure, thereby making your statements more interesting for others. And in a simple way, I want to hear from you, as from the speakers, something other than "It was cool" and "Get out." The exercise can be done in a company or on your own.
Remember, please, what you really, really liked lately. What touched and impressed you. It can be anything: a book, a movie, a game, a dish, a dance step, an event, an unusual or beautiful thing, an idea, a business idea, a natural phenomenon. Anything you want.
Then, we take turns saying out loud what we liked. And with the help of a few words, we share our delight with others. The main task: to say from the heart, but as far as possible not to repeat the words and expressions spoken before you.
For example:

• I liked the concert of the legendary American band KORN. It was long-awaited, very cheerful and unforgettable.
• I liked how the Trinity Bridge was decorated by May 9, often, often alternating red, blue and white flags were hung along the entire length of the bridge. Solemn, majestic, impressive.

After completing this simple exercise several times, you can collect your own series of words to express positive emotions. At a minimum: amazing, phenomenal, enchanting, I am delighted, incredible, above all praise, to tears, an explosion of emotions, exciting, mind-blowing, unsurpassed. Analyze what words you used.

The main conclusion: What is the secret of everyday eloquence?
A) Indifference. It's easier to say something beautiful and interesting if you are not indifferent to it. Remember this.
B) Words from outside your comfort zone. Yours or your audience. Sometimes this is important for getting attention.

And don't get me wrong, I recommend that you use not some perverted words, high style and poetic forms. No, I recommend that you master the widest possible range of words, choosing the right one depending on the situation.
Somewhere it is worth saying that the event you are describing was enchanting and mind-blowing. And somewhere you, as an orator, will need the same “Get out!”.
There is an anecdote about a Russian language teacher who, when she jumped with a parachute for the first time, was greatly shocked, very surprised and extremely discouraged, but for some reason shouted out loud in a different way. Do not be like the heroine of the joke, control what you say in any situation.
The choice of vocabulary depends on the context and purpose of your public speaking. But the more mismatched words in your speech space, the stronger you are as a speaker.

Phraseologisms

What do words add up to? In phrases.
Simple phrases and sentences, I'm sure you can add them out without me.
There are special phrases.
Is it always 2 + 2 = 4? Not at all! Surely you know about the synergy effect, about chemical reactions, about that, the combination of two elements sometimes gives a result that simply surpasses their sum.
The same thing happens with words. Sometimes in a language 2 words, being next to each other, lose their original meaning and together acquire a new meaning.
This is how phraseological units are born. Very important friends and assistants to the speaker.
Examples:

• They fight constantly = they live like a cat and a dog.
• I was uncomfortable = I felt out of place.

Is it possible to do without phraseological units? Of course.
And why then use phraseological units in speech, if they can be replaced with one / another word? The answer is obvious. Phraseological units and phraseological turns fill speech with brightness, emotionality, imagery and expression. In addition, the language becomes more lively, speech - capacious, acquires various shades of irony and jokes, smiles and reproaches, love and hate, etc. Speech is made bright, sonorous, with taste and aroma. Isn't that what the speaker needs?

Exercise: Select from the list (remember or come up with) a phraseological unit that you like and tell all of us some fact about yourself, using this phraseological unit.
Examples:

1. Let's say I chose the phraseologism "spit in the soul." From Vysotsky:
   “I don’t like myself when I’m crushed.
   I hate it when innocent people are beaten.
   I do not like it when they crawl into my soul,
   Especially when they spit on it. "
2. From the meeting suggested by the participants:

Idioms

Winged expressions are stable phraseological units of a figurative or aphoristic nature that have entered the vocabulary from historical or literary sources and have become widespread due to their expressiveness. Winged expressions are the noble ancestors of modern memes. Sources of winged expressions can be myths, folklore, literature, journalism, memoirs, speeches of famous people.
Winged thought is called not only because it flies, but also because it calls to flight.
The history of the origin of many famous expressions is associated with public speaking. These are famous, legendary speeches. Therefore, for us as orators, some catchphrases are of double interest.

The exercise:
Read and tell from the stage (or just friends) the story about the origin of some curious catchphrases.
For example:

• Carthage must be destroyed
• Comments are superfluous
• Demagogy
• Achilles' heel
• And yet it turns!
• a swan song
• There is such a party!
• Demyanov's ear
• Voices are weighed, not counted
• Burn the ships
• Attic salt
• Columbus egg
• A place under the sun
• Philippic
• Hit, but listen!
• I came, I saw, I conquered

We leave in turn on the stage with the story. Purpose of going on stage:
- do not show yourself and look at others from the stage
- not only convey information
-! and work out 2 techniques of eloquence:

A) Effect of the first phrase
Thoughtful, beautiful, strong, confident, stylish, effective
Why? A good start is half the battle. And if you start with a compelling and compelling start, you will want to continue and end the same way.
Responsibly choose the first phrase. Beautiful, strong, only important, nothing superfluous.

B) Make the story your own.
(The role of the speaker's personality)
When does the story become yours, real? ceases to be a retelling or reading from a piece of paper (even if you look into it)?
When you add something from yourself.
To add on your own means not to misinterpret dates, names or to compose non-existent details.
It means to give your assessment, to paint with your emotions, to tell in your own words. Cut where necessary, like a talented sculptor, cut off what is unnecessary. Or he may recall a relevant story from his life. Or come up with an interesting conclusion. Or just tell in your own unique manner: with humor, seriously and calmly, ironically and dryly, or avidly. The main thing is not indifferent!

Example: "Speakers are not born." That's what I called my entertainment and educational seminar. I must say that there are many catch phrases where the theme of "birth-formation" is played out.
- This and "A woman is not born, she becomes." From the book "The Second Sex" ("Le deuxieme sexe", 1949) by the French writer Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), who wrote in it about the problem of female emancipation.
- It is possible that she simply paraphrased a famous saying attributed to the medieval thinker Erasmus of Rotterdam: “Men are not born. They become ".
- "Soldiers are not born" A novel by Konstantin Simonov.
But they all go back to one primary source - the words of the Roman orator, writer and statesman Cicero (Mark Tullius Cicero, 106 - 43 BC): “They become orators, poets are born.
(From Latin: Oratores fiunt, poetae nascuntur (oratores fiunt, poet nascuntur).
from his "Speech in Defense of Archias", which he uttered in 61 BC. NS. Archias is a Greek poet whose Roman citizenship was disputed by a certain Gracius.
The meaning of the expression: talent is given by nature (it either exists or it does not exist), and oratory can be learned, through work, perseverance, etc., to bring it to a high degree of perfection.

Elocution(decoration) - this is the third stage of work on the speech, in which the speaker brings his work to prepare it to its logical conclusion. The content of the speech has already been determined (this was done at the stage of the invention), the plan was drawn up (at the stage of location), it remains only to write the speech, "to bring the necessary gloss". It is this task that the speaker should solve at the stage of elocution.

What qualities should a good speech have?

1. the beauty- the ability of speech to cause aesthetic experiences.

Rhetoric arose from the need to influence other people, and therefore the beauty of speech should not be considered in connection with this "general" line.

From the point of view of impact, the quality of speech, such as beauty, is closely related to the visual. Visualization of speech- this is its visibility, the ability to evoke specific representations ("pictures"). The depiction of speech is a guarantee that the content of speech will be better learned.

2. Right- compliance of speech with the standards existing within the community of native speakers.

Obviously, incorrect, illiterate speech is unlikely to help the speaker win over the audience to himself. However, the requirement of correctness applies to speech delivered in any audience.

3. Relevance. The speech should be consistent with the situation in which it is delivered, as well as the expectations of the audience. It is this aspect of it that is associated with such a quality as relevance. In the broadest sense, we are talking about the fact that in some situations this or that speech behavior is inappropriate.

4. Clarity. The requirement for clarity is very important to the speaker. The speaker himself is primarily interested in influencing through speech, the desire to “be convinced” among the audience is extremely rare. Without observing the requirements of clarity, the orator himself erects an obstacle in his path. Here one cannot but recall the advice of the Russian lawyer P.S. Porokhovshchikov, who wrote about the need for clarity: "... not to speak so that he could understand, but so that he could not but understand you."

Tautology-based speech techniques

Simple repeat- using the same word twice or three times in a row.

Get out, get out of here!

Episeuxis - the figure of speech, according to which the word is repeated with emphasis (the repetition is performed without a pause).

I cannot, I cannot forgive such a betrayal!

Anaphora- repetition of a word, phrase at the beginning of a series of sentences or their parts.

I know for sure that I fell in love

I know for sure that I will suffer now,

I know for sure that this feeling will remain unanswered!

Epiphora- repetition of a word or phrase at the end of each part of an utterance or after each of several utterances.

It's noisy on the streets, noisy at work, noisy in multi-storey buildings!

Etymological figure- a figure of speech, consisting in the combination of two etymologically identical words as part of one word combination.

All jokes are kidding!

Exercise. Compose fragments of speech using figures of speech based on tautology.

Enumeration-based speech techniques

Gradation - an increase (less often - a decrease) in the strength of expression from word to word - members of a synonymous series, a thematic group, etc.

I was ready to tell him nasty things, humiliate him, destroy him!

Epitrochasm - the figure of the accumulation of short and expressive words, the hasty collection of characteristics, often judgmental.

A stupid, insane woman! Beast!

Exercise.Use enumeration-based speech techniques to compose fragments of blameworthy speech.

Contrast-based speech techniques

Antithesis - opposition of two opposite thoughts or images. Usually, the antithesis is built on the basis of antonyms.

Poverty teaches, happiness spoils

(Proverb)

What, sir, crying? Live laughing.

(Griboyedov A.S. Woe from Wit)

Cineciosis - unification of opposing concepts into a single semantic whole, without their explicit opposition, ascribing opposite qualities to the same object.

You are powerful, you are also powerless, Mother Russia.

(Nekrasov N.A.Who lives well in Russia)

Exercise.Compose fragments of speech with a nasty, built on antithesis.

Exercise.Make statements with the antithesis of statements with synetiosis.

Sample. Some people are kind and others are evil. - There are good and bad people.

1. In some ways he is smart, in others he is not. 2. As a result of the new price increase, those living below the poverty line will have a hard time; those with high wages will suffer less.

Speech techniques based on increased emphasis, emotionality

A rhetorical question - an exclamation in the form of a question, which does not require any answer, but expresses some kind of statement and feeling in connection with the situation of speech.

And what Russian doesn't like driving fast?

(Gogol N.V. Dead Souls)

How can you trust a person who has already betrayed once? Once he has betrayed once, he will betray another!

Rhetorical exclamation - a statement in which the emotional content prevails over the informational one.

Ah, the nature of the native land! How much true beauty that excites the soul! Riddles and secrets!

Exercise.Compose fragments of speech on the topic of Russia, the Motherland, the university, etc., based on increased emphasis, emotionality.

Speech techniques based on establishing contact between the speaker and the audience

Appeal- this or that name of the listeners, often followed by the use of verbs in the second person of the plural (at the beginning of speech and in any other part of it).

My attentive and not very attentive listeners!

Colleagues! How can we be in this situation?

Friends! Do not misunderstand me… .

Subjection- the figure of addressing the audience, as it were, with an invitation to take part in the discussion of the issue. The speaker asks the question and then answers the way he needs.

What is the trick? Cunning is the weapon of the weak and the mind of the blind.

(Kozma Prutkov)

Prosopoeia- presentation of your speech during the dialogue.

So what is love? This is a real secret. Have people tried to solve it throughout their existence? Yes, many were eager to penetrate it!

Exercise.Connect with your audience using the techniques listed.

Speech techniques based on exaggeration or understatement

Hyperbola - deliberate exaggeration in the description of something, someone.

Our speech is not only a tool for communication and information transfer, but also our individual feature ...

Each person's speech is unique and has a number of individual characteristics. The voice is as unique as a fingerprint or the structure of the retina. A person's character is judged by his voice. It is known that the general impression of a person is 55% dependent on facial expressions, 38% - on voice, and only 7% - on what this person says.

Only competent, clear speech is able to convey correct information, be understandable to others.

The secret to your success is in the art of speaking!

From early childhood to ripe old age, human life is associated with speech. Rough thinking is rude speech, cultural thinking is cultural speech. Since a thought always comes in front of a word, we cannot develop our speech without the development of thinking. In ancient times, there was a science of rhetoric, the founder of which was the great Greek philosopher Aristotle. He pointed out that the skill of the performance is determined by three components. The first of them was clarity of thought, and it appears only with the knowledge that a person receives along with experience. Only with the development of clarity of thinking will speech gradually develop. For our speech to be understandable, it must reflect a developed mind, thoughtfulness of thought, literacy, and in order for it to be also pleasant, it must be expressive and emotional. Through words, a person can touch the ancient thoughts of their ancestors, gain experience and knowledge and send a message to their great-grandchildren in the future.

Speech properties:

1. Content - characterized by the volume of thoughts expressed in it, provided by the preparedness of the speaker.
2. Comprehensibility - due mainly to the volume of knowledge of the audience, provided by the selective selection of material available to the audience.
3. Expressiveness - associated with emotional saturation, provided by intonation, accent, pauses.
4. Efficiency - is determined by the influence on thoughts, feelings, behavior, is provided by taking into account the individual characteristics of the listeners.

A person who speaks competently makes a favorable impression, he often achieves the set goal, he is more successful in his professional activity, it is easier for him to adapt to any life situation.

Correct speech has an almost magical effect. I want to listen and listen to her; and from the other - to close your ears and run away.

Mastering the art of speaking beautifully and competently, unfortunately, is less and less common.

People who think like a masterpiece sometimes do not know how to express themselves as vividly in words. Many people find it difficult to express their thoughts, feelings, to retell something interesting from what they have read, seen, experienced.

But behind the artless speech of such people sometimes there is a magnificent intellect, an interesting personality. But it takes time to recognize this. And time is what we constantly lack.

From here there is only one way - you need and can train your speech. After all, the ability to speak beautifully is not a natural gift, but an acquired skill that can be brought to perfection. Even if you are not going to become a professional speaker, the ability to speak beautifully, to use speech correctly, will be extremely useful both in work and in your daily personal life.

Following some guidelines can significantly improve speech quality.

First, read more. Newspapers, magazines, quality fiction. In this sense, our domestic classics, which we all studied during our school years (or did not study, which is sad), are ideal. Read or re-read the classics! And out loud, not in a hurry. This reading will have a tremendous effect. It will teach you the correct construction of words in sentences, increase your vocabulary.

Third, watch your speech rate. It doesn't have to be monotonous. Pause to highlight the main points of the conversation. It should be appropriate and not over-tightened.

Fourth, use comparisons, metaphors, figurative expressions, sayings in colloquial speech, conversation, and finally. This will liven up the speech and make it more interesting. And, of course, humor is a safe bet. Appropriate self-irony, jokes will add brilliance to your speech. After all, words are only means for transmitting information, and the way you compose them, pronounce them - either sinks into the soul, or not.

Fifth, speak, train your speech as much as possible. This is easy to do if you have a wide social circle. If not, then a TV or radio will help. Pick the TV presenter you like the most and try to emulate him. Repeat aloud (!) Phrases behind him, copying also his voice intonations. It is not easy, but after a while you will certainly see progress. In addition to developing melodic speech, you will replenish your vocabulary.

There is another funny, and only at first difficult exercise. Choose a simple household item like a floor lamp or slippers. Define yourself a time limit in which you will talk about this subject in beautiful literary language. At first it will be difficult for 5 minutes to talk about some kind of banal floor lamp. But it will be easier with each workout. By increasing the time limit and complicating the topic, you will soon overcome uncertainty, shyness in front of words, inability to choose them. As a result, you will be able to enthusiastically talk about your house slippers for an hour without repeating yourself. It is better to do this in a group or with family members, turning the workout into a kind of game. In turn, each becomes both a performer and a listener.

Another exercise from the masters of speech to develop melody.

Melodious, melodious,

Velvet, velvet.

Dare, try, play!

Here is an interactive mind map. What does it mean? That you can change the scale (+ and - in the corner), you can move the image, expand sub-items (by clicking on the + at the end of a word) and close them (by clicking on - at the end of a word). Enjoy exploring this infographic!

Orator speech decoration

(vocabulary of speech decorating techniques)

Trails

Allegory ( definition)

artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

it is a comparison or association of someone or something with someone or something

example:

justice - Themis (woman with scales).

Poverty (Latin Inopia, as vice - an old woman with a lowered hand holding a stone, which symbolizes a drop in spirit; as a vow of religious orders - a young woman in rags)

Peace (dove, burning armor, weapons or trampling them with the wheels of a cart, meeting with a figure of Justice)

Antiphrasis

definition

using a word or phrase in the opposite sense, usually ironic

For example, they call the weak - Hercules, the poor - Croesus; they say: "how clean you are" - to the soiled one. In general - the use of words in the opposite sense.

other name: asteism

example

My tragedy is over; I read it aloud, alone, and clapped my hands and shouted, oh yes Pushkin! ah yes son of a bitch! - From a letter to A.S. Pushkin to Peter Vyazemsky on the completion of work on the tragedy "Boris Godunov", 1825

Sometimes antiphrasis is used as praise in the form of a friendly or rudely joking reproach or censure, for example

Ay, Pug, know she is strong, that barks at an elephant

A.S. Pushkin, "Coquette": We know: eternal love Lives hardly three weeks.

usually builds on the contrast of a formally approving meaning or praise of a word or expression used with a condemning or disapproving meaning of the statement

in "Eugene Onegin" (Chapter V) about the fortune-telling book by Martyn Zadeka, whom Tatyana loved, Pushkin says: This deep creation was brought by a nomadic merchant Once in solitude ...

Asteism

definition

a technique in which, while significantly keeping silent about something, they try to draw even more attention to the subject with this, so to speak, eloquent silence

Aesthetism is similar to antiphrasis, but differs from it in more open "aggressiveness", deliberate, exaggerated criticism.

See also: ironic (self) denigration, grotesque (self) criticism, or self-deprecating words for hidden self-praise.

example

Indeed, - answered the landowner, - my such inexperienced widow's work! I’d better wait a little longer, perhaps the merchants will come in large numbers, but I will apply to the prices.

In the speech of Korobochka from Dead Souls (G. V. Gogol):

Doggie wow ... angry, rogue

A. Chekhov

Really! Another masterpiece! Are there not enough of those that you have already published? You probably want to drive your opponents into complete despair? "

Vincent Vuatur:

Hyperbola

definition

(exaggeration)

Hyperbole is an exaggeration. We all use hyperbole, they are often used in colloquial speech. "I haven't seen you in ages!" - one shouts to each other. This is hyperbole. “As light as fluff,” someone says. This is hyperbole.

Hyperboles are used to enhance expressiveness. Hyperbole can create a sense of pathos, pathos, and sometimes irony.

most often there is an image in the hyperbole. That is, hyperbole is a special case of figurative comparison with the use of exaggeration.

Adinaton is a figure of speech in the form of a hyperbole, when something impossible or very difficult to implement is compared, with the help of an abstract example and strong exaggeration, with some unreal situation, with something that by the nature of things cannot be. A rhetorical method of bringing the comparison to the impossible, often with a humorous effect.

example

Archimedes said: "Give me a fulcrum and I will move the Earth." This is hyperbole.

A TV ad sales manager is talking to his prospect. We offer advertising on TV channels that target a narrow target segment, a niche. For example, a channel for car lovers, a sports channel, hunting and fishing, world news, secrets and revelations. Do you understand what this means? It's like you have your own rod for every fish. Do you want a crucian carp? Here's your fishing rod! If you want a pike - please, you have a great rod with excellent bait. If you want a whale, although a whale is not a fish - please, here's a harpoon. You can influence the niche that interests you the most! Don't like comparing customers to fish? Let's change, for God's sake! How do you like this option? It is as if you have a bow and are capable of hitting any star you see above you with your arrow.

Litota (MEIOSIS)

example

The cat wept. Little man with a marigold. Give it by hand.

definition

it is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, power of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is opposite to hyperbola, therefore it is called in another way the inverse hyperbola. In the litote, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

Dysphemism

definition

rude or obscene designation of an initially neutral concept in order to give it a negative semantic load or simply to enhance the expressiveness of speech,

example

die instead of die, muzzle instead of face.

Euphemism

definition

a word that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load” or a descriptive expression, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate. In politics, euphemisms are often used to soften certain words and expressions in order to mislead the public and falsify reality.

example

using the expression “harsher interrogation methods” instead of “torture”, etc.

irony

definition

a satirical technique in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.

example

the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: "Well, you are brave!", "Clever, clever ..." Here, positive statements have negative connotations.

catachreza

definition

trope or stylistic error, incorrect or unusual use of word combinations with incompatible literal lexical meanings.

example

Any use of a word in which its etymological meaning is forgotten is considered a katakhrez of this kind, for example, in the case of the expression red ink, the inner form of the word ink, its connection with the word black, ceases to be recognized. Other examples: colored underwear, shoot a gun (shoot a cannon), electric horse-drawn carriage, travel on the sea, the bottom of a mountain.

In the inaction of the night, the Serpents of my heart burn more alive in me

Metonymy

definition

a kind of path, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon), which is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word. In this case, the substitute word is used in a figurative meaning.

metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, in a greater real relationship of substitute members, and on the other, in a greater restrictiveness, in the elimination of those features that are not immediately noticeable in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (compare, for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creation.

example

For example: “All flags will visit us”, where “flags” mean “countries” (part replaces the whole, lat. Pars pro toto). The meaning of metonymy is that it distinguishes a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest.

Antonomasia

definition

trope, expressed in the replacement of a name or a name with an indication of some essential feature of an object or its relation to something

trope, a kind of metonymy, when a proper name is used in the meaning of a common noun. (Don Juan, Famusov, Quasimodo, Nero, etc.) When using antonomasia, a part of the characteristic features of a historical, mythical, antique or literary character is transferred to the described hero. Antonomasies of ancient characters were especially often used in the period of classicism in literature.

example

An example of substitution for an essential feature of the subject: "our everything" instead of "Pushkin". An example of replacing with an indication of the relation: "the author of" War and Peace "" instead of "Tolstoy"; "Peleev's son" instead of "Achilles". It was especially often used in Scandinavian skaldic poetry (see kennings): "mother of the storm of giants" - Frigg (mother of Thor).

Aesculapius "instead of" doctor ": I eluded Aesculapius Thin, shaved - but alive; His tormenting paw does not weigh on me.

impersonation

example

And woe, woe, woe! And grief girded with bast, Wet feet are entangled.

definition

tropes, attribution of properties and attributes of animate objects to inanimate. Very often, personification is used to depict nature, which is endowed with certain human traits.

personification, prosopopeia

Pathos

example

In the interpretation of Aristotle, pathos is a technique in which the aesthetics of the narrative is conveyed through the hero's tragedy, his suffering and the response emotions of the audience. Using pathos, the author or speaker must evoke the desired feelings in the audience, while not fully revealing their own. In a later representation, in the works of Hegel, the concept of pathos expanded, including not only tragic, but also solemn sublime aesthetics. They highlight the heroic, tragic, romantic, sentimental and satirical pathos. The authors of odes, epics, tragedies traditionally resort to pathos.

definition

Periphrase

example

A periphery is an indirect reference to an object by not naming, but by description (for example, "night star" = "moon" or "I love you, Peter's creation!" = "I love you, St. Petersburg!").

definition

it is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.

Sarcasm

example

The capitalists are ready to sell us a rope on which we will hang them (Vladimir Lenin)

If the patient really wants to live, doctors are powerless (Faina Ranevskaya)

The founder of Pravda himself was shamelessly lying (Georgy Alexandrov)

Only the Universe and human stupidity are endless. Although I have doubts about the first one (Albert Einstein)

definition

one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic mockery, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the increased contrast of the implied and expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.

synecdoche

example

Singular instead of plural: "Everything is asleep - man, beast, and bird." (Gogol);

Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);

Part instead of whole: “Do you need anything? "In the roof for my family." (Herzen);

Whole instead of part: "Japan opened in different directions." (Stock exchange news); (instead of: stocks on the Tokyo Stock Exchange);

Generic name instead of specific: "Well, sit down, shine." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);

A specific name instead of a generic one: "Take care of a penny most of all." (Gogol) (instead of: money).

definition

trope, a kind of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them.

Comparison

example

Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions, as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, and cunning as a devil." Unionless comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the noun in the instrumental case: "he walks with a gogol." Negative comparisons: "Trying is not torture."

definition

a trope in which there is an assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to identify new, important, predominant properties for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.

metaphor

definition

The metaphor is based on similarity, on similarity, on analogy. Using a metaphor, the interaction in the world of some objects, we explain the interaction in the world of other objects. "A" calls "B" as "X" calls "Y"; and "B" refers to "D" as "Z" to "W". If we translate μεταφορά from ancient Greek, we get “transfer”, “figurative meaning”. Metaphor is beautiful, metaphor is powerful, metaphor is great! It affects the right hemisphere of the brain. A person, having understood the metaphor, can feel himself facing the discovery of something new. The metaphor encourages a person to look at the familiar from a new point of view. A good metaphor literally shakes the person up.

example

Russian poet Konstantin Kedrov in the 70s of the 20th century even introduced such a concept as "metaphor in a square" or "metametaphor". He wrote: "Man is the wrong side of the sky, the sky is the wrong side of man." Do you remember the well-known metametaphor "and whether Lao Tzu dreams that he is a butterfly, or a butterfly dreams that she is Lao Tzu" ?!

epithet

example

Transferring this distinction to grammatical definitions, we can say that the name of the epithet is only analytical definitions: "scattered storm", "crimson takes" not epithets, but "clear azure", "long spear", "London scrupulous", "Good God" - epithets, because clarity is a constant sign of azure, scrupulousness is a sign obtained from the analysis of the poet's idea of ​​London, etc.

definition

definition at a word, affecting its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb ("love ardently"), a noun ("fun noise"), a numeral ("second life").

figures

Allusion

definition

a stylistic figure containing an indication, analogy or allusion to a certain literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in a textual culture or in colloquial speech. The material for formulating an analogy or a hint that forms an allusion is often a well-known historical statement or some kind of catch phrase.

example

In this regard, the lines from a sonnet engraved on the Statue of Liberty in New York sound very symbolic: "Bring to me all the tired, all the poor, thirsting to breathe the air of freedom." These words are an obvious allusion to the famous saying of Christ: “Come to Me, all who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest” (Matthew 11:28)

Amplification

definition

a stylistic figure that is a series of repetitive speech structures or single words.

Amplification is one of the means of enhancing the poetic expressiveness of speech. Amplification as a stylistic device is expressed, for example, in the accumulation of synonyms, antitheses, or it can take the form of an increase, that is, the arrangement of expressions related to one subject, according to the principle of their increasing significance, emotional effectiveness, etc.

example

Takes it like a bomb, takes it like a hedgehog, like a double-edged razor, takes it like a rattlesnake at 20 stings a two-meter-tall snake.

Anacoluthon

definition

a rhetorical figure, consisting in the incorrect grammatical agreement of words in a sentence, admitted through an oversight or as a stylistic device (stylistic error) to make the speech of a character specific. Anakoluf by its nature has a distinctive character against the background of grammatically correct speech. Anacoluf is close to syntactic nonsense (a text based on a systematic violation of syntactic rules) and errativ (a text based on a violation of spelling rules).

example

We, the management of the house, - Shvonder spoke with hatred, - came to you after a general meeting of the tenants of our house, at which the question of sealing the apartments of the house was raised ... - Who stood on whom? - shouted Philip Philipovich, - take the trouble to express your thoughts more clearly.

Antithesis

definition

(opposition)

Opposition of concepts, images, states that are interconnected by internal meaning or external form. To put it simply, it is a contrasting contrast.

Antithesis can emphasize both contrast and unity. If you need to focus your speech on an alternative, then antithesis is also a good tool.

The opposition can be different: in meaning, in time, in terms of space, and so on.

example

Do you want to win and be victorious or hopelessly fall behind and then feel sorry for yourself ?! What do you want more? Friends, we are faced with a situation where what used to be our safest place has become our biggest risk! We must seriously think together what to do!

What criteria should you use to calculate your salary, based on your best achievements or from your failures?

Semantic antithesis. We offer you a comprehensive individual solution, others can offer a ready-made standard product. What do you think? Temporary antithesis. Previously, it took us up to 20 minutes to process a customer order, now it takes two minutes. Do you want to use our speed to save your time? Spatial antithesis. In our showroom you can see 500 of the most popular products, on our website - 50,000 of the most diverse. It is up to you to choose what is more relevant to you. In any case, you will choose your own benefit!

Antiteton

definition

a rhetorical figure opposing two thoughts, but not forming an imaginary contradiction, in contrast to the antithesis. For example, a contradiction is not formed if not opposite qualities of one object are opposed, but the qualities of two different objects:

example

“One of them was kind in giving, the other was cunning in receiving, this was what everyone wanted, that one was avoided so that he would not see them. The shamefulness of this was dear to everyone, the shamelessness of that was pleasant to him, for others it was bitter. "

Apocope

definition

a phonetic phenomenon denoting the loss of one or more sounds at the end of a word, usually a final unstressed vowel, leading to a reduction in the word.

In the Russian language, the ending "-yu" is dropped in the instrumental case: "wife" instead of "wife" (phonetic [zhynoyu]). Abbreviation of common parts of speech: “so” instead of “so”.

example

Here is the mill squatting, dancing And flapping and flapping its wings: Barking, laughter, singing, whistling and clapping, Human rumor and horse top!

Apostrophe

definition

an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech, when a speaker or writer stops narrating and addresses an absent person as a present or imaginary person, as a real, abstract concept, object or quality. In dramatic and poetic works of art, an apostrophe is a rhetorical device, an appeal (often unexpected) to one of the listeners or readers, to an imaginary person or an inanimate object. The apostrophe in Russian is often introduced by the exclamation "O"

example

Oh, summer is red! I would love you, If not for the heat, yes dust, mosquitoes, and flies. You, ruining all mental faculties, torment Us; like fields we suffer from drought; Just how to drink, but refresh yourself - We have no other thought, and it's a pity for the old woman's winter, And, having spent her with pancakes and wine, We make her Wake with ice cream and ice.

Attraction

definition

it is a turnover, grammatically expressed in the absence of a syntactic connection between two members of a sentence.

example

Examples of attraction: “killed by elephants' feet”, “carried around with a cup of green wine” instead of - killed by the feet of elephants, carried around with a cup of green wine

Attraction (attract, attract) is a concept that denotes the appearance, when a person is perceived by a person, the attractiveness of one of them for another. Formation of affection, sympathy. This lack of syntactic perspective can be compared with the same lack of perspective in ancient Russian painting. With the further development of the language and the hypotactic direction opposite to the paratactic one, the attraction was retained in epithets. The definite word could take the forms of different cases, and the complex epithet continued to remain in the nominative. In modern language, the attraction is weakened by means of the pretexts: in my apartment (in my apartment)

Non-union (asyndeton)

definition

If you want to convey the feeling of speed, dynamism, impetuosity, search activity, then in this case non-union can do a good service to us. When we miss unions, we thereby accelerate the change of actions and states that we describe.

other name

asyndeton

example

You can walk through our warehouse, go to the accounting department, financial department, logistics department, look into the marketing department, sales department, visit the general director. Everywhere you will see customer orientation and a desire to be of service to the customer. This is our principle!

Multi-Union

definition

Multiple, possibly redundant, repetition of unions can create different impressions: solidity, solemnity, slowness, thoughtfulness, consistency. Multi-union can lead the listener to feel like they are being prepared for something special. Multi-union is engaging and even mesmerizing. Like the endless knocking of the wheels of a train that takes you to the right place.

example

The sales manager wants to bring back a lost customer who is clearly unhappy with the way he was treated last time. There have been changes in logistics, in the warehouse, in the clearance department, and even in the management. I can tell you about them or demonstrate them on the example of your trial order. What do you think?

Homeoteleuton

definition

a type of morphemic repetition in which a significant number of words with the same final part are encountered on a relatively small segment of text

example

King and God! Forgive the little ones - Weak - stupid - sinful - crazy, Drawn into a terrible funnel, Seduced and deceived!

Distinction

definition

the figure of speech (trope; stylistic figure of extension), through which the act of cognition is designated, reflecting the objective difference between real objects and elements of consciousness

example

("He who has nothing in his life dearer than life, he is not able to lead a worthy way of life").

Nominative themes

definition

a figure of speech, in the first place of which there is an isolated noun in the nominative case, which names the topic of the subsequent phrase. Its function is to arouse special interest in the subject of the statement and enhance its sound:

example

Winter! .. The peasant, triumphant, renews the path on the logs ... (A. Pushkin) Ah, France! There is no better edge in the world! (A.S. Griboyedov) Moscow! How much in this sound for the Russian heart has merged, how much has echoed in it. (A.S. Pushkin)

Correction

Mesarchy

definition

repetition of the same word or words at the beginning and in the middle of consecutive sentences. As a rule, it is used to create a sense of monotony of the text and at the same time enhances the hypnotic effect.

example

In one black, black forest There is a black, black house, In this black, black house, There is a black, black table ...

Multi-reliability (Polyptotone)

definition

repetition of one word in different case forms while maintaining its meaning

example

"But a man is a man / He sent him to the Anchar with an imperious gaze ..." (A. Pushkin, "Anchar"). VV Mayakovsky's "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" is built on the polyptotone, in which the full paradigm of the case forms of the word "cadet" is presented.

Parallelism

definition

Parallelism is the arrangement of phrases that are similar or identical in form or content in adjacent parts of the speech. Indeed, we begin to draw parallels, and these parallels relate to either form or content.

example

"I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god." This is what Derzhavin wrote. "Create like a god, rule like a king, work like a slave!" This is how Guy Kawasaki begins his capitalist manifesto to create and market new products and services.

Our offer is a benefit for you. The benefits for you are the increase in your customers. Your customers are your money.

Paronomasia

definition

the stylistic figure of speech, the figurative convergence of words that are similar in sound with partial coincidence of the morphemic composition, is used in a pun.

example

it is pleasant to caress the dog, but it is even more pleasant to rinse your mouth. For example, Russian "husband for wood, wife from the yard", French "apprendre n'est pas comprendre" - "to know does not mean to understand."

Retardation

definition

literary and artistic device: delay in the development of an action by including extra-story elements in the text - lyrical digressions, various descriptions

example

(landscape, interior, characteristics).

Rhetorical appeal

definition

stylistic figure: an appeal that is conditional. In it, the main role is played not by the text, but by the intonation of the address. Rhetorical appeal is often found in monologues. The main task of a rhetorical address is the desire to express an attitude towards a particular person or object, to characterize it, to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical appeal never requires an answer and does not carry a question.

example

And you, the haughty descendants of the famous villainy of the glorified fathers, Fifth slavishly trampled the wreckage by the Game of happiness of offended families!

Rhetorical exclamation

definition

reception of transfer of the culmination of feelings. It conveys various emotions of the author: surprise, delight, grief, joy, etc. In writing, a rhetorical exclamation is usually a sentence ending with an exclamation mark. When reading, rhetorical exclamations stand out intonationally.

Cataplock - a rhetorical exclamation in the form of grammatically unrelated to the context of the insert

Aganacthesis - a rhetorical exclamation expressing indignation

example

What a summer, what a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft

About times, about morals!

semantic figures

ascending gradation (climax)

example

At first we only worked for Peter. Then they began to work for the entire Northwest. Now we have 10 branches all over Russia! It is convenient for you. You save time. A desperate manager calls a prospect working with a competitor for the hundredth time. After the boring and constant phrase "We work with others and everything suits us," the seller decides to provoke. What must happen for you to consider our proposal and meet with me? Would you like to compare our terms with your current supplier? Do you have new needs? We will offer what no one else can?

a figure of speech, consisting in such an arrangement of parts of an utterance related to one subject that each subsequent part turns out to be more saturated, more expressive or impressive than the previous one. A more commonly used Latin term is gradation.

definition

An increase in the strength of arguments, an increase in the expressiveness of words, the saturation of phrases. These are all things of the same order, it's like a staircase up. I think that three or four, well, five steps are enough - amplifying words or phrases.

descending gradation (Anticlimax)

example

For example: "Everyone is great in his place: engineer, foreman, laborer." A. is often used as a technique in humorous works. For example: “... sentenced to capital punishment; but, taking into account the impeccable past, replace with ten years; taking into account sincere remorse, cut the term in half; when applying the amnesty, the sentence shall be considered conditional ”(journal“ Splinter ”).

definition

so is the name in rhetoric of a sentence (or period), the parts of which represent a series of expressions descending in strength.

zeugma

example

(The nobleman is honored behind the bars of his tower, the merchant is in his shop (Pushkin, "Scenes from the times of knights") - the word honorable is used here only once, the second time is implied).

definition

the figure of speech, which consists in the fact that a word that forms the same type of syntactic combinations with other words in a sentence is used only in one of these combinations, while in others it is omitted

oxymoron

definition

Oxymoron is the addition of the incompatible, this is a contradiction, it is a combination of words and concepts with the opposite meaning. Sound of silence. Madness of the mind. The courage of fear. An ordinary miracle.

Why is an oxymoron used? First, a special stylistic effect is achieved, because this figure of speech attracts attention. It can be short and capacious. Why do we colloquially use phrases such as "awfully nice" or "awful how great"? We create a special tension in our speech. Second, the oxymoron is thought-provoking. Thirdly, this rhetorical figure can be a psychological way of explaining an unsolvable situation. Oxymoron is always paradoxical and as a result creates an interesting and deep impression. Take the same Zen Buddhism. There, many questions and suggestions from mentors to their students are imbued with the spirit of paradox and oxymoron. "What does the clapping of one hand sound like?" one of the Zen patriarchs asked. Such insoluble riddles are called koans in Zen. “If you have a staff, I will give it to you. If you do not have a staff, I will take it away from you, ”said Bajiao. Having resolved the koan for oneself, a person rises to a new level of vision of the world and situation. "If you have money, I will give you more, if you have no money, I will take the last from you," - sometimes, echoing Baziao, life tells us. "If you have joy, I will give you more; if you have no joy, I will take away even hope for it." It also happens. Fourth, humor, irony and sarcasm can be conveyed with oxymoron.

example

You know, working with us is awfully pleasant! Our product is disgustingly good! K: Here your competitors tell me about their various advantages. I don't even know who to listen to. MP: Consider the diversity of our only argument. With us - (and then we say a choice: the highest speed, the greatest experience, the best service, the lowest price; it is possible in another way: the optimal combination of price and quality, speed and price, price and service). I have a desperate hope that you will benefit from our proposal.

pun

example

French is especially rich in puns due to the many words that sound the same with different meanings. So, for example, the French joked about the wife of Napoleon I: “C'est dommage qu'elle a un nez rond (un Néron)” (It’s a pity that she has a round nose or A pity that she has Nero), about Napoleon III “Il a perdu Sedan "(ses dents) (He surrendered Sedan in battle or He lost his teeth). During the revolution, when Pius VII succeeded Pope Pius VI, there was a pun: “la religion va de Pie en Pie” (pis en pis) (“Religion moves from Pius to Pius or religion gets worse and worse”). The Marquis de Bievre enjoyed great fame in France as a successful punisher (calembourier).

definition

a literary technique using in the same context different meanings of one word or different words or phrases that are similar in sound.

syntactic figures

decrease figures

ellipsis -

example

Substantive (substantivizing): free kick> free kick Adjective (deadjectivizing): garden scarecrow> scarecrow

definition

deliberate omission of words that are not essential for the meaning of the expression.

aposiopiasis

example

A. we have, for example, in a conversation between Khlestakov and the mayor in Gogol's "Inspector General": “How dare you? Yes, here I am ... I serve in St. Petersburg. I, I, I ... ". Giving an emphasized discrepancy between the volume of thought to be expressed and the nature of this expression, A. with all the more force makes us strive to fill in the author’s semantic gap. The tension created by A. can be resolved either dramatically or comically. Gogol gave vivid examples of the latter in Russian literature, using, for example, A. as a certain device for characterizing his psychologically elementary heroes.

definition

default, break at the end of the phrase.

prosiopesis

example

the use of the middle name Lukich, Kuzmich instead of the name and patronymic Andrei Lukich, Oleg Kuzmich).

definition

omission of the initial part of the statement, mainly the initial word in a stable phrase

calm down

example

He loved flowers and good food.

definition

A construction in which two non-uniform complements belong to one control word:

add shapes

repeat

example

definition

anadiplosis (pickup)

example

… Where my help will come from. My help is from the Lord ...

definition

repetition of one or more words in such a way that the last word or phrase of the first part of the speech segment is repeated at the beginning of the next part. Thus, they are linked into a single whole. In modern poetological terminology, the repetition of the end of a verse at the beginning of the next. The technique has been known since ancient times.

prolepsis

example

Along the walls of Florence at full speed With the killers, their victim rode

definition

1. Mentioning future events or properties as anticipated. For example: Along the walls of Florence at full speed With the killers, their victim rode - John Keats In the cinema, the analogue of this technique is the flash forward. 2. Anticipation by the narrator of expected objections or doubts and their refutation. This form is also often referred to as procalepsis. 3. The simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it. For example: Dinner, it's on the stove. Ivanov and Sidorov - we will call these.

displacement figures

inversion

definition

Change the usual word order in order to emphasize a point. For example, the predicate comes before the subject, the verb comes before the noun. But this is optional. Different flips of the accepted word order are suitable here. Inversion is an unusual, unacceptable word order. Due to this, additional psychological stress and attracting the client's attention are achieved.

example

We work for clients first. Finding the most favorable solution for you is the main thing for us! K: It's expensive! MP: High quality stands for the given price (only without an oriental or mountain accent). Believe in yourself, love to work and train more - the formula for success is here. (It's pretty cool, isn't it?)

Hyperbaton

definition

a figure of speech in which the topic of the statement is highlighted by placing it at the beginning or end of the phrase; this can also break the syntactic link. In other words, hyperbaton is the separation of adjacent words.

example

Firmly the heart of the poor, let tears despise.

Tautology

example

"Oil oil", "ask a question".

definition

a rhetorical figure, which is an unreasonable repetition of the same (or one-root) or similar words, for example, "butter oil", "ask a question."

Pleonasm

definition

turn of speech, in which there is a duplication of some element of meaning; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as a linguistic expression in which there is such duplication.

example

“We went up the stairs”; "Every customer gets a free gift." "There is no other alternative."

Chiasm

definition

rhetorical figure, consisting in a cruciform change in the sequence of elements in two parallel rows of words

example

KS Stanislavsky's phrase: "Learn to love art in yourself, and not yourself in art"

“There is to live, and not to live, to eat” (from “Rhetoric to Herennius”). "The honor of our unit is part of our honor." "The Sabbath is for man, not man for the Sabbath" (Mark 2:27). “Don't ask what your country can do for you - ask yourself what you can do for the country” (from the inaugural address of US President John F. Kennedy).

there are types

Purely syntactic chiasm

in which the right-hand side is symmetric to the left-hand side, repeating the left-hand side of the sentence in reverse order

"To share the fun - everyone is ready: / ​​Nobody wants to share the sadness" (Lermontov. Loneliness)

Semantically complicated chiasm

in which double lexical repetition is added in inverted elements and the exchange of syntactic functions in these elements:

“The best person is the one who lives mainly by his thoughts and other people's feelings, the worst kind of person - who lives by the thoughts and feelings of others” (L. N. Tolstoy)

Chiastic pun

in which, in addition, you can trace changes in the meaning of the words included in it:

“There are two misfortunes in Russia: Below - the power of darkness, / And above - the darkness of power” (Gilyarovsky)

parcel

definition

The figure of speech, which consists in the fact that we give out information in certain portions. We divide our proposal into two (sometimes three) separate parts by intonation. Thus, we achieve the effect of surprise. It seems to the listener that now there will be something familiar, and we are showing everything from another, from a new side. We seem to put a point where it should not be. Or, better to say, we put a period where, it seems, and it should be, and then after a pause we change it to a comma and offer a new ending. By parcelling, you can achieve greater memorization. The intonation separation gives the speaker's words more expression. Parceling is very well used in humor. It is used there all the time!

example

K: I am offered the best conditions by your competitors. I think I will agree. MP: What are the best conditions? K: The timing is faster and cheaper. MP: Four serious clients left us in January for these reasons. (Pause - parceling.) In April, three returned to us with great pleasure. Words and deeds are different things, it is one thing to propose, and another thing to do.

Solecism

example

Examples of violation of the agreement of the members of the proposal:

“Whoever needs sanatorium treatment, it is necessary to provide it” (instead of “… will be provided for them”). “One or two of my comrades” (instead of “... or two of my comrades”). "What time is it?" (instead of "What time is it?").

Inconsistent adverbial turnover:

“At first he was surprised and wanted to understand what that meant; then, having made sure that he could not understand this, he became bored "and others (L. N. Tolstoy. Anna Karenina)

definition

syntactically incorrect turn of speech that does not distort the meaning of the statement.

Default

definition

The word is silver, silence is gold. Sometimes lack of agreement leads to a greater effect than verbosity. Stop in mid-sentence. Provide the opportunity to continue or draw a conclusion to your employees. Cover your statement with a veil of secrecy or cut it off due to extreme secrecy. Or maybe say that you just don’t know next? Or say that you know, but won't say, because you want people to think about it and find their own solution? Or…? A classic of silence is a conversation between two police officers, a boss and a subordinate in the film "The Diamond Hand".

aposiopesis, aposiopesis, aposiopesis

example

- Maybe try ...? - Do not. - A…? - Not worth it either. - A…? - Try this!

A rhetorical question

definition

This is one of the most famous figures of speech. A rhetorical question gives speech a special expressiveness. A rhetorical question focuses people's attention on the right point in the message, forcing them to think about this topic again. After a rhetorical question, it is imperative to make a significant pause. There are at least two types of rhetorical questions. The first type is a question, the answer to which is known to everyone: both the questioner and the listeners. A question that does not suggest an answer.

example

Will we achieve good results if we work half-heartedly? Can we achieve better if we are always afraid of trouble?

Do you like it when you don't get what you wanted? (Pause.) Of course not! Do you want to buy currency at a favorable rate? (Pause.) Of course! Who will say no? Do you want your patients to leave you happy? (Pause.) What is the question? The answer is obvious! Are metrics such as turnover and profitability important to you? (Pause.) Obviously, yes.

Do you know how many times labor productivity increases with the correct use of a CRM system? (Pause.) Two - five times! Can you imagine what it is? (Pause.) What are the criteria for evaluating work efficiency? (Pause.) Quality, precision, speed and promise.

paranthesis

example

The sales manager talks to his variable client - dealer with the aim of increasing the number of purchased items. Please listen! It is very important! Today I summed up the results of the past quarter and - (went to the paranteza, went to the beloved!) I want to say that I have long dreamed of this - I noted an increase in market share by 10%! That's great! I recommend that you take a few more positions for sale.

definition

An independent, intonationally and graphically highlighted statement, introduced into the main text and having the meaning of an additional message, explanation or author's assessment; used in scientific, journalistic, artistic style.

The curly braces () are a parenthesis! The figure of speech - paranthesis - is the dismemberment of the utterance with words that can be placed in brackets. Moreover, due to this, the tone of the statement can be different: ironic, accusatory, reminiscent, emphasizing inspiring, mysterious, admiring, and so on. The main thing is to change the intonation for the time of paranthesis, and then return to the original tone.

Emphase

example

Accent-intonation method: increasing or decreasing intonation, stress on a certain word, lengthened pronunciation of the emphasized phrase. Use of rhetorical figures: different repetitions, unusual word order. Appeals. Interjections. Writing also uses a special text format: italic, underlined text, capitalized text. An example of emphasis: “A hero is needed here, but he is only a man” (that is, a coward).

definition

emotionally expressive highlighting of any significant element of the statement or its semantic shades. The word is understood in a broader sense: as an increase in the general emotional expressiveness of speech, achieved by changing intonation and using rhetorical figures, or as a special rhetorical figure, which consists in the fact that the word is given special expressiveness.

Exergasia

example

“When I listened to the reports of the“ worldwide Christian student union, ”my heart was filled with sorrow and grief. How many sincere people seeking God, thirsting for life, "die of hunger", "feed on the face" of some overseas student union! Do they really not know how it is possible to have an abundance of bread in the house of Heavenly Father, in the Orthodox Church? You just need to forget all "federal principles", freely surrender to the full obedience of the Orthodox Church and cleave to the fullness of church life, to the life of the body of Christ. " Hieromartyr Hilarion (Trinity), Archbishop of Verey.

definition

a rhetorical figure, which consists in adding synonymous expressions to a phrase or turnover. Exergasia, like synonymy, is used to clarify the meaning of a phrase, but also to increase the emotional tension of speech.

yet

citation

example

definition

proverbs, sayings

example

definition

new and old words

example

definition

character stylization

example

definition

example

definition

Expressive synonymy

definition

We use a certain, if not stereotyped, vocabulary. Both we ourselves and others, mainly those who surround us every day, get used to them. And who is it? No, not family or lovers. More often you see your subordinates: five days a week, eight hours a day, this is in the most sparing regime. People get used to us and to our words, which no longer act with the necessary force. What to do? The answer is simple - choose synonyms. Moreover, it is desirable that synonyms be more expressive, more expressive.

example

You can say by complimenting your employee: This is a good proposal. Or you can: This is an exclusive offer. Or vice versa, let's criticize the employee: The task was performed poorly. And now let's replace with an expressive synonym: The task carefully set by me is disgusting to you

Interpretation (interpretation)

definition

It is an addition to the main content with an author's characteristic, usually in the form of an introductory sentence or turnover with an explanatory or modal-evaluative meaning.

example

"No! There will not be a new Pentecost, just as there will not be a new incarnation of the Son of God. It cannot be repeated, neither as an alliance concluded in one well-known day and hour (which is now dreamed of), nor as the extraction of long and patient labor of a whole series of generations. " A. S. Khomyakov. The words "No!" and "what are they dreaming of now" is an interpretation: the word "No!" is used to strengthen, additional confirmation of the judgment, and the words "what they are dreaming about now" - to clarify the characteristics of the criticized opinion.

Expansion (filling)

definition

A figure consisting in addition to words expressing the main content of a thought, words or phrases, increasing the size of a phrase or shading this main content with secondary content elements. In essence, exploration is an expanded pleonasm.

example

“Oh, the vast majority of our intelligent Russians, even then, under Pushkin, as now, in our time, served and serve peacefully in officials, in the treasury or on the railways and banks, or simply make money by various means, or even study sciences , give lectures - and all this regularly, lazily and peacefully, receiving a salary, playing preference, without any inclination to flee to gypsy camps or somewhere more appropriate to our time. " F. M. Dostoevsky. The author uses clarifying or complementary, but essentially redundant for the main content, phrases (in italics), deliberately stretching the phrase in order to give the listener the opportunity to fully assimilate the thought and at the same time fill the arising rhythmic voids.

joint

definition

This figure of speech is used to highlight causal relationships. Also, with the help of a joint, a certain course of circumstances is emphasized. The seam slows things down in a certain way, focusing the audience on important places. The seam conveys confidence. The essence of the seam, as you already understood, is that the end of one phrase is the beginning of the next. Matching of the same words or phrases.

example

What is internet advertising? On the Internet, where there are people who are socially active, under the age of 50, with an income above average, that is, with good purchasing power. With the ability to give you good profits!

Rockport are super comfortable boots. The boots look like classic ones, and you walk like in sneakers. Like running shoes, because it uses Adidas technology. Adidas is the owner of Rockport.

Concatenation (joining)

definition

It is the addition, usually at the end of a phrase or period, of words that additionally characterize the subject of speech or express the speaker's attitude towards it.

example

Never a single living truth, let alone a Divine truth, fits within the boundaries of logical comprehension, which is only a kind of human cognitive process; but at the same time, neither human nor divine truth can be contrary to the laws of logic, in other words, it cannot contain a real contradiction. Christ is also not yes and no. A. S. Khomyakov. The last sentence, attached to the main formulation of the thought and in this case specially emphasized by the author, constitutes concatenation as an additional addition of especially significant content.

Isokolon

definition

Stylistic figure, consisting in complete syntactic parallelism of adjacent sentences

example

("He hears a whistle with his usual ear, he Maras a leaf with a single spirit")

attribution

example

We will solve this problem of time management. We will tackle this tricky issue of timing and prioritization.

definition

This is essentially concretization and detailing. We have already spoken about it when describing the errors of decision making. But there, rather, the detail was presented with a minus sign. Now we propose to look at concretization from a positive perspective. What do you need to do? Include definitions and circumstances in your speech. It's one thing to say, "I see an opportunity." It's another matter to say, "I see an unlikely but promising opportunity to improve the quality of our product."

Environment

definition

Combination of anaphora and epiphora: the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning and end of a sentence, creating a symmetrical construction. The environment allows you to present a thought in the form of a maxim and is usually used in a solemn speech.

example

“So, here is a house of prayer under the same roof as the house of wisdom. The sanctuary of the mysteries is invited to the dwelling of knowledge, and entered here, and here it was founded and established in its secret ways. It can be seen that religion and science want to live together and work together to ennoble humanity. Condescending on the part of religion - let us thank its condescension. It is prudent on the part of science - we praise its prudence. " Saint Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna.

Ring

definition

Start your speech with one word, phrase or even a sentence and end it with the same. That's what a ring is! Thanks to the ring, you, firstly, focus the listener's attention on the words with which you start and how you end everything. Second, you emphasize some inevitability. Thirdly, what is in the middle begins to seem psychologically more important. Fourthly, the concept repeated at the beginning and at the end, of course, is better remembered. You get all this thanks to the ring. Four reasons are not enough for using the ring to influence the client? When can you try the ring during negotiations? Never? Never say never! By the way, this is a ring. I think four reasons are enough!

example

The sales manager explains to the client how high-quality the equipment is. Manufacturing quality control is our priority. You know how people relax if they are not tested. Show a little slack and they'll take advantage of it right there. As a result, they will lose everything, and so will they. We need to keep the bar very high. We have triple quality control of production! The fifth reason for using a ring is the feeling of a special completeness of thought. The sales manager encourages a new client to meet. Manufacturability, reliability and honesty are the three advantages of Alfa-Bank. There are, of course, other pluses. For example, unique products. Or a huge work experience. Consider our primary and secondary benefits. I suggest that we meet to discuss what your company will get using our technology, reliability and honesty. Knowledge, abilities, skills. The famous psychological triad. In order to influence, to sell, it is not enough just theoretical knowledge. Conscious skills are not enough. And unconscious skills alone are not enough. We need knowledge, skills, skills.

Simplok

example

"In the field there was a birch / In the field there was a curly tree."

definition

the stylistic figure of the repetition of words in adjacent verses or phrases. It is usually defined as a combination of an epiphora and anaphora, that is, a repetition of the beginning and end with a variation in the middle, for example

the opposite figure, when the beginnings and ends of the periods differ at the same middle:

"Young people everywhere we have a road, / Old people everywhere we have honor"

Anaphora

definition

(repetition at the beginning)

The essence of the anaphora is that every phrase, every sentence begins with the same words. Thus, the speaker shows confidence, a sense of stability, a certain emotional attitude. Anaphora looks especially good (or rather, it is heard) when demonstrating an optimistic mood. Remember the famous speech by Martin Luther King, based on the anaphora "I have a dream ..." ("I have a dream ...").

example

The sales manager convinces the client of the need to work with him and his company. An important advantage is that we have a wide range of products. An important advantage is that we employ professionals. An important advantage is that we have quality products. How do you see the benefits that you will receive from assortment, professionalism and quality?

It is unpleasant to see how our competitors are overtaking us. It is unpleasant to see how our managers do not know how to talk about the advantages of the company. It's unpleasant to see how we give up and look for excuses for our disadvantages.

Epiphora

definition

It would be better if it was called "yanafora". Do you know why? It would be easier to remember! If anaphora is repetition at the beginning of phrases, then epiphora is repetition at the end. The use of the epiphora gives your words a certain inevitability, predestination, logical ending. Epiphora focuses attention not on the premise, as in the anaphora, but on the effect. When we pronounce the epiphora, we seem to say that we already know how everything will end, and we invite others to trust our knowledge.

example

You start working with a new supplier - the professionalism of the supplier is important. Difficult situations arise in the market - the supplier's professionalism is important. You want to get an individual solution - the professionalism of the supplier is important. In our work, we aim to improve our professionalism every day.

Do you think we are fast? No! Do you think we are affordable? No! Do you think that we have a debugged system of work? No! We are frank and truthful with the client! Sincerity and truthfulness are our trump cards. And we strive to be fast, affordable and technologically advanced! And it is true.

Difference (flat)

definition

Repeat a word in different meanings.

example

"Bow down, unfortunate worshiper of the womb, and if you cannot suddenly lift your eyes higher than yourself, stand right in front of the mirror and see if the law against subservience to the womb is not written on you yourself?" Saint Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna.

Or:

"Ubo, leaving us with the destruction of the body, he left his spirit to us." Stephen (Yavorsky), Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom.

Reprise

definition

It is a pick-up of the previous word in a subsequent phrase or sentence.

example

“Let us hear his song, the song of unaccountable rapture; it is as simple, as charming as the first ray of light, as the first feeling of love. " D.V. Venevitinov.

Reprise is used to create emotional tension of speech and to highlight a key word, which can be repeated in a subsequent phrase or compositional part of an utterance, linking it with the previous one and expanding the topic. Metropolitan Platon uses a reprise of the word “burden” in his “Speech on the Sacred Coronation of Emperor Alexander Pavlovich”, which is amplified in the following passage into a new theme.

“Most kind sir! This crown on Thy head is our glory, but Thy feat. This Scepter is our rest, but Your vigilance. This Power is our security, but Your care. This Porfira is our enclosure, but Thy militia. All these utensils are consolation for us, but You are a burden ... Truly a burden and a heroic deed! ... "Platon (Levshin), Metropolitan of Moscow and Kolomna.

Accumulation (thickening)

definition

A figure, which consists of a listing of words denoting objects, actions, signs, properties, etc. in such a way that a single representation of the plurality or rapid succession of events is formed.

example

Let's go! The pillars of the outpost are already turning white; now the carriage rushes to Tverskaya through bumps. Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, hovels, men, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies, fashion stores, Balconies, lions on the gates And flocks of jackdaws on crosses. A.S. Pushkin.

Rule of three

definition

in this: the human ear is especially fond of combinations of the three elements. For writers with a good sense of rhythm, the use of triads is commonplace. A triad is the expression of related thoughts or ideas in groups of three. Moreover, all three elements often begin with the same sound (or the same word) and are almost always used in the same grammatical form. Triad elements can be single words - nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or verbs. Or are they whole phrases, phrases and even sentences. Examples will explain everything better than the definition I have given. Here are some well-known triads:

example

From the Bible: “And now these three abide: faith, hope, love; but love is the greatest of them. " From the Declaration of Independence: "[We] swear to each other on our lives, on our fortune and on our unblemished honor." Julius Caesar: Veni, vidi, vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”). Franklin Delano Roosevelt: "I see that one third of the nation has bad housing, bad clothes and bad food." Walter Scott: "Misunderstood, inconsolable, unsung." Abraham Lincoln: "The power of the people by the will of the people and for the people will not disappear from the face of the Earth." And here is my, so far not so famous statement: the triad gives power to our ideas, eloquence - to our words and rhythm - to our proposals. Speech to the soldiers. Speaker Vladimir Mashkov in the series "Motherland" Ways of building the main part