(Department of English Philology No. 2)
1. The essence of translation as a type of communicative activity.
History of the formation of translation studies
The first period - the period of antiquity (mainly interpretation)
The second - the period of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (exchange of religious knowledge; interpretation and translation)
The third is the period of enlightenment (creation of translation glossaries, mainly translation)
4th - 19th century of industry and literature
Fifth - 20th century, the flourishing of translation activities, personnel training, the emergence of centers for training translators.
2. Interdisciplinary relations of translation studies as a scientific discipline.
Comparative linguistics delimits the levels of language, establishes similarities and differences between the systems of two languages in the field of their sound structure, vocabulary and grammatical (syntactic) structure.
TPP deals with specific speech derivatives, therefore it does not consider separately units of different levels, but establishes the semantic commonality of the two texts, regardless of the levels of the linguistic hierarchy.
Ethnolinguistics - studies the interaction of linguistic and ethnic factors in the process of language functioning. Considers communication as the exchange of information between the resources of different ethnic groups (linguistic groups) Translation is not only the contact of two languages, but also the contact of two cultures and ethnic groups (cultural translation)
Sociolinguistics - studies the interaction between language and the facts of public life in various spheres, depending on certain criteria (social status, corporate, age, gender, degree of closeness of communication, religious)
Linguistic Geography - studies the territorial distribution and variability of different languages and their elements. In the process of broadcasting the text, it is necessary to make the correct choice of the translation language option, taking into account the target audience.
Psycholinguistics - studies the interaction of language and thought mechanisms. In translation theory, it provides an explanation of the internal organization of the translator's activities with an emphasis on the system of levels of psychophysiological organization of translation mechanisms.
3. Types of translation activities.
The variety of translation activities determines the differentiation of three branches of the science of translation.
The general theory of translation studies the process of translation as a whole, regardless of the conditions of the translation implementation, the genre of the texts, the languages in contact, and more. That is, it is engaged in the study of translation universals.
Private translation theory - examines the specific features of translation activities associated with the specifics of two contacting languages.
Special translation theory deals with the scientific description of various types of translation, distinguished on the basis of a number of criteria:
Relationship between the types of the source language and the target language
Genre specificity of text stratification.
1) By the ratio of the types of the source language and the target language:
intralingual and interlingual.
diachronic (historical - translation into modern translation)
transposition (from one genre to another)
binary (translation from one natural language to another)
intersemiotic (from natural language to artificial)
traditional (human / manual translation)
machine translation
3) By the criterion of the translation unit
pomorphic translation
word-by-word
phrasal
paragraph - phrasal
full-text
4) Based on the primacy / non-primacy of the original text
direct / direct
indirect / secondary (translation from translation)
reverse (experimental or educational translation of an already translated text into the original language)
5) By the stage of work on the text
working translation (a higher level in the work on the original form)
translation - sample (the text corresponds to the norm of the target language and is perceived as the original)
6) Based on the completeness and method of conveying the meaning of the original
full / continuous translation
incomplete
Abbreviated
Fragmentary
aspectual
signal
annotating
abstract
7) By the degree of professionalism of the performer
student translation
8) By genre
literary translation
scientific and technical translation
9) According to the form of presentation of the translation
written translation
written interpretation (oral translation of a written text, carried out simultaneously with its reading, as a rule, without prior acquaintance with the original)
oral translation
Consistent
Synchronous
10) By the quality of the translation product
adequate
inadequate (free, literal)
There are practically no universal translators capable of performing all types of translation at a professional level.
Depending on what types of translation a particular translator is engaged in, and which ones he prefers not to undertake, the set of professional and personal qualities that a modern translator should ideally possess in order to work successfully in his segment of the translation market also changes.
Let's take a look at a few of the most common translation profiles:
1. Simultaneous interpreter.
In addition to professional skills of simultaneous translation: a high level of active proficiency in the original language and the target language, quick reaction, clear diction, ability to concentrate, noise immunity, mental stability, good physical shape.
2. Oral asynchronous translator.
In addition to good skills in oral phrasal or consecutive translation: calmness, sociability, the ability not to get confused in public, mental stability, good physical shape.
3. Written translator of technical texts.
Required qualities and skills: deep knowledge of the original language, including phraseology, knowledge of the basic terminology of modern science and technology in the original language and in the target language, professional knowledge of the written form of the target language, elementary literacy, computer and computer program skills at a level sufficient to work with translated texts, possession of the Internet for promptly receiving and sending translated materials, the ability to find information on the Internet, perseverance, the ability to work with dictionaries and reference books, attentiveness, composure, high efficiency.
4. Written translator of economic and legal texts.
In addition to the requirements for translators of technical texts: good knowledge of modern banking, financial and legal terminology, the ability to correctly and competently draw up translations of legal documents, including translations for notarization. Regardless of the target language, knowledge of the English language is desirable (due to the large number of English-language terms, names and abbreviations in the modern economic and financial sphere).
5. Translator of fiction.
Unlike all other types of both written and oral translation, when translating fiction, the ability to thoughtfully and unhurriedly work with the text is brought to the fore. You need one hundred percent understanding of not only the content, but also the subtext of the translated work of art, and most importantly, the ability to convey this content and all stylistic subtleties in your translation. It is, of course, also important to be able to properly plan your time in order to meet the deadlines set by the publisher without compromising the quality of the translation.
Taking into account the ever-increasing complexity and intensity of translation work, it should be noted that in all types and genres of translation and practically with any specialization, a translator necessarily requires high efficiency and good physical shape. Only a translator of fiction can afford to work in a sparing mode. Although he also has rush jobs and stress. At the same time, in all types and genres of translation, regardless of personal qualities, the professional suitability of a translator is determined, first of all, by the availability of the necessary professional translation skills acquired during training at a university and then tested and consolidated in the course of practical translation activities.
The article discusses in detail 6 types of money transfers according to 3 classification systems.
You will learn:
- what is a money transfer;
- what types and forms of transfers exist;
- What is the difference;
- who is involved in the transfer of funds;
- what is needed to arrange the transfer of money;
- how much does it cost to send money;
- how long does it take to transfer.
What it is
Before proceeding to the classification, it is necessary to consider the concept and form of a money transfer.
A money transfer is a movement (movement) of funds from a sender to a recipient with the participation of a payment system operator (transfer operator).
Transfer forms differ in purpose:
- Payment for goods or services;
- Translation between individuals (individuals and legal entities).
The transfer process itself is called a transaction. In order to understand the structure of a money transfer, you need to consider its participants.
Participants
The structure of any money transfer, regardless of the form, is made up of 3 participants:
- Sender of funds;
- Recipient of funds;
- Intermediary or translation operator.
A sender is a natural or legal person who sends funds. The natural or legal person to whom the money is transferred is called the recipient.
Transfer operator is an organization that transfers money:
- Commercial Bank;
- Non-profit organization licensed to transfer funds;
- Central bank;
- Mail;
- National or international money transfer system.
Classification and types of money transfers
There are 3 main classifications of remittances according to:
- Geography of funds transfer
- internal
- external
- Cash account
- with opening an account
- without opening an account
- Destination point
- address
- unaddressed
External
External are transfers abroad.
They are characterized by the fact that they can be produced in foreign or national currencies.
- In the first case, national money is exchanged for the currency of the country where it is transferred.
- In the second, the recipient himself exchanges the currency sent to him for the one he is going to use. For citizens of Central Asian countries, whose residents work in Russia, external transfers are the main source of income.
Internal
In the case of an internal one, money remains inside the country, and does not go abroad. In some cases, for example, when establishing a single economic space on the territory of several countries, the transfer to another country is considered internal.
Video: Online is fast and cost-effective
Opening an account
To carry out this type of transaction, you need to open a current account with a bank or other credit institution and instruct the bank (as the transfer operator) for the transaction. Opening an account is convenient if funds are transferred regularly (parents send money to a teenage student in another city).
A more convenient way of the same type of transfers is for the sender and the recipient of a debit or credit card to use the same bank. The sender transfers money from the card to the recipient's card without commissions and with minimal delay. The recipient will withdraw money at any ATM in the network.
The largest banks offer the option of two debit cards with different current accounts, but the same card. In this case, the owner of the main card replenishes an additional current account to which another card is attached.
Without opening an account
There are four translation options available:
- by arbitrary details;
- under contracts with the organization;
- using one of the money transfer systems;
- by postal order.
Free transfer is available for individuals at any bank. To do it, you need to indicate the bank details and full name of the recipient of the transfer and indicate the amount to be transferred in the Application in the form of the bank transferring money. The bank will take commission according to the tariffs.
Translation under contracts - payment for goods or services: legal, housing and communal services, cellular communications. If the bank (payment operator) has an agreement with a company whose services are paid for, then it will not take a commission, or take the minimum.
Postal orders (CyberMoney and Fast and Furious) from Russian Post are available throughout the Russian Federation and CIS countries. In order to use the money transfer by mail, you need to take your passport to the post office (for non-residents of the Russian Federation - a migration visa), fill out the postal order form 112ef. The recipient must be in possession of a passport (migration visa).
The essence of money transfer systems is to deliver money to any place in the world where there is a corresponding service point, like at the post office. Some systems (Unistream, Contact) conclude agreements with legal entities so that the client pays for services (mobile communications, loans, housing and communal services) of organizations using transfer systems.
Money transfer terminals are located in banks or in places of quick public access (near the metro, in large supermarkets). They have a working schedule: until 6 - 8 pm, with lunch and weekends - this must be taken into account when sending funds. Like mail, these organizations charge the sender a fee for transfers.
The peculiarity of transfers using such systems is that after the transfer, money is available for receiving by an individual either at one specific point of issue, or at all at once.
Addressable
This is a type of transfers in which money is sent to a specific receiving and starting point.
The item is selected by the sender before sending funds and is indicated in the application for transfer. It is convenient if the recipient does not often change his position, and at any time will come for money.
Addressless
As well as address is available only between individuals. After sending, the money becomes available for withdrawal at any point of service of the corresponding transfer system.
Convenient if the recipient is on a business trip or on vacation abroad, often gets mixed up.
Commission procedure and conditions
Which type of translation should you choose and in what situation?
In order to understand this, you need to know:
- the commission charged by the operator for the type of transfer you need;
- how long does it take to get money from the sender to the recipient;
- where the recipient can collect the money.
The type of bank transfer, considered on the example of Sberbank of Russia, as the most popular bank in the Russian Federation, postal order - the Forsage system, transfer using the transfer system - Western Union.
Bank
Sberbank of Russia provides translation services:
- on the territory of the Russian Federation;
- abroad;
- non-cash funds;
- cash;
- between your accounts.
Table. Transfers on the territory of Russia
| Bank transfer type | Where | Transfer term | Commission | Where to translate | Where to get money |
| Between your accounts | To your city | instantly | 0% | Sberbank branch, ATM or network terminal, online Sberbank or mobile application | At a Sberbank branch or at a network ATM |
| To another city | |||||
| Card to card | To your city | Instantly | 0% | ATM terminal, branch of Sberbank | |
| To another city | 1% | ATM, terminal, branch of Sberbank | ATM, terminal, branch of Sberbank | ||
| From account to card | To your city | 1-2 business days | 0% | Sberbank branch, Sberbank online | ATM, terminal, branch of Sberbank |
| To another city | |||||
| From card to account / from account to account | To your city | 1-2 business days | 0% | Sberbank Online | Sberbank branch |
| To another city | Sberbank branch | ||||
| Cash to cash | To your city | 10 minutes to 2 business days | 1,75 | Sberbank branch | Sberbank branch |
| To another city | |||||
| Cash to an account or card | To your city | 1 working day | Sberbank branch | ATM, terminal, branch of the savings bank. | |
| To another city |
Table. Transfers abroad
| Translation type | What currency is the money transferred in? | Transfer term | Commission | Where to translate | Where to get | Restrictions |
| Cash to cash | Rubles | 2 working days | 2% min. RUB 50 Max. 2000 RUB | Sberbank branch | Up to USD 5,000 equivalent | |
| Foreign currency | 1% min. USD 15 Max. USD 200 | USD 5,000 | ||||
| From account to account / from card to card | Rubles | 2 working days | 2% min. RUB 50 Max. 2000 RUB | Sberbank branch | The possibility of receiving is specified in the recipient's bank | No restrictions, but a document confirming the purpose of the payment is required |
| Foreign currency | 1% min. USD 15 Max. USD 200 |
Postal orders in Russia are represented by the Forsage system. The name hints at speed.
Types of transfers available under Fast and Furious:
- address;
- addressless;
- abroad;
- across Russia.
The transfer can be carried out if the sender's post offices support the afterburner system. ...
The commission depends on the amount of the transfer. International transfers can only be made to an item that supports Fast and Furious. ...
The timing of international payments may vary depending on the destination: a complete list of transfer terms.
Table. Fast and Furious translations
| Transfer type | Amount (in rubles) | Transfer term | Commission (in rubles) |
| Address | Up to 3 thousand | No more than 1 hour | 150 |
| From 3 thousand to 7.5 thousand | 300 | ||
| From 7.5 thousand to 150 thousand | 1.7% of the transferred amount, no more than 2 thousand | ||
| Unaddressed | Up to 3 thousand | Day | 99 |
| From 3 to 150 thousand | 1.2% of the transferred amount, but not less than 149 and not more than 1,000 | ||
| international | Up to 150 thousand | No more than 1 hour | 1.8% of the transferred amount, but not less than 149 |
Through the money transfer system
Western Union is one of the oldest money transfer systems in existence. Unlike Fast and Furious, Western Union money transfers reach: China, South Korea, the USA and any other country in the near and far abroad. There are only one conditions - the presence of a Western Union point of sending / receiving payments.
The recipient comes to any branches of Western Union, provides a passport and a unique code and fills out an application for receiving money and leaves with a money parcel.
The terms of transfer in any direction in the system are a few minutes, the transfer is stored for a month. The commission for transfers depends on the destination: to China is more expensive than to Moldova.
Table. Western Union transfers
| Shipping amount (in rubles) | Destination country | Commission (in rubles) |
| From 100 to 7.5 thousand | · Ukraine; · Belarus; · Georgia; · Kyrgyzstan; · Uzbekistan; · Kazakhstan; · Moldova; · Azerbaijan; · Turkmenistan. | 150 |
| More than 7.5 thousand | 2% of the transferred amount | |
| From 100 rubles to 25 thousand | PRC (China); · Mongolia; · Taiwan; · Vietnam; · Hong Kong; | 250 |
| From 25 to 50 thousand | 500 | |
| 50 to 75 thousand | 800 | |
| More than 75 thousand | 1000 | |
| From 100 rubles to 2.5 thousand | non-CIS countries except: PRC (China); · Mongolia; · Taiwan; · Vietnam; · Hong Kong; | 250 |
| From 2.5 to 5 thousand | 500 | |
| From 5. to 10 thousand | 750 | |
| 10 to 15 thousand | 1000 | |
| From 15 to 20 thousand | 1250 | |
| From 20 to 25 thousand | 1500 | |
| From 25 to 30 thousand | 1778 | |
| From 30 to 40 thousand | 2028 | |
| From 40 to 50 thousand | 2278 | |
| 50 to 60 thousand | 2528 | |
| From 60 to 75 thousand | 3028 | |
| From 100 rubles to 2.5 thousand | Turkey | 250 |
| From 2.5 to 5 thousand | 500 | |
| From 5 to 100 thousand | 1.5% of the transferred amount | |
| 100 thousand and more | 1% of the transferred amount | |
| From 100 rubles to 2.5 thousand | · Czech Estonia Israel | 250 |
| From 2.5 to 5 thousand | 500 | |
| From 5 to 50 thousand | 2% of the transferred amount | |
| From 50 to 100 thousand | 1.5% of the transferred amount | |
| More than 100 thousand | 1% of the transferred amount |
From the article you learned about 6 types of money transfers:
- Addressable and non-addressable;
- Domestic and international;
- With and without opening an account.
Examples of their mixing in three types of translations are given:
- Banking;
- Postal;
- Through the payment system.
Conditions and options for each type are considered:
- Banking on the example of Sberbank transfers;
- Postal on the example of the "Fast and the Furious" system of the Russian Post;
- Through the payment system using Western Union as an example.
Samples of documents required for filling out when transferring funds are available via the links, information on tariffs and terms of transfers - in the tables.
N.G. Valeeva
Classification of different types of translation with detailed explanations.
The translation activity of a specialist is defined and limited to the sphere of professional communication. The texts to be translated (source texts) in one or another area of professional communication are very diverse and differ in genre and stylistic characteristics and method of presentation. As a result, the translated texts also differ. However, despite the diversity available, common features can be identified in the texts, and they can be classified. Various criteria can be taken into account when building classifications of translation types. The functioning of communication in two forms, oral and written, led to the development of a classification of types of translation according to the way of perception of the text and presentation of the translated text.
According to the classification of types of translation by the way of perception of the text and presentation of the translation, written and oral forms of translation are distinguished.
Written translation
Written (visual-written) translation- the most common type of professional translation, in which the perception of the text is carried out visually, and the design of the text is written.
In written translation, dealing with fixed (printed) texts, the translator can work on the translation for a relatively long time, correcting the selected options. The use of additional sources of information: dictionaries, reference books, various databases, as well as careful processing and editing of the translation allow transferring the source text in the target language with greater accuracy, achieving a higher level of equivalence with the original text than with oral translation.
Oral translation
Reading and analysis of the text are built from the general, the whole to the details, the particular, they pass without undue haste, in stages, until the translator establishes the type of semantic relations between the elements of the text and selects equivalent, adequate means of their reflection in the translation text in accordance with contextual environment and genre and stylistic belonging of the text. In contrast to written translation, the concept of oral translation includes all types of translation that involve the perception and design of the text orally.
When interpreting, limited in time, the first place is given to the translator's good reaction and his ability to quickly find the necessary equivalents and combine them into appropriate structures on the basis of superficial syntactic links due to the actualization of the selected units. External factors, facial expressions, gestures can help the translator in many ways.
Within the framework of interpretation, a distinction is made between oral, sequential, paragraph-phrasal and simultaneous translation.
Consecutive paragraph-phrase translation
Consecutive paragraph-phrase translation is a type of translation in which the text is translated after listening not entirely, but in paragraphs or phrases in the pauses made by the speaker. The duration of the speech before the pause is arbitrary and in time it can cover both several seconds and several minutes.
Simultaneous translation
If in paragraph-phrasal translation a certain time period is allocated for the implementation of the translator's activities, although quite limited, then with simultaneous translation carried out simultaneously with the auditory perception of the original text, the translator is placed in even more stringent conditions of time pressure. Common to paragraph-phrasal and simultaneous translation is their one-sided orientation, that is, translation from only one (source) language to another (target language). And this is how these types of translation differ from two-way translation.
Two-way translation
Two-way translation - is a consecutive translation of the conversation, carried out alternately in two directions, namely: from the source language into the target language and from the target language into the source language. And here it is doubly important for the translator to master the mechanism for switching from one language to another.
In addition to the types of translation indicated above, it is customary to distinguish also mixed types of translation. These include sight translation and translation by ear.
Sight translation
Sight translation is understood as interpretation of a written text in the process of its visual perception and without first reading the entire text.
Written translation by ear
Auditory translation is a written translation of a text that is perceived by ear. Currently, this translation exists mainly as an educational form of translation in the form of exercises, for example, translation of dictations or translation of audio recordings.
This is the nomenclature of types of translation according to the way of perception of the text and presentation of the translation. As you can see, it is quite diverse.
The above classification reflects only the formal aspect of the functioning of translation texts. The selection and systematization of translation texts can be carried out taking into account the typological and functional criteria, namely: taking into account the genre and stylistic originality and the main communicative function of the text, as well as the communicative task of translation. The choice of these criteria is determined by what we mean by the concept of "translation".
Let us recall that the following seems to be relevant as the initial definition of the concept of translation in the field of professional communication. Translation is a form of interlanguage and intercultural mediation (mediation) caused by social necessity, both in the process of oral and written communication, in which the information (content) of a text in one language is transmitted into another language by creating an informational and communicatively equivalent text in that language, the degree of equivalence which largely depends on the communicative task facing the translators.
Typological and functional classification of translations
Now let's look at a typological-functional classification. According to the main function of the text (functions of message, influence and communication), the following functional types of translation are distinguished: literary translation, translation of religious works and informative (special, non-fiction) translation.
Literary translation
Literary translation covers the entire genre variety of fiction (prose, poetry, folklore), literary criticism and journalism. Literary texts have two main interrelated text-forming functions: impact and aesthetic. In such texts, the form of presentation is of particular importance. In literature, not only and not so much rational, but artistic and aesthetic knowledge of reality is embodied. The aesthetic value of the work and the level of emotional and expressive impact on the reader depend on how and in what form the content is materialized. In literary texts, units and means of all styles are used, but all these style elements are included in a special literary system and acquire a new, aesthetic function. Of course, literary texts are subdivided into types, for example, corresponding to literary genres. Each of the types will have its own artistic and functional specificity. Nevertheless, regardless of the genre of the text, the main task of the translator of literary texts is to convey the artistic and aesthetic values of the original, to create a full-fledged literary text in the target language.
Close to literary translation in its text-forming functions and having a centuries-old tradition, the translation of religious works covers the translation of canonical books of the Holy Scriptures, Lives of Saints, theological works, etc. and has its own traditions.
Literary translation and the translation of religious works are contrasted with informative translation. Informative (non-fiction, special) translation is the translation of texts, the main function of which is to inform, communicate certain information, and not in artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader. It is customary to refer to such texts all materials with the exception of fiction and religious works. The main task of the translator of such texts is the most complete transfer of the information contained in them, ensuring invariance at the content level.
Translation of religious writings and informative translation
The division into literary translation, translation of religious works and informative translation only indicates the main function of the original, which should be reproduced in translation. In fact, in each of these main types of translation, smaller subspecies are distinguished with their own characteristics that affect the choice of a translation strategy. So, the informative (non-fiction, special) translation includes scientific translation, translation of official business and socially informative texts, as well as informal translation - translation of colloquial everyday texts.
Informative translation
Scientific translation
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Scientific translation is the translation of texts of special branches of knowledge and the purpose of areas of human activity, for example, in the field of economics, ecology, etc. Among scientific texts, there are, first of all, special texts designed for professionals, and popular science, intended for the general reader. The texts of this or that area of knowledge or the sphere of communication are typified as certain discourses - speech genres. Scientific discourse is characterized by the function of communication and orientation towards a logically consistent, objective and evidence-based presentation of the content. Scientific texts are implemented mainly in writing. Oral presentations at conferences, congresses, symposia, as a rule, reproduce the written original, drawn up in advance.
According to the main function of the text - the function of the message, the translation of official and business texts also belongs to informative translation, namely: translation of state, administrative and legal documents, business correspondence. These documents regulate relations between people as members of society. As a rule, these texts exist in written, regulated form and differ from oral forms of official business communication. The latter are realized in dialogical (polylogical) speech and have their own specifics.
Another subtype of informative translation is translation of public information texts, including documents of a socio-political, sociocultural nature. They contain a wide variety of information passing through the channels of mass communication: newspapers, magazines, radio and television. Their main function is communication. Of course, these texts can be biased and calculated for a certain impact, on the processing of public opinion. However, the message function remains basic in them. The form of these texts is most often written, and on radio, television, the Internet, they are retransmitted orally.
It is customary to include informal translation in the field of informative translation - translation of colloquial everyday texts. A feature of spoken texts is that they are implemented in an oral dialogical form and are focused, as a rule, on personal relationships.
The specificity of the translation of informative texts is largely determined not only by the function and originality of the discourse, but also by the task of translation. Analyzing the communication tasks facing specialists in the field of natural science and technical disciplines, it can be noted that the translation activities of specialists are aimed both at transferring information in full, and at reflecting certain, basic, key information of a document. Translation is always done for a specific purpose. The translator always strives to complete a specific task that he has chosen himself or received from the customer, in whose interests or on whose behalf the translation is being carried out. The goals of the translation can be very different, and the corresponding translation texts will be fundamentally different from each other.
It is the consideration of these features that makes it natural to consider the translation process as the creation of an information and communication text, and the translation text as an information unit, corresponding and limited to the set communicative task.
So, depending on the purpose of the translation, the information in the translation text can be presented both in full (full translation), and in an abbreviated, collapsed, truncated form, in part (adaptive transcoding).
Full translation is used to transfer source texts, the content of which is of such high importance that information must be conveyed to the addressee of the translation text in its entirety: basic information, details, subtext. And in this case we are looking for a deal with the generally accepted concept of translation, according to which to translate means to express correctly and completely by means of one language that which has already been expressed earlier by means of another language.
Unlike a full translation, the task of adaptive transcoding is to transmit the original text in the target language for general familiarization or familiarization with the main content (key information), when the details are not communicatively significant. The volume of the translation text, its lexical-semantic, syntactic and stylistic image can be different: annotations, abstracts, notes, reviews, etc. in the target language. Functional transformation can be based on lexical-semantic, grammatical and stylistic transformations of the original text, applied in order to reduce and simplify it in general.
Within the framework of the functional classification, it seems appropriate to consider how this or that type of translation can be carried out. The complete translation technique can be based on literal, semantic or situational (communicative-pragmatic) translation, the degree of equivalence of which differs in a number of parameters.
Literal translation consists in word-by-word reproduction of the source text in units of the target language and is a fairly common form. The translator spontaneously strives to resort, first of all, to formal elements, to use dictionary equivalents, to reproduce morphological forms and syntactic constructions in translation, to preserve the word order of the original where this does not contradict the structure, norm and usage of the target language. However, it is often necessary to abandon the literal translation (mechanical substitution of the words of the target language, similar to the words of the source language) due to various factors. Literal reproduction of the original forms can lead to a distortion of meaning or a violation of the norms of the target language - literalism. In addition, in general, in a number of situations, literal translation is inapplicable, since it contradicts the meaning, norms or usage of the target language. In these cases, semantic or situational (communicative-pragmatic) translation is used.
Semantic translation is about conveying the exact contextual meaning of the original. The discrepancy between the two languages (semantic and syntactic limitations) is overcome through the use of translation laws and translation rules. Thus, the equivalence of the transmitted information for a given type of translation is achieved through the use of translation transformations, correspondences between the target language and the original language.
Situational (communicative-pragmatic) translation is the creation of a translation text with an adequate initial impact on the addressee. In communicative translation, equivalents are used for the communication situation. In standardized, stereotypical situations of communication, situational translation is mandatory and has long been fixed in the language, is clichéd in nature.
Highlighting literal, semantic, situational (communicative-pragmatic) translation does not mean their opposition or isolation. The distinction between them is relative. As a rule, most complex texts are translated using different methods. The preference for one of them is determined by the criterion of optimal equivalence.
“Introduction to Translation Studies” - Moscow: RUDN University Publishing House, 2006.
Valeeva Nailya Garifovna - Ph.D. professor, head. Department of Foreign Languages No. 2, Institute of Foreign Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia
Reproduction of site materials is permitted only with the written permission of the authors.
There are two main classifications of translation types:
- by the nature of the translated texts - connected with genre-stylistic features of the original;
- by the nature of speech actions translator in the process of translation - associated with psycholinguistic features of speech actions in written and oral form.
Genre and stylistic classification:
Literary (literary) translation - translation of works of fiction; a type of translation activity, the main task of which is to generate a speech work on the TL, capable of exerting an artistic and aesthetic impact on the PR.
Informative (special) translation - translation of texts, the main function of which is to communicate some information, and not to artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader.
Literary translation
The mountain tops were hidden in a gray waste of sky ... (A. Cronin)
The mountain peaks were drowning in the gray sky. (Translated by M. Abkina)
Subtypes of literary translation:
Translation of poetry,
Translation of plays,
Translation of satirical works,
Translation of fictional prose,
Translation of lyrics, etc.
Subtypes of informative translation:
Materials of a scientific, business, socio-political, everyday and other nature.
Translation of many detective stories, travel descriptions, essays and similar works, where informational narrative prevails.
Psycholinguistic classification - takes into account the way of perception of the original and creation of the translation text, subdivides translation activity into translation and interpretation.
Written translation - a type of translation in which speech works, combined in the act of interlanguage communication (the original and the text of the translation), appear in the translation process in the form of fixed texts, which the translator can repeatedly refer to.
This enables the translator to re-perceive the segments of the translated text, compare them with the corresponding segments of the translation, make any necessary changes in the translation text before presenting the translation to the Receptor, i.e. before the completion of the translation process.
Oral translation - this is a type of translation in which the original and its translation appear in the translation process in a non-fixed form, which predetermines the one-time perception by the translator of segments of the original and the impossibility of subsequent comparison or correction of the translation after its completion.
In oral translation, the creation of the translation text can occur either parallel to the perception of the original, or after the perception of the original is completed. Accordingly, two types of interpretation are distinguished: simultaneous translation and consecutive translation.
Simultaneous translation - this is a method of oral translation, in which the interpreter, listening to the speaker's speech, practically simultaneously (with a slight delay of 2-3 seconds) pronounces the translation.
A kind of simultaneous interpretation is the so-called. "Whispering", when the interpreter is placed next to the Receptor and informs him of the translation in an undertone with or without headphones and a microphone.
Consecutive translation - this is a method of interpretation, in which the translator begins to translate after the speaker has stopped speaking, having finished all or some part of the speech. The size of the translated segment of speech can be different: from a single statement to a text of a significant volume, which the speaker pronounced for 20-30 minutes or more.
A special type of use of written text in oral translation is the so-called. “Sight translation”, when the translator orally translates the written original for the Receptors without regard to any oral presentation, i.e. not in the process of translating a speaker's speech.
Differences between interpretation and translation
Time factor.
Unequal portions of the original.
The nature of communication with participants in interlingual communication.
The ratio of languages
- "two-way translation" - changing languages during translation.
Speech compression - deliberate compression of the text in the process of translation.
The need for compression is determined by the fact that the conditions of oral (especially simultaneous) translation do not always allow transferring the content of the original as fully as in written translation.
