ancient landscapes. Landscape architecture: milestones of history. Dry Valleys, Antarctica

There are different types of Chihuahua. These mini dogs may differ in body type, length of coat, variety of colors, and temperament. From this article you will find out whether this small breed can have a difference in height, how long Chihuahuas live with different body weights, whether the standard specifies the features of mini and super mini dogs, why they are called "baby face" and much more.

To date, the standard adopted by the English Kennel Club recognizes two body types of the Chihuahua:

• cobby;

I would like to note right away that some sellers describe this type of Chihuahua as "kobe". But this is not true, since the name of this species comes from the English "cobby-type", respectively, it will be correct - "cobby", with two "b".

Cobby type mini dogs are distinguished by a dense and stocky body structure. Micro representatives of the breed with this type of body have peculiar characteristics that are different from another species:

• the head of a cobby like a mini dog of a rather large volume;
• huge round eyes combined with a snub-nosed nose, for which the breed received the nickname "baby face";
• the ears are smaller in size, but rather wide at the base;
• the cobby-type dog has a greater distance between the ears, as well as between the eyes;
• quite voluminous chest;
• dense and muscular paws of small length;
• powerful tail in the middle has a seal;
• the dense hairline of the cobby type has a particularly pronounced undercoat;
• during movement, a Chihuahua of this type makes a powerful push with its hind limbs.

The deer type dog or deer-type dog is very similar to a small deer, so this species is also called "deer-like". Chihuahua with dir type of body structure has its own characteristics:

• head dir type mini doggie of small volume;
• elongated muzzle seems light in appearance;
• large ears are very similar to the ears of a bat;
• the chest of the deer type is smaller than that of the cobby type;
• the paws are slightly longer and thinner than in other types of body structure;
• thin tail of greater length;
• hairline of medium density with almost no undercoat;
• Chihuahuas of this body type have to take more steps during the movement, since the hind legs push off the ground much weaker than the cobby type of mini dog.

Even though the standard recognizes both body types of the toy breed, breeders generally prefer the cobby type.

But many unscrupulous salespeople try to sell Chihuahuas with other body types for what they are not worth at all. only two types of body structure are accepted, so be extremely careful.

To help you figure out what is true and what is false, here are some examples of unofficial Chihuahua body types:

Aboriginal - an oval head, a sharp muzzle, ears, like eyes, are too close to each other, a lot of weight, a large tail lying on the back - all these characteristics do not fit into the Chihuahua breed standard.

English - the following features do not fit the standard of a mini dog: large body weight, large physique, rough skeletal structure.

Extreme - in the Chihuahua standard there are no such characteristic features as bulging eyes, too thin paws, a small head. These super micro dogs are most likely suffering from dwarfism disease, which entails big problems. They need careful care and constant attention. They are sometimes confused with "baby face" because of their round eyes and snub nose.

Exotic - the same features as the extreme type, only even smaller in stature.

Classic - mini dogs of this false type are somewhat similar to representatives of the dir type. But the head has a smaller volume, the muzzle is longer, the angle of the hocks is wrong.

These are only the most common false body types of the Chihuahua breed, but any unscrupulous seller can come up with as many beautiful names as they want to sell their goods for the most expensive price.

To avoid problems in the future, especially if you are planning to breed a Chihuahua or take part in shows, choose only standard types of dogs accepted for this breed.

So if you are offered a Chihuahua with a beautiful, even familiar name, for example, a micro "baby face" dog, compare its parameters with the standard of this breed before buying.

Types of wool

The coat of the Chihuahua differs only in the length of the pile. There are two types of wool:

• long;
• short.

First type

The long-haired Chihuahua has a fine hair structure. Due to the large length of the coat, these dogs are also called hairy. This type of wool is very soft to the touch.

The “jabot” or fluffy collar looks very nice on the Chihuahua’s neck, just like the “pants” on the paws. The hair on the tail is especially thick. Long hair on the ears forms a fringe. On the body, the straight coat is not very long; when palpated, it is not at all rough.

Curly hair is not allowed by the standard, except for light waves. Also, according to the standard, the undercoat may be absent, although in many cases it is quite developed.

Second type

Short-haired super mini dogs are usually called smooth-haired because this type of hair is very smooth. Also characteristic of such a structure are short, even hairs that fit snugly against the body of a chihuahua. The coat of this species is very beautiful: shiny, soft and silky to the touch.

Individual hairs may be longer around the neck and tail. And in the throat area, the wool is the rarest. As with other types of wool, the standard allows for the absence of an undercoat. Sometimes in places of the shortest hair you can see a leather cover.

So there are only two types of woolen cover, which are indicated in the standard. If a super mini dog has a mixed or intermediate type, then such an individual is unlikely to fit the parameters of the standard.

Differences in temperament

The Chihuahua has an extremely stable psyche, which reaches its development as early as a year. It is difficult to meet cowards and hysterics among them, although of course there are exceptions - how many dogs, so many features. For the owner, this dog will become a wonderful companion and a faithful, sometimes jealous friend. But some representatives of the breed, depending on the different type of coat, may have different characteristics in behavior.

It is believed that dogs with a long coat type have a soft and docile character, a calmer temperament. Whereas short-haired Chihuahuas are often quick-tempered and live more active lives.

Types of colors

Height divisions

Chihuahua is the smallest dog breed in existence. This is confirmed by a super mini dog named Bu-Boo, which has been in the Guinness Book of Records for several years because of its small stature: ten centimeters in height and sixteen in length, weighing six hundred and seventy-five grams.

But be that as it may, such a thing as "mini" and "super mini" in the standard of this small breed simply does not exist. Yes, and at the exhibitions there are no names of such varieties. This is the name of this breed as a whole, because of its miniature size.

In fact, micro dogs are nothing more than a disease of dwarfism or the consequences of premature birth. Unscrupulous breeders are happy to sell these very small dogs and call them new directions in the breed with full confidence. How much such a dog will cost depends only on the greed of the seller.

When buying a micro dog, you are unlikely to be able to breed them in the future, and they will not pass the basics of the standard. This means that they will not be able to participate in exhibitions. They live much less compared to purebred Chihuahuas, up to a maximum of ten years. At the same time, it is even difficult to imagine how much effort will have to be made for such a dog to live to such an age. Standard dogs live an average of twelve years.

Super micro dogs often have the following disadvantages:

• fragile body structure;
• incomplete set of teeth;
• undershot;
• too large fontanel;
• weakened immunity.

Dwarfism for this breed is quite normal, but in moderation. Chihuahuas with too little weight usually do not live longer than ten years. If you still decide to take such a brave step as buying a super micro Chihuahua puppy, then first of all think about how much effort you will have to put in to constantly and monitor a tiny pet. Here are the basic rules that must be followed:

• you can not drop the mini dog;
• always look under your feet so as not to accidentally step on an animal, especially if it lives in an apartment;
• children should not play with it - the slightest injury can cost a pet a life;
• do not take the super mini baby with you to the bed so that he does not fall out of there;
• such dogs should not be played with other animals in order to avoid injury;
• for such puppies, veterinarians provide a special feeding regimen, for example, they should not eat barley porridge, drink milk, as this can lead to big problems with digestion.

For the first time, food for a dwarf dog will have to be chewed by the owner and given only in this form. Such super mini dogs do not live long, especially if you miss a couple. In this case, the pet may begin hypoglycemia, as a result of which the dog has a violation of the coordination of movement, followed by convulsions, which sometimes leads to the death of the animal. Such a state can cause any excitement.

With any features and differences of your dog, you must always properly care for her, groom and cherish. Each Chihuahua is individual, but she will always respond to your love with devotion, adoration and obedience.

What body type and color is your Chihuahua? Does your dog fit the standard?

Archaeological research of recent years and the study of oral tradition have made it possible to trace the appearance of ancient Radonezh. The discovered monuments were identified with temples, villages, roads and other historical realities of the 13th-16th centuries. The more fully these settlements revealed the contours of the once existing picture, the more clearly the authenticity was felt, with which they reflected some essential features of the early Moscow culture, which left its deep mark here.
Perhaps, none of the modern concepts will convey the memory of culture so capaciously imprinted in the earth as the concept of a historical landscape. The landscape carries only historical and geographical information, but represents an organic combination of elements of nature with works of human thought and labor. This is an amazing phenomenon in which such far-reaching areas of culture as the attitude of the people to the natural environment, their economic and social structure, the artistic structure of thinking and worldview, which are manifested in the organization of space, are synthesized. In the light of the foregoing, the historical landscape of Radonezh is an integral monument that deserves a comprehensive study and reflection.
The purpose of this publication is to identify and analyze materials related to the early stage of the life of this monument of the XIII-XIV centuries. Therefore, the question of the origin of the landscape of Radonezh comes to the fore. For its correct formulation, it is necessary to note some features of the historical situation of that era.
Radonezh appears on the pages of Russian history in 1337 - in the hundredth year from the invasion of Batu and the tenth year of the "great silence" in the Moscow principality. On the path that was traversed by North-Eastern Russia under the Horde yoke, the “great silence” (1327-1368) constituted a kind of watershed. The era of continuous invasions is over. But the time has not yet come when people gained confidence that "to change God's Oda." The period of "silence", which began in the great reign of Ivan Kalita, was characterized by active economic development and the formation of feudal landownership. The reign of Ivan Kalita was, however, not only the time of the prosperity of the Moscow principality, but also the era of the maximum inclusion of Russia in the structure of the Jochi ulus1. It is no coincidence that in the chronicle there is a comparison of “silence” with a certain dream (“And rebuking the Christians”)2, in which self-forgetfulness comes with relief. In a period when the confrontation between the two cultures penetrated deeply into the life of North-Eastern Russia, the outcome of the struggle depended on whether such foundations were found in this life that would allow Russian culture to survive and maintain its independence.

The homeland of Sergius of Radonezh - Radonezh lay at the origins of the spiritual movement that arose in the Trinity Monastery and had a profound influence on the formation of national self-consciousness3. This movement, with all its content, was opposed to the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the “moral ruin” that it brought with it4. Therefore, it is important to trace the influence of those ideas that developed in the Trinity Monastery in the historical landscape of Radonezh, and thereby better understand the features of the formation of the culture of that time.

Radonezh ceased to exist as a city after its ruin in the Time of Troubles, around 1608-1609. In 1616, the village, which received the name "Gorodok Radonezh" (since the beginning of the 18th century - the village of Gorodok), passed into the possession of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and remained with it until the secularization of the monastery lands in 1764. Neither during this period, nor later here there were no large architectural ensembles associated with the veneration of Sergius of Radonezh. This veneration was expressed in the tradition of the services that took place in the church of St. Vozdvizhensky during the Trinity campaigns of sovereigns, and the dedication of the throne to St. Sergius in the church with. Gorodok5. In the 19th century - a, apparently - and at an earlier time - through s. The town laid the path of pilgrims, which led from the Pokrovsky Monastery on Khotkovo to the Cross Chapel in the Lavra.
The historiography of Radonezh is small, but peculiar. The brevity of ancient news about the city fettered its development6. The desire to look for new ways of exploring Radonezh arose only during periods marked by a growing interest in the Russian Middle Ages. The beginning of the study of Radonezh was laid by 3. Ya. Khodakovsky, who visited the village. Gorodok in 1820. Method 3. D. Khodakovsky, based on a combination of archaeological observations, surveys of old-timers and the use of data from the General Land Survey, was ahead of the development of science of that time7. In the 1840s-1850s, the surroundings of the Trinity Lavra attracted the attention of I.M. Snegirev8.

A special place in the literature about Radonezh is occupied by K. S. Aksakov’s “A Tale from Village Life”, published in November 1857 in the magazine “Molva”8. It reflected a living feeling that allowed K. S. Aksakov to see in the oral tradition an unextinguished historical tradition. The dialogues with the peasants, conveyed in the "Story" with great care, brought to us unique evidence. A new stage in the study of Radonezh was associated with the work of S. B. Veselovsky on the archive of the Trinity Lavra by the 1920s-1930s. He researched the Land Survey Record of 1542/1543, which mentioned a number of lands that once belonged to the Radonezh princes, and studied the boyar estates of the Radonezh principality10. Archaeologically The town was surveyed in 1901 by Yu. G. Gendune11. In 1929-1931. excavations at the settlement and the settlement were carried out by N.P. Milonov12. Later, exploratory work was repeatedly carried out in Radonezh13. The research, begun by the author in 1976 in the area of ​​the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, included archaeological surveys, the collection of microtoponymy materials, and the localization of written sources.14

In 1984-1985. work was concentrated in the vicinity of the village. Gorodok with the aim of creating the project "Protection Zones of the Ancient City of Radonezh"15. As a result, 200 archeological monuments of the 13th-17th centuries were discovered. (settlements, burial grounds, roads, ponds) and 450 landscape monuments (lands, tracts).
Actual news of the XV-XVI centuries. there are not many in the Radonezh region, therefore the materials of the cadastral books of V.I. Golenin are of particular value. R. D. Dashkov and F. G. Adasheva 1542/1543 17 - documents compiled during the heyday of the city.

The following set of descriptions refers to the years 1570-159018. In 1617, according to a charter granted by Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich, the Town of Radonezh was transferred to the Trinity Monastery. In this regard, on August 3, 1617, M. Tikhanov and D. Orlov “surveyed and measured ... The town of Radonezh and the wasteland of Mogilitskaya z.. the palace village of Zdvizhensky19. In the early 1620s, the Mogilitsky wasteland was attached to the lands of the village. Vozdvizhensky, which was fixed by surveying N. II. Zasetsky and P. Yermolin March 24, 162320

Apparently, the following year, a nationwide description was carried out on the lands of Radonezh21 and its environs, which was carried out in the north of the Moscow district by L.A. Kologrivov and D. Skirin22.
Documents of the middle of the XVI, beginning of the XVII century. form the actual basis for studying the historical geography of the Radonezh region. Localization of the data of these documents turns out to be possible, however, only with the involvement of the entire fund of later sources. An important place among them is occupied by the drawings of 1660-166723 and boundary books of the 1680s, in which the length of the boundary is indicated in fathoms, which allows them to be transferred with great accuracy to modern maps. In 1680, A. 10. Bestuzhev and V. Domashev renewed the border between the Trinity and sovereign lands, laid back in 1542/1543 to the north of Radonezh. In addition, they described the southern border of the sovereign's lands, which ran along the Torgosh and Vora rivers. In 1084, the data of this survey were supplemented with a description of the village, and as a result, a scribe and survey book of Verderevsky and L. Yuryev appeared.

The book of 1084, preserved in the original, was not only a legal document, but also a work that summarized the results of the centuries-old learning of the Radonezh region and contained a huge amount of knowledge about its nature, toponymy, and land ownership25. Mezhi 1680 and 1084 almost throughout its entire length, the period of the General Land Survey (1768) was resumed 26 . In turn, along the boundaries of the General Land Survey, geodetic substantiation courses were laid during the topographic survey of the 1930s27. This allowed the author to map the data for 1680-1684. Thus, the way was opened for localizing the data of 1617-1624, which became the basis for the reconstruction of the historical landscape of Radonezh in the 14th-15th centuries. (Fig. 5).
The most ancient way, along which the settlement of the entire Radonezh region went, was the river. Vorya, flowing into the river. Klyazma. In the 1st millennium AD in the middle reaches of the Vori there was a fortified tribal settlement of the Finnish-speaking population. At the end of the XI-XII centuries. on the middle Vora, a group of Slavic villages-Krivichi was formed, known in the archaeological literature due to well-preserved monuments of burial mound life. Most of these settlements perished during the Mongol invasion in the middle of the 13th century. and never renewed afterwards.

The region of Radonezh itself, which lay to the north, was not devastated in 1238-1240. It began to be settled, judging by the archaeological data, in the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 14th century. (Fig. 3). The custom of building burial mounds was already a thing of the past, but kurgan ceramics and traditions dating back to the pre-Mongolian period survived. The name of the city, which comes from the Slavic name "Radong", is also connected with the Old Russian time.

It is possible that the settlement bearing this name existed since pre-Mongolian times, but widespread settlement began later29.
The second, along with the rivers - a historically established direction along which the resettlement took place, was the Pereyaslav road. Since 1302, when Prince. Ivan Pereyaslavsky bequeathed his inheritance to Prince. Daniil Alexandrovich, and especially since 1328 this road has become one of the most important in the Moscow principality. When crossing the river. Pages (a tributary of the Vori) and arose with. Radonezh. “[The village of Radonzhe] koyu” and the parish “[Radonzhskoe] are mentioned in the spiritual charter of Ivan Kalita 1336 g30.
In addition to the village, on the second. floor. XIII - the first third of the XIV century. there were three settlements identified archaeologically: Golnevo, Mogilki and Belukhinskoe (Fig. 3). They were located within 3 km from Radonezh, and the bottom of the latter - near the Pereyaslav road. The vast expanses on which the later principality was formed were still uninhabited.

The topography of the listed villages reflected the first signs of that radical change in the forms of settlement, which soon engulfed North-Eastern Russia. villages began to penetrate the watersheds. In the vicinity of Radonezh one can trace the stages of this process. Golnevo, founded at the edge of the terrace of the river. Vori, still belongs to the pre-Mongolian type.
Graves arose at a distance from the river, but with a natural source of water. Belukhinskoye, where the pond has been preserved, is a typical settlement “on dry land”.
On the watersheds covered with forests, the settlers opened up vast areas that were previously used only as hunting grounds (Fig. 3). The natural landscape within which arose with. Radonezhskoye, was a moraine plain covered with spruce forests, which were replaced by spruce and pine forests to the south of the village. From the northeast to Radonezh was adjacent to the landscape of a moraine hill. Its border is clearly visible, and now, when viewed from the mountain mentioned in the annals "above Radonezh" on p. A town lying on a plain. The hill was dissected by ravines, which, closing, divided the territory into separate hills, rising high above the valleys.

The marginal and lowland areas of this landscape were occupied by spruce forests. In its central part, ancient linden-spruce and oak-spruce forests dominated, growing on more fertile soils. It was in this area, where areas of oak forests are still preserved, that the first villages of the Radonezh district were founded. Settlers, moving from the region of the Priklyazma lowland to the north, up the river. Vore, met at the tops of the moraine ridge forests typical of the original zones of Slavic colonization. This circumstance, combined with the diversity of landscapes, attracted the population to the site of the future city31.

If with. Radonezh was the administrative and economic center of the district, then its sacred center, as one might assume, was the sanctuary of the White Gods. “Two versts from Vozdvizhensky,” wrote I. M. Snegirev in 1856, “there is a hillock in a pine forest called the White Gods; according to the testimony of the local old-timers, there were some stones in the ravine, recently removed to search for treasure under them, and the old legend says that St. Sergius erected a stone cross there in place of some idols, which were worshiped by the surrounding inhabitants32.

For the localization of the tract, the entry made by 3.Ya. Khodakovsky: ..Being in the village of Gorodok, which was formerly called Radonezh, - he wrote, - I recognized a rare name. The local priest and several old-timers took me to the bulk town and told me all the tracts around them. Finally, one of them says: ... there are White Gods near Vozdvizhensky village, it is adjacent to us, no further than one verst from this Gorodok. The young woman who brought me from the main road to this place also knew about these White Gods and led me to them. The wonderful location is consistent with its name - it is close to the expanse or hollow, which is separated from the tract called "Mogiltsy"33.
Judging by this description, the White Gods were located south of the Troitskaya road (from the village of Gorodok to Lavra - Fig. 7, No. 50), beyond which the fields of the village began. Vozdvizhinsky. The eastern border of the territory within which the sanctuary was located is determined by Khodakovsky's indication that the sanctuary is removed from the village. The town "is not further than one verst." It remains to outline the western and southern boundaries of this territory. The first is established on the basis of the story of K. S. Aksakov about his search for the place of the White Gods: “Leaving the carriage at the copse34,” he recalled, “we walked through it, went out into the field and soon reached a ravine, in which water oozed . We began to search with all our might ... 35 Ovrazhek, or "hollow", as his interlocutor K.S. Aksakova, a peasant from the village, called him. The town is the Orzhavets stream, flowing 800 m east of the outskirts of the village. Town (Fig. 7, No. 229). Thus, the White Gods field was located east of Orzhavets, on its left bank.

The crater of this volcano quite plausibly demonstrates what is happening on Jupiter's moon Io: a lot of gurgling geysers, fantastic colors and a persistent smell of sulfur. Located below all other volcanoes in the world - minus 48 m from sea level - Dallol is still active, thanks to which the surrounding area is constantly bubbling and boiling. But the last major eruption occurred in 1926 - it was then that an “extraterrestrial” lake was formed, which is a bizarre salt formation framed by puddles of green and purple liquid.

Dallola Crater is the hottest place on Earth, with an average annual temperature of 34 degrees Celsius. In such a heat and such an aggressive environment, no form of life is able to exist, except for bacteria. It is they who provide vivid colorful memories to every visitor to this inhospitable place.

Getting to Dallol is not so easy - despite the obvious abundance of natural resources, there are no roads laid there. This place is regularly visited only by camel caravans, on the humps of which they take out the salt mined here.

Tsingy du Bemarha, Madagascar

Photo by Diomedia

The unpronounceable name of this reserve comes from the even more complex word mitsingitsignia, which in Malagasy means "to walk on tiptoe." Indeed, when looking at the local landscape, the thought of any other form of transportation does not even come to mind.

The famous Stone Forest was formed as a result of erosion of calcareous rocks: instead of ordinary mountains, a palisade of sharp stone peaks soars up here. Among them, rare (in both senses of the word) trees make their way, equally rare animals - lemurs - rush about, and no less rare birds flicker. Below, at the foot, you will not get bored either: there are forest canyons, mysterious caves and dark waters of the Manambolo River.

The reserve here was organized in 1927 in order to preserve natural conditions, and some parts of it are still closed to the public. But even those that are available still seem to have been brought here from somewhere outside the Earth.

Moon Valley, Brazil

Moon Valley is located in the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park in Brazil. The plateau on which the park stands was formed about 1.8 billion years ago. Local rocks are the oldest on Earth: they are only two and a half times younger than the Moon. For many millennia, the waters of the San Miguel River have ground the natural quartz that makes up the local rocks to the most bizarre and unnatural forms. The surroundings of the valley will also be remembered for a long time: in addition to the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals, their prosperous descendants are abundant here: orchids, palm trees, pepper trees, anteaters, tapirs, capybaras, rhea, etc. In 2001, the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park was included on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. And the only thing that can confuse this decision is why it was made only forty years after the discovery of the valley.

Lake Kliluk, Canada

Spotted Lake Kliluk is one of the strangest places on Earth - unlike any planet we know of. Due to the high concentration of salts (the highest among terrestrial lakes) and the special climate of Kliluk during the hot season, it is a collection of small lakes, between which you can safely walk. It sounds rather boring, but it looks unforgettable.

Thanks to the salts, the local waters have healing properties, and this feature at one time became the cause of a fierce confrontation between the local Indians and the European colonists. For the natives, Kliluk is a sacred place, many legends and tales are associated with it, it is an integral part of the local culture. And when in 1979 Ernest Smith, the de jure owner of these lands, decided to arrange a medical resort here, it caused an uproar among the indigenous population. The Indians fought for the right to keep the reserved land intact for more than twenty years, and only in 2001 they bought it for $720,000. Since then, access to the lake has been limited and you can visit it only with permission from the elders. Although it is not easy, it is possible, and in extreme cases, you can admire the view of Kliluk from the highway nearby.

Tinto River, Spain

Even the ancient peoples of the Iberians and Tartessians began the development of minerals in the mountains of the Sierra Morena - where the Tinto River originates. Iron, copper, silver, gold, manganese - what has not been mined here for 5000 years! All this inevitably fell into the slowly flowing waters of the local river and spread throughout the surroundings. It would seem that nothing alive, except for people in overalls and helmets, can not be here. But nature disposed of in its own way and settled here the relatives of extremophile bacteria from the Bloody Falls in Antarctica. They gladly began to process substances that are poisonous to any normal organism. As a result, Tinto and its surroundings were painted in all shades of red and yellow, and scientists received another hope for the existence of life outside the Earth.

Local conditions are similar to those on Mars and to what happens under the icy shell of Europa, Jupiter's moon. The best thing is that you can safely see it with your own eyes: although industrial developments continue here to this day, most sections of the river are free to visit.

Dry Valleys, Antarctica

The driest place on Earth is by no means the Sahara or the Gobi, as one might assume, but a place in Antarctica with the telling name Dry Valleys: in some places there has not been water in them for 2 million years! This piece of land is surrounded by mountains, from which, under the influence of gravity, cold dense air descends at a tremendous speed (about 300 km / h), taking with it everything that comes along the way, including water, snow and ice. If we compare these conditions with what happens on the planets of the solar system, then they will be closest to the Martian ones. What was the joy of scientists when, even in such harsh conditions, life was discovered - a bacterium, which is enough for the existence of those droplets of moisture that manage to hide from the winds in the uneven surfaces of the rocks.

Even more interesting is another bacterium, a neighbor living under the Taylor Glacier, which also belongs to the Dry Valleys. This anaerobic bacterium processes sulfur and iron, and the result of such vital activity, along with water, flows to the surface - this is how Blood Falls is formed. The iron oxide-colored water against the white background of the glacier looks eerie, as if blood is gushing from a huge non-healing wound.

Wave Gallery, USA

A striking formation of sand and stone called "Wave" is located on the border of the US states of Utah and Arizona. For 200 million years, mighty winds have carved these undulating formations with unexpected and eye-pleasing geometry. Once they were sand dunes, which, under the pressure of time and natural conditions, turned into ribbed multi-colored hills; now it is one of the main draws for landscape photographers from all over the world. Interest in the Arizona sandstone gallery is so high that local authorities are forced to limit the flow of those wishing to take a look at this miracle of nature at least from the corner of their eye. Therefore, only twenty vouchers are issued per day. Moreover, ten of them are played in the lottery four months before the intended visit, and the other ten - the day before the trip. And if in the low season there are great chances to win a permit in two or three days, then in the high season - from March to November - the probability drops below 50%. But if you can’t get a permit in Arizona, you can look at similar formations in Utah as a consolation: they are not as popular as the Wave, and less impressive, but more accessible.

Uyuni Salt Flat, Bolivia

Some call this place "the border of heaven and earth", but this expression is not entirely true. Rather, it is a place where the sky is both above and below, and you can walk on it: it is the largest mirror on Earth, so large that it goes beyond the horizon.

The Uyuni Salt Flat is the largest in the world. In the bowels of a dried-up salt lake, a reserve of natural substances and minerals is stored for many thousands of years to come. Such a specific composition and natural conditions have turned this place into the most unique point on the planet. Firstly, the height difference in an area of ​​more than ten thousand square kilometers does not exceed one meter. Secondly, in the dry season it is the brightest white plain, and when it rains, it is an impeccably detailed reflection of the sky. At the same time, the depth of the lake in most places does not exceed a few centimeters, so you can freely walk along it, watching the clouds under your feet. In addition, every November, hordes of flamingos of rare species and colors arrive here. But those wishing to visit the Uyuni salt marsh should take into account that it is located at an altitude of 3500 m above sea level, so it will take some time to acclimatize.

Mount Roraima, Venezuela

In 1839, the expedition of the German traveler and explorer Robert Schomburgk in British Guiana literally ran into a wall that went beyond the clouds. It was a mountain, but an unusual mountain - as if someone had cut off its top with a huge knife, leaving a giant flat platform. Schomburgk's account of the journey caught the eye of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, whose imagination immediately placed on the plateau the Lost World miraculously preserved from prehistoric times.

In fact, what happens on top of Mount Roraima — one of the tepui, South American mesas, the remnant of a huge sandstone plateau that existed when South America and Africa were one continent — is more like the fantasy writers of the 1950s about Venus: eternal rain watering a completely unearthly landscape. "Tepui" in the language of the local Indians means "house of the gods." But this house is rather uncomfortable: the rains wash away the nutrients from the soil, leaving no chance for normal life. And those representatives of flora and fauna that nevertheless took root here are completely unique. It is no coincidence that the creators of the cartoon "Up" (also about a journey into the lost world) went to Roraima in search of inspiration. And director Pete Docter later admitted that they used what they saw only in general terms: “It is so far from reality that the viewer simply would not believe it.”

Socotra Archipelago, Yemen

Approximately 6 million years ago, a small piece of land broke away from Africa, which moved towards the Arabian Peninsula. A piece that fell apart on the way to four islands managed to escape only a couple of hundred kilometers from its parent. But the past 6 million years was enough for the emergence of a unique ecosystem here: more than a third of plant species, 90% of reptile species and almost all types of mollusks are found nowhere else in the world. Here, of course, there are no eight-armed five-eyes communicating in the language of clicks. But there is a dragon tree, similar to a nuclear mushroom, from which, moreover, “blood” flows every year, a cucumber tree is a shapeless smooth white trunk, on the top of which “cucumbers” cheerfully turn green, or the Socotran desert rose is also a tree, and in appearance funny and repulsive at the same time.

Despite its isolation, the archipelago, as it recently turned out, was inhabited as early as 1.5 million years ago. In 2008, Russian archaeologist Valery Zhukov discovered stone tools of the Olduvai culture (2.7-1 million years ago) here. The sensation of the find lies in the fact that it is not entirely clear how a representative of this era, homo habilis, “a skilled man” got here. But it will not be difficult for a modern person to visit Socotra - even by plane, even by sea. It is better to go in February and March: the rest of the time, especially from May to September, Socotra has rather severe and unpleasant weather with endless rains and knocking winds.

Methods, types of analysis and research techniques	Feeding provinces	Genesis	Paleogeographic reconstructions	Stratigraphic constructions
				dismemberment	correlation
General	Comparative geographical			xx
facies-genetic		xx	xx	X	X
Actualistic			X
Evolutionary			xx	xx
Private	Geomorphological		xx	xx	X
Lithological:
textures		xx	xx
physical and mechanical properties		xx
granulometry	X	X	X	X
mineralogical:
terrigenous minerals	xx	X	X	X	xx
authigenic		xx	xx
	clayey petrography	xx xx		xx x	xx xx	xx
	Geological	xx			xx	xx

Methods for studying ancient land relief. Landforms are relatively rarely preserved in a fossil state. Among these, river valleys, lake basins, volcano cones, dunes, mountain ranges, etc. are more common. The reconstruction of the ancient relief is based on the analysis of facies and formations using general and particular methods of paleogeography.

First of all, the area of ​​material removal is established, i.e., the area of ​​active denudation of deposits. With the help of granulometric analysis, the change of facies by area is studied; the closer to the demolition area, the more the mechanical composition of the rock becomes coarse and worse sorted. The sediments are clayey, replaced by sandy, pebbly, bouldery, clastic ones. Their roundness is decreasing. Sometimes the degree of color changes. The composition of the fauna is changing - deep-water, shallow-water, coastal, terrestrial species. According to these features, the coastline is reconstructed, the nature of the relief is mountainous or flat. The mountainous relief has a large thickness of deposits in depressions, often coarse clastic and with a rapid change of facies. The plain relief is characterized by low thicknesses, homogeneous composition of facies, and their gradual change.

The height of the ancient relief is judged by the slopes of alluvial deposits. Modern lowland rivers have a slope of 0.4-4 m, mountain rivers - 1-10 m and up to 100 m per kilometer of length. Knowing the area of ​​distribution of ancient alluvium (length), one can roughly estimate the height of the relief using the formula: Δ h= , i.e. slopes (Δ h) are equal to the height divided by the length. From here h= Δ h X L. But you always need to keep in mind two more provisions - paleotectonics and paleoclimate, that is, you need to look at the logical model of paleofacies. Paleogeomorphology is very closely connected with the practice of prospecting for alluvial minerals - gold, platinum, diamonds, and polymetals.

Methods of studying ancient reservoirs. Organic and geochemical methods are mainly used in combination with lithological ones. Seas and lakes are studied.

The coastline is reconstructed using facies analysis, as well as landforms characteristic of coasts - coastal ridges, dunes, and the remains of wave-cutting ledges.

The relief of the bottom of ancient reservoirs can be assessed by the presence of reef complexes, underwater landslides, changes in the granulometric composition of bottom sediments, and changes in the areas of organic remains (areas).

Data on the depth of the reservoir (up to 10–15 m) are provided by granulometry. Where the coastal zone is exposed to surf, coarse-grained, pebbly, poorly sorted materials form. In the littoral (less than 30 m deep), where tides are observed, ripples and sand waves are characteristic. In the same depths, one can observe the removal of silty and sandy material by rivers. The deeper parts of water bodies (> 30–100 m) are composed of clayey and siliceous rocks, non-stratified with the remains of planktonic organisms (sharks, crustaceans, ammonites, belemnites, etc., living in the water column). Deep-sea sediments of the same type are found at different depths, it depends on the size of the reservoir. According to N. M. Strakhov (1963), silts in the oceans form from a depth of 75–100 m, in the Black Sea - 15–25 m, and in Balkhash - from only 2–3 m. ) minerals allows you to determine the relative depths. Thus, detrital goethite is formed near the shore, and chamosite and glauconite form further away from it.

However, relative depths are most accurately determined by paleo-ontological materials. Thus, the presence of bottom algae remains in geological deposits is an indicator of shallow water, not exceeding a depth of 50–70 m, since photosynthesis is not possible at a greater depth. Coral structures are formed at a depth of 40–60 m. Mollusks with massive shells live in shallow water. With depth, the number of planktonic forms increases and the number of benthic forms decreases, the skeleton of which becomes fragile. The deposits preserve the teeth of sharks, rays, fish, crustaceans, ammonites, etc.

Salinity is determined by the composition of chemogenic sediments and organic residues. As the salinity of the waters in the seas increases, a succession of chemogenic precipitation occurs: calcium carbonate - magnesium carbonate - sulfates - halites. The seas with normal salinity (about 35 0/00) were inhabited by corals, radiolarians, cephalopods, sea urchins and lilies, most of the foraminifera. In basins with low salinity (20–25 0/00), brachiopods, gastropods, ostracods, and charophytes were widespread.

The gas regime of waters is judged by the presence of iron and manganese compounds, which have a variable valence. An oxidizing environment gives the presence of hematite and phosphates, and a reducing environment gives the presence of iron, manganese, zinc and lead sulfides.

The temperature regime of waters is determined by indicator facies, remains of organisms, and using oxygen isotope analysis.

Signs of warm reservoirs are: thick strata of limestone, dolomite, iron, manganese, salt-bearing facies, remnants of corals and graptolites. Siliceous and glacial-marine sediments with complexes of cold-loving marine organisms (foraminifera, mollusks, ostracods, diatoms) were deposited in cold water bodies. Benthic foraminifera and bivalves have large shells in cold conditions.

Particularly reliable data on ancient reservoirs are provided by diatoms, which have mastered all ecological niches in the Earth's reservoirs.

Methods for restoring climates of the past. Indicators of a warm and humid climate are: a high degree of weathering of continental deposits and their deep chemical decomposition; formation of a red-colored weathering crust; fossil soils (red flowers, zheltozems, krasnozems); the predominance of biogenic carbonate accumulation over chemogenic in water bodies; deposits of bauxites, kaolins, coals.

Signs of a cold climate are: low thickness of the weathering crust; low degree of chemical decomposition of sediments; the presence of glacial and water-glacial deposits.

The arid (arid) climate is evidenced by: the calcareous content of all continental facies; the predominance of chemogenic carbonate accumulation in water bodies; continental and lagoonal salt accumulation; wide development of eolian facies; variegation.

Seasonal stratification of facies (banded clays, salt-bearing strata) makes it possible to judge the presence and nature of climatic seasons.

A qualitative assessment of paleoclimates is given by the remains of plants and animals. There are very clear indicators among them. For example, evergreens, corals. The species composition of plants and animals is important. The worse the conditions (cold climate), the poorer the species composition. A similar relationship is typical for marine organisms: 40,000 species of marine animals live off the coast of Indonesia, more than 6,000 of them in the Mediterranean Sea, and about 400 species in high latitudes.

A quantitative characteristic of ancient climates is obtained from the isotopic composition of fossil organisms. The method was developed by the American scientist, Nobel Prize winner G. Urey. The 18 O and 16 O isotopes accumulate in the skeletons of living organisms. Their ratio in organisms varies depending on the ambient temperature. The 18 O/16 O ratio makes it possible to obtain quantitative indicators of paleoclimates, to judge the extent of climatic zones and seasonal fluctuations. Thus, the isotope method showed that in the Pleistocene the surface waters of the Pacific Ocean at the equator had a temperature 6ºС lower than the present one.

Particularly good indicators of the climates of the past are given by a conjugated method of research - spore-pollen, diatom, isotope and nuclear chronology.

Methods for studying ancient landscapes. Ancient landscapes are characterized by geome and biota features. We have already mentioned the geome, and as for paleobiots, they are restored using paleobotanical and paleozoological methods. The following tasks are solved:

1) the systematic composition of flora and fauna is determined;

2) the evolution of flora, fauna and physical and geographical conditions is traced;

3) paleobiogeocenoses and their distribution are studied;

4) paleoecological studies are being carried out, i.e., the reconstruction of the vital activity of organisms.

Palynological (spore-pollen) analysis makes it possible to reconstruct the vegetation of past eras. The analysis is performed in more than 150 laboratories in Russia and about 20 specialists in Belarus. The objects of study of the method are pollen grains and spores of terrestrial plants. Developing in huge quantities in stamens and sporangia (1 copy of sorrel produces about 400 million pollen grains), pollen and spores spill out and disperse over a wide area in the form of pollen rain. Once in the soil or water bodies, pollen and spores are buried. Their shell, consisting of cork-like cellulose and sporopollenin, is strong and resistant, which allows them to persist for a very long time.

Paleocarpological analysis (the study of fruits, seeds and cones) characterizes the paleoflora well.

Botanical analysis of peatlands (buried and modern) makes it possible to determine the composition of plants and the type of peat accumulation.

Additional information about the flora and the conditions of its habitat is obtained by other types of analyzes.

With the help of organographic analysis, plant imprints and their morphology are examined.

Paleoxylological analysis makes it possible to study the structures of fossil wood.

Dendrochronological analysis is used in the study of tree rings and climatic seasons.

Diatom analysis allows you to study the flora of the aquatic environment - diatoms.

Florogenetic analysis is used to study modern flora and determine the age of its elements.

Arealogical analysis (analysis of modern areas) provides an opportunity to obtain information about their location, integrity, etc.

Paleozoological methods, like paleobotanical methods, study individual groups of animals, since they characterize different landscapes and have different morphologies. In addition, in the history of the Earth, different groups of animals played the main roles, therefore they have their own specifics and have their own significance in paleogeography. The structure of paleozoological methods was given above.

With the help of paleo-ontological materials, one can obtain paleoclimatic characteristics - the temperature of January, July, the average annual, annual precipitation. Using the arealogical method developed by Iversen (Iversen, 1944), it is possible to find climatic characteristics for each point of the modern range of a plant and animal and construct pair correlation climatograms for several species that are currently rarely found among themselves. The area on the graph, where all areas intersect, should characterize the climatic indicators of the past of the territory where a similar composition of plants or animals was found.

The mathematical method was used to calculate the dependences between climatic characteristics and the structure of modern spore-pollen spectra under various conditions. For example, for landscapes of steppes and semi-deserts:

1. Average annual temperature = 18.67 - (0.11 TR + 0.02 SP + 0.001 Chen).

2. Average July temperature = 15.8 + 0.09 TR + 0.26 Eph + 0.002 Chen + 0.013 Art + 0.065 Wodn.

3. Average temperature in January = (2.5 average annual temperature + 0.023 Chen + 0.13 Brya) - (20.61 + 0.11 TR).

4. Annual precipitation = 989.6 + 2.17 Pin - (8.92 Gram + 7.9 Chen + 10.9 Art + 16.11 Wodn),

where: TR - total amount of pollen (herbaceous plants), Art - (wormwood), Chen - (mary), Eph - (ephedra), Wodn - (aquatic), Pin - (pine), Gram - (cereals), SP - (spore), Brya - (spore of green mosses).

Methods for determining absolute age. The age of deposits is determined by the content of radioactive elements and their decay products. Many minerals contain radioactive isotopes that are used for dating. Among the many methods, the following are the most commonly used:

1) helium method, lead isotope, where the decay process of uranium and thorium is used:

238 U ® 8 He + 206 Pb

235 U ® 7 He + 207 Pb

232 Th ® 6 He + 208 Pb;

2) potassium-argon:

40 K + e ® 40 Ar;

3) rubidium-strontium:

87 Rb ® b + 87 Sr;

4) samarium-neodymium:

147 Sm ® a + 143 Nd;

5) rhenium-osmium:

187 Re ® b + 187 Os;

6) radiocarbon:

14 C ® b + 14 N;

7) thermoluminescent: accumulation of energy of the radiation field by minerals.

The most ancient rocks of the Earth are a complex of metamorphic and intrusive rocks of the Isua region in West Greenland. According to the rubidium-strontium and lead-isotope methods, their age is 3.8 billion years. The age of meteorites is 4.5–4.6 billion years. The earth, accordingly, cannot be younger than this figure, since it originated from meteorite dust.

Academician Fersman A.E. noted: “... man managed to turn the death of an atom into a tool for understanding the world and make it a standard of time.”

The paleomagnetic method studies the remanent magnetization of minerals, which provides information about the ancient magnetic field (direction, intensity) and the conditions under which the formation of rocks took place.

Anthropological and archaeological methods reconstruct the features of human development, economic activity and the formation of anthropogenic landscapes.

Historical methods are used in economic and geographical research and in historical and geographical reconstructions.

MAIN

PALEOGEOGRAPHIC

FACTORS

Hypotheses about the causes of changes in natural conditions in the past are divided into two groups - astronomical-physical and geological-geographical.

Astronomical-physical (cosmic) paleogeographic factors. Among the cosmic paleogeographic factors (reasons), the main one is solar radiation (quantity and quality of solar radiation) received by the Earth. At the same time, in some statements it appears that the flow of solar rays was constant, but the position of the Earth in relation to the Sun changed. In others, the main importance is attached to changes in the very radiative power of the Sun, as a variable star.

The change in the elements of the earth's orbit in the past was indicated by the English astronomer Kroll in 1875. The principles of this phenomenon were mathematically substantiated by M. Milankovich. The change in solar radiation across the planet was associated with a change in the position of the Earth in the solar system.

1. The inclination of the earth's axis has changed in relation to the modern one (23 ° 24 "). The more vertical position of the earth's axis (<23°24") выравнивало годичное распределение солнечной радиации по широте – исчезали зимние и летние контрасты, а более пологое положение (>23°24"), on the contrary, enhanced the contrasts. The duration of such periods was 40 thousand years for the Pleistocene.

Paleomagnetic studies also point to a change in the tilt of the earth's axis. The movement of the geographic pole took place along a complex trajectory from the equatorial zone of Central America to its present position. The data obtained on different continents repeat the pattern of the movement of the poles, but fix them at different points on the Earth, which indicates the movement of the continents.

Geologists say that the equator in the Precambrian was inclined relative to the modern one at an angle of » 70°, and in the Paleozoic - 45°.

2. The shape of the earth's orbit was changing. A more circular orbit brought the Earth closer to the Sun, while an elliptical orbit removed it, which reduced or increased the loss of solar radiation due to distances. The periodicity of such phenomena is 92 thousand years.

3. The change in the time of the onset of the autumn and spring equinoxes, i.e., the transition of the Sun through the equator, is carried out with a period of 21 thousand years.

Several hypotheses are devoted to the emissivity of the Sun and its influence on the paleogeographic processes of the Earth. Epik's hypothesis states that solar activity, as a result of the conversion of hydrogen into helium, weakened at times and then recovered to its current level, which led to an alternation of humid and arid conditions. Simson's hypothesis is associated with an increase in the activity of solar radiation compared to the modern one. At the same time, evaporation, the amount of clouds and precipitation increase. Temperatures are dropping and glaciers are forming. Predtechensky's hypothesis speaks of a weakening of the interzonal exchange of air masses during periods of solar activity. The hypothesis of Soviet scientists is based on the fact that there are long-term changes in all groups of natural processes (general structure and relief of continents, volcanism and plutonism, climate, sedimentation, types of landscapes, evolution of flora and fauna). According to this hypothesis, two types of development of nature are distinguished - geocratic and thalassocratic.

The geocratic type is characterized by a wide development of land, a pronounced arid climate, a general weakening of sedimentation, an increase in granite formation, a crisis in flora, and an almost complete cessation of coal accumulation and bauxite formation.

The thalassocratic type is distinguished by large transgressions of the sea, a humid climate with dense clouds, an increase in the volume of terrigenous sedimentation, a lush development of vegetation (polychronous floras), and an intensive accumulation of plant carbon and coal.

The transitional type is associated with violent volcanism, dynamic landscape structure, contrasting climate, clear geographical zoning, and more complex sedimentation processes.

In connection with these paleogeographic features, it is assumed that the solar system, making its way around the center of the Galaxy, passed through spaces differently saturated with cosmic matter. Thus, the passage of the solar system through absorbing galactic nebulae could cause periodic weakening of solar radiation, which affected the climate, exogenous processes, and conditions for the development of the organic world. In another case, the Solar System could pass through the nebula of the Galaxy saturated with cosmic matter, which could be an additional factor of gravitational influence that excited the Earth's crust in different ways, in some cases causing the emergence of sialic blocks and granite plutonism (geocratic phases), in others, a partial subsidence of the sial and intrusion into the earth's crust of the main material (thalassocratic phases). So, for example, G.F. Lungershausen and G.P. Tamrazyan associated the culminating epochs of orogeny with the moment when the Solar System crosses the plane of the Galaxy, at which the maximum speed of movement develops, caused by the greatest concentration of masses in the zone of the galactic equator. Such a simultaneous and equally directed impact of the changing space environment on the upper shells of the planet (lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere) determined the coincidence of long-term changes in all major groups of exogenous and endogenous processes.

Geological and geographical (planetary) paleogeographic factors.Tectonic and orographic factors influenced the ratio of land and ocean, which led to a change in paleogeographic processes. If the areas of the ocean exceeded the areas of land, the development of homogeneous landscapes over large areas was observed. The climate of the Earth became uniform, and the circulation processes weakened. This was due to the fact that a large volume of water accumulated heat and retained it for a long time. The presence of large land areas makes the processes more contrasting, zoning becomes more complex, the climate becomes more continental with distinct interzonal contrasts and a large equator-pole temperature gradient; increased atmospheric circulation.

Paleogeographical significance geographic location of land. If the land area is larger at high latitudes, nature will be more contrasting and the climate more continental than if the land area is larger at low latitudes. The inner parts of the continents receive more heat and light, but less moisture, so zones of steppes, semi-deserts and deserts are formed here, and zoning shifts to the north. As the land increases, the anticyclonic circulation of the atmosphere develops, and with it the cooling of the land.

Was of great importance hypsometric land level. The higher the average value of the land level, the lower the air temperature, the lower the atmospheric pressure, the greater the evaporation. With a decrease in the average level, the climate became warmer and more humid. The role of mountain barriers that influence the formation of paleolandscapes is also significant.

volcanic factors. Volcanic eruption affects the gas composition of the atmosphere and the lithological features of sediments - ash, lava, breccia. Dust particles in the atmosphere are condensation nuclei and contribute to an increase in cloudiness. The particles can reflect the sun's rays and reduce the level of radiation by 10-20%, which lowers the air temperature by 0.5-0.7°C. Volcanic activity affects the CO 2 content, which ranged from 0.3% in the early Carboniferous to 0.03% at the present time, which was a difference in air temperature from the "greenhouse effect" of 20 °.

oceanic factors. L. B. Rukhin, the author of the monograph "Fundamentals of General Paleogeography", noted that the tectonics of the ocean floor influenced the dynamics of the ocean waters. Repeatedly, the polar basins were isolated due to tectonic uplifts of the Thomson Ridge, which stretches along the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean from Scotland, through Iceland to Greenland. During the period of uplifts of the ridge, the Gulf Stream did not enter the Arctic Ocean, cooling of the waters and glaciation of the ocean took place, followed by the continental glaciation of Eurasia and North America.

The second feature of ocean waters is the deep circulation of waters, which occurs due to differences in their density. During periods of cooling, heavier cold waters of the northern latitudes rush to the equator and cool the water mass in the equator region. During periods of warming, the evaporation of water from the ocean at the equator increases the salinity and density of water in the ocean. The waters of the equator rush to the north, raising the temperature of the ocean waters.

Salinity of ocean waters is an important paleogeographical factor, since it affects evaporation from the surface of the oceans and the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. The low salinity of the waters of the ancient oceans contributed to the high humidity of the atmosphere. With an increase in salinity in the oceans, the pressure of water vapor increased and evaporation weakened; the content of vapors in the atmosphere decreased and the continentality of the climate increased.

Paleogeographic factor of the composition of the atmosphere. The radiant energy of the Sun on Earth is converted into thermal energy, i.e., the Earth processes short wavelengths into long wavelengths.

The modern atmosphere transmits 48% of the sun's rays and retains 93% of long-wave radiation.

Water vapor is the best regulator of the ratio of short-wave and long-wave radiation, since it transmits solar radiation well and ideally delays thermal radiation. Clouds are of particular importance. In the history of the Earth, continental and oceanic conditions have changed each other, increasing and decreasing evaporation.

But for the formation of clouds, condensation nuclei are needed in the form of volcanic dust, smoke, ice crystals, etc. In geological history, there has been a decrease in cloudiness and an increase in the sunshine of the climate.

Absolutely impenetrable for the thermal radiation of the Earth is CO 2, which in the modern atmosphere is only 0.03% of its volume. If there were no CO 2 at all, then the average annual air temperature of the Earth would be lower by 21°С and would be –7°С. Initially, there was 98% CO 2 in the atmosphere, but gradually CO 2 was bound by carbonates, and 1.5% was dissolved in ocean waters. Now there is an equilibrium of CO 2 in the oceans and the atmosphere. Every year, 200 billion tons of CO 2 pass in one direction and the other. An increase in the current of CO 2 from the atmosphere to the ocean cools the Earth, glaciers and ice are formed in the ocean. An increase in the volume of ocean ice increases the concentration of CO 2 in the waters, since the content of CO 2 in ice is low. Excess CO 2 from ocean waters gradually moves into the atmosphere and raises the air temperature, ice disappears, the volume of ocean waters increases, where there is already a lack of CO 2 saturation.

The entry of CO 2 into the atmosphere is also associated with volcanic eruptions, the respiration of living organisms, the mineralization of plant and animal remains, and the burning of organic matter.

Ozone (O + O 2 \u003d O 3) (atom + molecule) also retains long-wave radiation and increases the air temperature.

Paleolandscape factors affect the nature of sedimentation and the burial of palogeographic information.

Anthropogenic factors transform nature and create the basis for the emergence of environmental problems.

4. PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS____

The end result of paleogeographic research is the compilation of maps.

Depending on the degree of justification, there are:

– paleogeographic maps;

– schematic maps;

- sketches.

The first two types of maps must necessarily show the actual material underlying the selection of certain paleogeographic elements.

Depending on the scale, the territory covered, and tasks, paleogeographic maps can be global, survey, regional, and detailed. It must be remembered that any paleogeographic map shows a generalized geographical situation for a long time. The time periods increase with the age of the deposits.

There are special paleogeographic maps that depict a certain process, a component of nature, or a connection between elements (objects). These include: paleolithological, paleotectonic, paleogeomorphological, paleobotanical and floristic, paleoclimatological, paleofaunal, paleolimnological. Maps of paleogeographic conditions for the formation of minerals are compiled. Paleogeographic maps are complemented by lithofacies profiles, which can be used to trace the change in the paleogeographic situation in time and space.

The development of a paleogeographic map includes the following steps:

1. A description of sections and wells is compiled (material composition).

2. Time intervals that are of interest to the researcher are highlighted.

3. According to the selected time interval in space, the lithology of the facies is studied and mapped on a scale. A lithofacies map is obtained.

4. A lithofacies profile is built.

5. The conditions of the sedimentation environment (paleoecological) are established.

6. A paleogeomorphological analysis is carried out, where the relief, demolition areas and features of continental sedimentation are determined.

7. The paleogeographic situation is shown in color - water basins with normal salinity are given in blue tones (depending on depth), with increased salinity of the lagoon and the sea - lilac, and with low salinity and fresh water - green.

Denudation lowlands are shown in yellow, while higher elevations are shown in pink and brown.

The dynamics of the processes is shown by arrows - the removal of terrigenous material, the direction of river flow.

Mineral deposits are given with special icons.

Mapping steps can be added to refine individual paleogeographic elements. For example, maps of the living conditions of organisms, the formation of sediments, ore and authigenic minerals, etc. require additional development of paleoclimatic characteristics and a comprehensive analysis of paleogeographic maps. It turns out a landscape-climatic map. It displays: a) denudation and accumulative landscapes; b) areas of development of zoo- and phytocenoses; c) zonal climate characteristics and their provincial features; d) the amount of precipitation and features of their distribution.

With the revival of the ideas of A. Wegener's mobilism, which were transformed into the doctrine of lithospheric plate tectonics, and the development of paleomagnetic research, paleogeographic maps began to be built on the basis of the former distribution of geographic poles, land and ocean. These cards are called palinspastic. They are rather sketchy and are compiled on a global or regional scale.

Recently, Academician K. K. Markov developed a method for paleogeographic conjugate analysis of reference sections. A reference section is one or more of the most prominent natural outcrops (or wells) in a particular area (site, region), complementing each other and providing complete information about the composition of sediments, their stratification, and paleogeography of the area where the areas are located. The main requirement for the reference section is the highest possible stratopaleogeographic information content, which is realized in the process of its study. Based on these materials, maps of paleogeographic zoning are compiled.

5. STAGES

PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL

EARTH DEVELOPMENT ____________

PALEOGEOGRAPHY

PRECAMBRIAN

Precambrian lasted 3 billion 950 million years. Divided into three parts (eras). Hadean- the pre-Archaean stage of the development of the Earth was 600 million years long. Archaean the stage lasted 1,500 million years (“archeos” - ancient). Proterozoic the stage (“proteros” - primary, “zoe” - life) lasted 1,850 million years. During the marked time, 7/8 of the history of the Earth has passed.

The life of the Earth began from the moment of the formation of its geospheres - the shells of the Earth. Initially, a core was formed from ferruginous planetesimals (pieces torn off from the Sun, interstellar dust) that did not contain radioactive elements in the high-temperature phase of the gas-dust nebula. As the nebula cooled and iron compounds were consumed, aluminosilicates began to be attracted to the core. And the larger the volume of the nucleus became, the more aluminosilicates with radioactive elements were formed in their masses. Gradually, the core was surrounded by a mantle. The mantle was a good thermal insulator, which made the core plastic. The movement of the metallic and aluminosilicate phases also proceeded further due to the kinetic energy from the bombardment by meteorites.

Gradually, protomancy and protocora were formed, which, thanks to radioactive decay, could repeatedly melt and metamorphize their substance.

What happened on Earth during these first 500–600 million years, called the Hadean stage? No traces have yet been found, since the oldest rocks are 3.96 billion years old. This can be judged by materials from the Moon and other planets.

The surface of the Earth was probably covered with a thick layer of "bulk" material (up to several tens of meters) such as lunar regolith, which served as a good screen for the thermal radiation of the Earth. As a result of radioactive decay, the crust warmed up. Additional energy came as a result of large-sized planetesimals hitting the Earth. A particularly intense bombardment took place about 4.0 billion years ago. Craters with molten lava formed at the impact sites. Another source of energy was the process of differentiation of chemical elements inside the Earth into the core and sialic crust.

The bombardment by meteorites in the upper shell led to the melting of vast areas and the formation of rocks close to basalts. There was no intra-terrestrial melting yet, since the temperatures of the earth's layers were low.

Thus, two earthly shells have already been outlined in development - the proto-nucleus and protomancy. Were there an atmosphere and a hydrosphere at that time? This process was associated with the release of chemical elements from the solid primary matter of the Earth. Only the beginning of the melting of the upper shell (crust) and the appearance of basalt magmas led to the formation of water vapor and gases. At that time, the substance of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere was not sufficiently separated and represented a mixed vapor-gas mass, enveloping the entire planet in a thick and dense layer. The permeability for sunlight was very weak, so darkness reigned on the surface of the Earth. The undivided steam-gas shell consisted of water vapor and a certain amount of acid fumes: H 2 O, CO 2 , CH 4 , CO, H 2 S, SO 2 HCl, HBr, HF, Ar, H and other gases and compounds. Part of the vapor condensed into liquid water and formed shallow proto-oceans, the waters of which were saturated with anions from mantle degassing and represented a fairly strong solution of HCl and H3BO3 with pH = 1–2. Cations did not enter the water, since the drift from the land was insignificant due to the flat relief.

Archean stage took place in three phases of 0.5 billion years - early, middle and late. The presence of rocks of this time is characteristic, which makes it possible to speak more confidently about the paleogeography of the early stages of the Earth's history. These are the so-called "gray gneisses" found on the Canadian, Baltic, Ukrainian, Aldan shields, in the east of South America and Africa, in the west of Australia. They contain large amounts of Na, Ni, V, and Cr and low K, U, Th, Rb, Ti, and a particularly low 87 Sr/86 Sr ratio of 0.699–0.701 (i.e.,< 1). По химическому составу это были известково-щелочные породы с высоким содержанием Na 2 O, K 2 O, CaO и низким – Al 2 O 3. Кварца (SiO 2) в них было более 65%.

Upon contact with the atmosphere, rocks were destroyed and chemical elements were carried out, mainly cations Na + , K + , Ca ++ , Al +++ , Fe +++ , Fe ++ and others into the ocean waters, where chlorides and fluorides were formed and the ocean gradually became acidic. The atmosphere, as a result of cooling and weathering, lost its acidic smoke and condensed some of the water vapor. As a result, the composition of the atmosphere changed and contained: 98% CO 2, 1.5% N 2, 0.19% Ar, impurities H 2 O, NH 3, CH 4, H 2 S. The temperature was high, but below the boiling point water (< 100 о С). Атмосфера становится прозрачнее и вместо мрака на Земле образовалась глубокая тень. Дегазация Земли продолжалась и летучие вещества H 2 O, CO 2 , Cl, N 2 , S 2 , Ar, F 2 , H 2 , B, Br насыщали атмосферу и океаны.

According to scientists, in the Middle Archean, due to the uneven development of the core, zones of constant lava eruptions begin to appear on the Earth's surface and gradually the basalt crust from "gray

Egypt.

In the history of society, the creation of historical and cultural landscapes, and in particular the emergence of landscape gardening art, was noted in ancient Egypt about 4 thousand years BC. Garden and park art reached a special scope during the heyday of the ancient capital of Egypt - Thebes. In Thebes, luxurious villas were built, surrounded by gardens. Numerous plants were specially brought from other countries, in particular from Punt (the territory of modern Somalia).

The compositional center of the ensemble has always been the main building, located among a large number of reservoirs, often of impressive size (60x120 m). Aquatic plants grew in the ponds, fish and birds swam. According to the surviving documents, it is confirmed that all elements of the garden - ponds, alleys, vineyards, flower beds, open pavilions - were stylistically interconnected, which suggests that the gardens were created according to a predetermined plan.

Mesopotamia.

With a general regularity due to the irrigation system, the gardens of Mesopotamia were not divided into symmetrical quadrangles, plantings were located more freely. The gardens at Nineveh, with their rich assortment of trees and shrubs, can be considered the prototypes of modern botanical gardens. The most famous ensemble - the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, located on landscaped stepped terraces made of mud brick - was created during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (VI century BC). Unfortunately, no traces of this grandiose device remain, nevertheless, such a design technique is found throughout the history of landscape gardening art in various countries and has come down to our days in somewhat modified forms in the form of roof gardens.

Persia and India.

These states were distinguished by a high level of development of garden and park art. Here, too, gardens were symbols of paradise, created for recreation at royal residences and required large financial outlays. The basis of their strictly geometric (regular) layout was the so-called "chor-bak" - four squares. Alleys lined with slabs intersected at right angles, and the space between them was filled with dense tree plantations or occupied by ponds and luxurious flower beds. The resulting large square was divided into four smaller squares, and so on. This division of space was carried out not only with paths, but also with the help of plants and a large number of small channels with water. The main and best part of the garden was occupied by trees and flowers of rare species, and the old powerful shady plane trees, on the branches of which pavilions were arranged, are still especially popular.

Ancient Greece.

In the ancient states of the European Mediterranean, there are various trends in the compositional use of relief as a landscape component. They are associated with general differences in artistic culture. In particular, the Greek approach in architecture and art is characterized by the desire for harmony with nature, for the maximum possible fusion with the surrounding landscapes. The acropolises and theaters of the Hellenistic cities of the Peloponnese and Asia Minor (the Acropolis of Athens, the amphitheaters of Ephesus, Priene, etc.), which constituted the centers of urban compositions, often look like a sculptural completion of the rocks on which they are located. For example, the features of the relief in Priene were especially expressively used, where the mountain slope naturally forms a terrace for squares and public buildings.

Such planning is connected not only with the peculiarities of cultural traditions. It is known that initially the settlements of both the mainland of Ancient Greece and the islands were mainly located directly on the sea coast. But during periods of military raids, it was they who were ruined as the easiest prey. Therefore, cities began to be built at some distance from the coast in mountainous areas, which, naturally, implied the obligatory use of relief in urban planning. This trend can be traced mainly on the islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas in a later period (from the 6th-7th centuries AD) due to frequent Arab raids.

Thanks to the conquests of Alexander the Great, the society of ancient Greece was influenced by the culture and traditions of Egypt, India and Persia. Landscape gardening was no exception. The Greeks introduced a new trend into the design of cultural landscapes - a freer compositional solution. Since Greek art was originally characterized by the desire for harmony with nature, gardens and parks were likened to a living organism, which is in close connection with the natural environment and man. In this context, the main principles of urban planning of Aristotle (4th century BC) should be noted, who believed that the design of both a settlement and a park should be considered not only as a set of technical issues, but also from the point of view of artistry: “A city should be built in a way that keeps people safe and at the same time makes them happy.”

Ancient Rome.

In ancient Rome, on the contrary, they proclaimed the idea of ​​opposing the geometric and rectilinear forms of an artificial landscape to the free picturesqueness of the surrounding nature. The Roman tradition preferred a regular layout not only of streets and squares, but also of country villas surrounded by extensive gardens. Villas, as a rule, were built in mountainous areas, so they had a stepped compositional solution.

The garden at Roman villas was usually divided into three parts: an ornamental garden, an orchard, and a vegetable garden. The ornamental garden, in turn, also consisted of three parts: for walking, horseback riding and a park area. The walking part was located on the first terrace directly in front of the house. The alleys connected at right angles, dividing the garden into geometrically regular sections, saturated with sculpture, fountains, cool decorative pools, intricately trimmed trees and shrubs, lawns and flower beds. The garden for horseback riding or stretcher walks consisted of shady groves separated by wide alleys. From various viewpoints, the surrounding landscapes were opened. The park part of the garden included, in addition to the wooded area for walking, fish ponds and colossal multi-storey poultry houses. At the same time, such parks often had very impressive dimensions: up to 120 - 150 hectares. The orchard, vineyard and vegetable garden were located separately from the villa and also had a regular layout. Many fruit and ornamental plants were exported from the conquered countries, which contributed to the expansion and enrichment of the garden and park flora. In particular, cherry, apricot, peach, almond, quince, plum, fig, walnut, pomegranate, etc. were grown from fruit trees; from ornamental plants yew, oleander, jasmine, roses, daffodils, hyacinths, tulips, levkoi, etc. The variety of vegetables grown is hard to imagine.