The years 1689-1725 in Russian history refers to the period of the one-man rule of Peter I. At this time, the country underwent many reforms (changes in any sphere of life introduced by law) and transformations.
The role of Peter the Great
The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can be called key, with his policy he was able not only to achieve access to the Baltic Sea, but also to radically transform the country into an advanced power. One of the most significant events in the internal politics of the state was the publication of the decree on single inheritance in 1714, according to which the noble estate (a type of land ownership granted for military or government service and not inherited) was equal in rights with the boyar patrimony (ancestral hereditary land ownership) , and they could now be passed on to only one of the sons. The reason for the adoption of the decree was the desire of Peter I to prevent the fragmentation of estates, which, in his opinion, led the nobles to ruin; however, the main goal of the tsar was to force young noblemen (representatives of the privileged class) who were left without an inheritance to the public service. The consequence of such a social policy was a sharp increase in the number of employees among the nobility and the formation of the Russian bureaucracy. At the same time, this decree caused massive discontent of the nobles, which is why it was canceled under Anna Ioannovna in 1731.
Northern War: Foreign Policy of the Period 1689-1725
The most important and fateful event of this period, and of Russian history as a whole, was the victory in the Northern War, which lasted 21 years. The main reason for entering the war against Sweden for Russia was the need to enter Europe through the Baltic Sea. To fight such a powerful state, the Northern Alliance was formed in 1699, which, in addition to Russia, included Denmark, Saxony and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the war, battles took place, which demonstrated the increased power of the Russian army and thereby strengthened the international authority of Russia. Russian troops, in addition to Peter himself, were led by such generals as F. Apraksin and A. Menshikov, thanks to whose skill Russia ultimately won. The war ended with the signing of the Nystadt Peace Treaty in 1721. The consequence of the victory in the war was the exit of Russia to the Baltic Sea, which facilitated trade and relations with Europe. Russia became one of the world powers, and Peter I received the title of emperor.
Period policy evaluation
In general, the policy of Peter I caused controversy both among his contemporaries and in the future among historians. Historians such as V.N. Tatishchev, Lomonosov considered the reforms of Peter to be the basis for the flourishing of states, others (V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.M. Shcherbatov, N.M. Karamzin) were inclined to believe that his innovations ruined the country and destroyed Russian national foundations. But despite the contradictions regarding reforms, all historians recognize the greatness of Peter I in foreign policy, since it was under him that Russia became a great European power
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Tula State University
Abstract on history on the topic:
Russia in the era of Perth I
(1682-1725)
Completed group st-ka 720151
D.V. Chernyshova
Checked Gofman S.Kh.
1. Preconditions for Peter's transformations.
2. The contradictory nature of the reforms of Peter I.
3. Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century.
# 1. Preconditions for Peter's transformations.
During the 17th century, Russia made significant progress in its development. However, according to some important indicators of the economy, it lagged significantly behind the advanced countries of Western Europe, where the formation of bourgeois society was underway.
Bourgeois revolutions took place in the Netherlands and England, industry, trade, navigation were on the rise. Western states actively seized colonies in different parts of the world, which brought them precious metals, cheap labor - slaves, opened up opportunities for enrichment. Even those countries where the changes were not so significant had advantages over Russia. Thus, Sweden had a merchant fleet of up to 800 ships, in addition to warships. Iron smelting there reached 30 thousand tons per year, the metal was supplied to the foreign market thanks to its convenient access to the seas.
Russia had neither a merchant nor a navy. Back at the beginning of the 17th century. the Swedish king said that Russia cannot launch a single ship, since the sea has been taken away from it. Russia was also cut off from the seas in the south. Smelting of metal in our country was many times inferior to Sweden. Natural resources were still poorly explored, which is not surprising given the low population density, especially on the outskirts, where the main deposits of minerals were located. Silver and gold were not mined - material for making coins. We had to count on receiving it from other countries. Only at the end of the 17th century. the development of silver ore was begun in Siberia near Nerchinsk. And copper was mainly imported from abroad.
The domestic industry was insufficient for the production of weapons. During the war years, large purchases of weapons were made in other states. As before, a poorly equipped and untrained noble militia was convened, although regiments of the "new order" were created - the forerunners of the regular army.
Serious shortcomings were revealed in the activities of state institutions - orders. There was no consistency between them, their terms of reference were not clearly defined. There were many courts for different groups of the population, taxes were collected by various orders, and monetary expenses were also not controlled by a single body. The country did not have an annual budget.
The needs of the further development of Russia put forward the task of enhancing the state policy in the field of education, culture and science. The original and rich culture of our people has created the prerequisites for the perception of the achievements of other states in technology, science and everyday life.
However, the opinion about the almost catastrophic situation in Russia at the end of the 17th century is a delusion. Then there was no threat of losing state independence. At the same time, the transformations could accelerate the development of the country. Inevitably, the question arose about the seizure of the sea coasts for closer economic, political and cultural ties with Western Europe. It was impossible to expect that any power would peacefully and voluntarily let Russia into the seas. The harsh reality testified that a stubborn struggle lay ahead, it was necessary to prepare for war.
Fyodor Alekseevich died on April 27, 1682. His younger brother Peter was placed on the throne. Some researchers believed that this was the will of the deceased, since he understood that his middle brother Ivan, who had reached the age of 16, was not able to rule (he suffered from scurvy, had poor eyesight and stuttered). Peter was 10 years old, but his inquisitive mind, liveliness and excellent health differed sharply from Ivan. Under pressure from the Miloslavskys, Tsarevich Ivan was proclaimed the second tsar. On June 25, 1682, both tsars were married in the Assumption Cathedral. Since both tsars were minors, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina was considered the ruler under them. However, she failed to form around her a loyal circle of people capable of firmly holding power in their hands.
As a result of the Strelets uprising on May 15, 1682, the elder sister of the princes Sofia Alekseevna became the de facto ruler.
Immediately, a reshuffle began in the government, and V.V. Golitsyn. The archers began to be called the Court Infantry. In 1686, the "Eternal Peace" was concluded with Poland, according to which the Left-Bank Ukraine and Kiev were permanently assigned to the Russian state. In return, Russia joined the Holy League against Turkey. In 1687 and 1689. - Crimean campaigns led by Golitsyn, which ended in failure.
Sophia tried in every possible way to strengthen her position. She participated in official ceremonies, received ambassadors, from 1684 they began to mint her image on coins, in 1686 Showing herself the patroness of science and knowledge, in 1687 she opened the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy - the first higher educational institution in the country ...
All this time, Peter and his mother lived in the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow, in the Kremlin he only attended receptions of foreign ambassadors and other solemn ceremonies. His favorite pastime was war games with "amusing regiments" consisting of children of the same age. He eagerly began to comprehend geometry and navigation. In 1688, Peter went to Lake Pereslavskoye and, with the help of Dutch craftsmen, builds ships there.
In January 1689 Natalya Kirillovna married her son to Evdokia Fedorovna Lopukhina. From that time on, he began to be considered an adult and independent person, able to rule the country. In the summer of the same year, she summoned her son to Moscow in order for him to present his rights to power. In August, Peter left for Preobrazhenskoye. Sophia was informed that there he was collecting his amusing shelves to go to the Kremlin. In fear, she began to gather the faithful archers. Upon learning of this, Peter left for the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. On August 8, his supporters began to come to him. Soon the number of the ruler's friends dropped sharply. She had to hand over the head of the Streletsky order F.L. Shaklovity, who was later executed. She herself was arrested and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent.
Since 1689, the mother of the tsar, N.K. Naryshkina, and her closest relatives. They were opponents of innovation, people with little education. Places in the Boyar Duma, in orders, and voivodship positions were divided between the Naryshkins, Lopukhins and their friends.
In the first years of his reign, Peter was almost not involved in state affairs. Increasingly, Peter arranges maneuvers, reviews, improves the armament of his soldiers, and attracts foreign officers to their training. Several warships are being built on the Pereyaslavskoye Lake near Moscow by the decree of the tsar.
Left to himself for many years in the village of Preobrazhenskoye, Peter never received a systematic education. Naturally inquisitive, capable, grasping everything new literally on the fly, he now casually continues to fill in the gaps in knowledge, uses every opportunity to learn something new and useful. Increasingly, he spends time in the German Quarter. At the same time, Peter is quickly mastering languages - German and Dutch.
In the summer of 1693, with his associates, he went to Arkhangelsk. There he orders Dutch specialists to build a ship, and at a local shipyard he lays down the first two Russian frigates. Since then, the sea and maritime affairs have captured him even more.
Natalya Kirillovna died in 1694. Peter was very upset by the death of his mother. He locked himself in the wards and did not go out to people for several days. When he came out, he was already an independent ruler, there was no longer his mother behind him - his long-term protection and support.
On March 9, 1697, Peter, as part of the "Great Embassy", went to European countries. The purpose of the embassy was to once again push the countries of the "Holy League" to war with the Turks. In addition, one should get acquainted with Western technical innovations, purchase weapons, hire specialists of all kinds and, if possible, master various sciences themselves. For a year and a half, the Russian ambassadors, and Peter with them, traveled across Europe. The impressions received were enormous. The future emperor realized that his country needed cardinal reforms and modernization. When he returned, he "rolled up his sleeves" and got down to business.
No. 2. The controversial nature of Peter's reforms I .
The period of the reign of Peter I in Russian historiography is usually regarded as the beginning of a new era in the history of Russia. Another Klyuchevsky V.O. remarked: "... according to a simplified systematization, our entire history was divided into two periods: ancient Russia, pre-Petrine, and new Russia, Petrine and post-Petrine". With all the conventionality of such a periodization, it reflects the main thing - the enormous historical significance of Peter's reforms for the fate of Russia. No wonder S.M. Soloviev characterized this period as a terrible upheaval, a painful turning point in the life of the people, the revolution of the early 18th century. A.I. Herzen called Peter I a revolutionary on the throne. *
The defeat at Narva in 1700 revealed not only the weaknesses of the country's armed forces - the unpreparedness of new regiments, the lack of large-scale combat experience, the unreliability of foreign commanders - but also insufficient
* Meanwhile, whether it was a "revolution" or not, different sources indicate differently. In some, Peter's activities are viewed as revolutionary. he broke with the old order in Russia. Others say that Peter continued the policy of his predecessors, but more progressively and sharply, which differed from the calm and measured rule of the first tsars of Russia. But everyone agrees only that Peter in a short time promoted Russia in its development to the level of European powers.
the military-economic base of the country, poor organization of business, archaic management. All the ulcers and shortcomings of old Russia were, as it were, focused in this instructive lesson that Charles XII gave to Russia. After Narva, Peter took up the reforms more decisively (but according to some historians, the first reforms did not have a strategy, they were carried out inconsistently, even the legalization of Peter's reforms began to receive only at the end of his reign).
Administrative reform.
It was designed to ensure the unlimited power of the autocrat in addressing all issues of state life. For the latter, from now on, strict centralization, bureaucratization of the state administration apparatus, a regular army, the inclusion of the Church in the general system of state administration, and the streamlining of the financial sphere became characteristic.
The restructuring of the state administration was carried out within the framework of administrative reforms carried out at all "levels" of power. The administrative reforms were significantly influenced by the models of central government in Sweden, and at the level of regional government - by the conquered by Russia of Estonia and Livonia. The highest institution of the Petrine administration was the Governing Senate, which replaced the former Boyar Duma, in 1711. Since 1722, the Senate was headed by the Prosecutor General (before that, the Chief Secretary).
Instead of orders that functioned on the basis of a personal principle, collegia were established that operated on the principles of collegiality. In 1717 - 1718. 12 collegia were established in Russia, functioning on the basis of special regulations (charters). The presidents of the collegiums were Russians, and the vice-presidents were in most cases foreigners. One of the advisers or assessors of the collegium had to be a foreigner. The introduction of foreigners into the collegiums was supposed to increase the efficiency of the work of the new governing bodies. In practice, however, the collegial form of government was not as effective as its creator had hoped.
The transformation of local government is characterized by a complex of independent reforms: urban government (1699 and 1721), local government (1708 - 1711, 1719), an attempt to grant the nobility the right to elect their representatives to local government (1702 - 1705, 1713, 1714). The first was an attempt to establish in Moscow in 1699 the Burmister Chamber, and in other cities - the position of the Burmister. However, urban self-government in Russia did not have a solid foundation. And in 1721, the Chief Magistrate was established in Petersburg, in charge of the affairs of the entire urban estate in Russia. City magistrates appeared in large cities. In 1708 - 1709 the country was divided into 8 provinces. The provinces were headed by a governor appointed by the king. The executive and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. In 1719 they were divided into 50 provinces, which were divided into counties headed by voivods. At the same time, another tendency can be traced in the activities to improve local legislation - Peter's desire to involve the local nobility in government affairs. But here Peter faced the formidable inertia of the nobility. The intensification of the role of the nobility in the localities led to the expansion of its official duties, which caused discontent and sometimes even hostility of the nobility itself. *
Military reform.
In the reorganization of the Russian armed forces, Peter relied both on domestic traditions, a deep knowledge of the national character of the Russian soldier, and on the European experience of military construction and military art. The recruitment system was the basis for manning the army and navy. Every year the taxable population gave one recruit from a certain number of souls. Combat training was carried out in accordance with the regulations. The main ones were the Military Regulations of 1716 and the Naval Regulations of 1720. Peter was directly involved in their development. They also consolidated the absolutism of Russia: "His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but power and authority has its own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, according to the will and benevolence, to rule" (Military Regulations 1716). Several special schools were established to train officers. By a decree of February 26, 1714, Peter decisively banned the production of noblemen as officers who did not apply for military service in the guard and "do not know from the foundation of the soldier's business." The effectiveness of Peter's military reform was evidenced not only by the victories of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War, but also by the viability of many principles. **
Economic reform.
An important place in the complex of Peter's transformations is occupied by economic reforms, which were distinguished by a practical orientation. The greatest successes were achieved in the development of industry, which was determined primarily by the need to first of all meet the needs of the army. The role of the state and the monarch himself in the development of industry was literally overwhelming. Only the state itself, with its enormous means, with the strong power of the monarch, was able to solve these problems. Nevertheless, the government did everything possible to stimulate the development of private capital. For the construction of new manufactories, industrialists were provided with loans, various privileges and monopolies. The creation of industrial companies was encouraged, often under direct pressure from the state. To weaken competition from foreign producers, the government established increased tariffs on goods imported from abroad.
Thus, the first attempt at the forced industrialization of the country was a matter of the state. This gave V.O.Klyuchevsky the basis to define Peter's policy in relation to manufactories as "state-greenhouse education of industry." It is impossible to ignore the presence by the end of the XVII century. a sufficiently developed internal market, national private capital, which to a large extent ensured the dynamism and overall success of the reforms. As for the socio-economic nature of the Petrovsky manufactories,
* in my opinion, this reform did not bring the expected results and only doubled the bureaucratic apparatus.
** I believe that this reform is one of the most successful reforms of Peter I.
then elements of capitalist and serf relations were intertwined in them (since serfs were the labor force in the factories).
Agricultural reform.
It was this main branch of the country's economy that was the least accessible for the regulatory activities of the state, for a significant part of the peasants was fully owned by the landowners. In relation to the landowners, who were driving the peasants to ruin by their extortions, the government limited itself to measures of control and suggestion. Peter was almost the first to draw attention to the need to spread agricultural knowledge among the people. In 1721, a decree was issued on the use of scythes and rakes (instead of sickles) when harvesting grain. The first vineyards were laid on the Don. Animal husbandry was under the special guardianship of the state: measures were taken to improve the breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, for which they bought purebred cattle abroad.
Social reform.
Social reforms based on Peter's concept of the "common good" were carried out in the interests of the ruling class. The transformations in the social sphere did not shake the structural basis of society, but made the class boundaries even clearer, while at the same time increasing the level of social mobility of some categories of the population. The adoption in 1722 of the Table of Ranks divided the entire mass of government officials into 14 ranks. She established the order of production to the rank in the civil and military service, not according to nobility, but according to personal merit and abilities. However, the real opportunities for ordinary people to climb the career ladder were very limited.
Peter's transformations gave impetus to the emergence and development of new social strata of Russian society - the bureaucracy and the bourgeoisie.
The peasants were viewed by Peter primarily as the main source of taxes to the treasury and soldiers to the army. This approach also led to the significant changes that took place in the system of feudal property, peasant obligations, in the tax mechanism. In particular, in accordance with the decree on single inheritance in 1714, the estates of the nobles were turned into fiefdoms. The land and the peasants passed into full ownership of the landowners. The legal difference between peasants and slaves has finally disappeared. The strengthening of serfdom went hand in hand with the intensification of the economic oppression of the landlords and the state against the peasantry. The sharply increased needs of the nobility for money were satisfied by increasing the size of the feudal rent. The state tax burden on the peasant class also increased significantly.
The power of the landowners over the peasants expanded simultaneously with an even greater restriction of the civil rights of the latter. In 1724, a passport system was introduced in Russia, which made it impossible for the peasants to leave their place of permanent residence without the landowner's permission. The decree of 1713 ordered, upon the request of the landowner, to punish the peasants who were indignant against his power with a whip.
Financial reform.
The reform began in 1718 with a census of the entire taxable male population of Russia, regardless of age. Then the poll tax was introduced. By changing the object of taxation, the state managed to practically double the amount of taxes collected from the population. Also, various kinds of state duties were introduced (road, stationary, construction, etc.)
The inconsistency of the reforms of Peter I can be viewed from various sides and aspects of his activities, but they are all interconnected and proceed from each other.
The Russian tsar in the West did not like everything - he either met European democratic traditions with hostility or indifference: parliament, the system of popular representation, elections. He never realized that it was precisely such radical political changes in England and Holland that propelled these countries into the ranks of the leading industrial powers in Europe. Individual freedom, civil liberties, freedom of entrepreneurship - these concepts remained alien to him. Returning to Russia, he remained a Russian autocrat, an absolute monarch, towering over his subjects - slaves who trembled at one of his menacing gaze. None of Peter's entourage indulged in illusions about the monarch's democracy. He really could easily visit his comrades-in-arms and ordinary people, zealously fulfill the duties of a "volunteer", "bombardier", "general", "rear admiral", bow down and carry out the orders of a superior military "chief". He allowed objections and even heated debates - but only for the time being and up to a certain limit. If a subject crossed this limit, indicated by the king himself, then a formidable shout followed, a cruel punishment, and sometimes a block. And all the "chicks of Petrov's nest" knew this very well.
A rapid leap in development is on the bones of the serfs. It was already indicated above that the last strength and hopes for survival were literally sucked out of the peasants, this was demanded by the time and the monarch.
There was a violent mobilization of the population for the settlement of the captured Azov and the construction of the Taganrog harbor. Thousands of peasants are herded into the Voronezh forests to build a fleet. The fugitives are brought back in chains and with red-hot iron marks on their faces.
The lower classes of society, the "vile people", as Peter said, are for him only a tool in the implementation of great achievements. He began to work for Russia, for his Russia, as he saw and understood it, but in this Russia there was no place for humanistic views and goals, for concerns about human rights, i.e. those ideas and practices that were beginning to make their way in the West. In Russia, shackles still rattled, and people were driven to great achievements with wooden blocks around their necks.
But Peter was cruel not only to the peasants, any disobedience led to punishment. So a few days before leaving for Europe in 1697 in Moscow, a streltsy conspiracy against Peter was discovered. The tsar took an active part in the interrogations of the accused. The interrogations were accompanied by brutal torture. Peter spent long hours in the dungeon, personally developed a savage ritual of execution of the conspirators. No less brutally, he dealt with other conspirators on his return from Europe.
Another contradiction is evident in social reform. The Table of Ranks established the order of promotion to the rank according to personal merit and abilities. In my opinion, this is only opened up access to the nobility for people from the lower strata, because the lower strata were uneducated, downtrodden serfs.
The only and main goal of Peter I was the good for Russia, its greatness. He achieved this goal and the results stunned everyone then and are overwhelming to this day, but Russia's means of well-being are no less mind-boggling - many thousands of ruined souls of their people, not slaves as it was in Europe, but compatriots .
No. 3. Russian foreign policy in the first quarter Xviii century.
While in Europe, Peter clearly understood that the European powers did not intend to fulfill their allied obligations in the fight against Turkey. The negotiations of the powers with Turkey were in full swing secretly from Peter. The Russian tsar got his bearings quickly. He himself took a course of non-peaceful settlement of affairs with Turkey and turned his gaze to the North. Access to the Baltic, a breakthrough to the sea in the northern direction have always been in the sphere of Russian politics since the time of Ivan III. Now Poland, Brandenburg, Denmark, Saxony could become Russia's allies here. They experienced the strongest pressure from the powerful Sweden, which seized vast territories along the shores of the Baltic, including from Russia. So, instead of an anti-Turkish alliance, Peter took with him from Europe a secret agreement with a number of northern countries to fight against Sweden. This was a bold and calculated turn in Russia's entire foreign policy.
On August 8, 1700, Peter received news of the conclusion of a thirty-year peace with Turkey, according to which Azov and the coast of the Azov Sea to the Mius River remained with Russia. And the very next day, the king moved his troops to the Swedish fortress of Narva. A long Northern War began, which became the second life of Peter and subjugated the country for twenty long years. Peter acted covertly and unexpectedly. Russian diplomats in every possible way hid the turn that had taken place in Russian foreign policy. They pretended that Russia was still seeking a war with Turkey. The Swedes, wanting to divert the Russian forces to the south, even presented Peter with 300 new guns for the Azov fleet and the Taganrog fortress. In the days when the Russian army was already moving to Narva, the Russian ambassador to Sweden presented King Charles XII in Stockholm with Peter's letter with assurances of friendship. The lessons of European diplomacy were clearly for the future use of the Russian tsar.
The enemy of Russia was extremely dangerous. At the head of Sweden was the 18-year-old King Charles XII. Despite his youth, he showed bright leadership skills. Taking care of the army, the king increased taxes, introduced recruiting. All Sweden worked during these years for its army and its warlike king.
But before the Russian troops approached Narva, Charles XII struck a swift blow to the allies. Withdrew Denmark from the war. He quickly dealt with the Saxons. After that, the "Swedish lion" rushed towards Russia. He landed his 15,000-strong army on the coast of present-day Estonia and moved to Narva.
By this time, the Russian units led by Peter for several weeks were conducting an unsuccessful siege of the city. Ammunition and food were sorely lacking. The soldiers suffered from cold, hunger and disease. In addition, discord began in the army. The newly assembled regiments did not yet have combat training and experience. Peter could fully rely only on his guards regiments and Lefortovs. The Swedes approached Narva on November 18. Peter did not expect them to appear so quickly, and by this time he had left for Novgorod.
Charles XII did not hesitate and the next day immediately led his small but decisive, disciplined and well-armed army to attack the Russian positions. Foreign officers immediately surrendered to the Swedes, leaving the army without leadership. The Russian regiments began a disorderly retreat. Only the guards units withstood the Swedes' blow. Part of the army was captured. On the other side of the river, only the former "amusing" ones retreated in perfect order.
During the negotiations, Charles XII invited them to leave their positions. At the same time, the defeated army retained its weapons, but it lost all its artillery. The battered and ruined Russian regiments wandered towards Novgorod. The tsar called the defeat at Narva "great happiness" because it "drove away laziness and forced it to work and art day and night."
It was a sensitive blow, but it did not decide the outcome of the entire war. A connoisseur of the era of Peter I, historian N.I. Pavlenko described the years of the Tsar's life coming after Narva in the following way: “Peter rushes like a courier - day and night, in any weather and at any time of the year. An ordinary cart or sleigh was for him a place to sleep and a dining table. He only stopped to change horses. Each movement of the tsar is not only a milestone in his personal life, but a certain stage in the mobilization of the country's efforts to fight the enemy. " Moscow - Novgorod - active army - Moscow again. The king is constantly on the road, on the move; he charges everyone with his irrepressible energy and determination. Already at first, Peter quickly and skillfully organized the defense of the north-west of Russia, supervised the construction of fortifications in Novgorod and Pskov. Peter ordered his "amusing" associate, Prince Anikita Repnin, to put in order the demoralized Russian army. Peter drove urgent messengers to the Urals, where the first iron foundries and ironworks were put into operation, and demanded that the local craftsmen promptly release cannons. To speed up the reconstruction of the artillery lost near Narva, Peter ordered to remove the bells from the churches and give them to be melted down for weapons. In a short time, the Russian army received 300 new guns of various types. They were of high quality, more durable, longer-range and easier to move than the enemy's vaunted Swedish metal guns. Now it was up to the army.
During this period, in the nature of Peter I, one more characteristic feature is more and more clearly manifested: selfless, frantic service to Russia.
Taking advantage of the departure of the main forces of Charles XII to Poland, Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev launched an offensive in Livonia, and already in 1701 the Russians felt the taste of the first victories. The announcement of the first successes delighted Peter. He demanded from his generals to build on their success, not to let the enemy come to his senses. In the Baltics, the initiative completely passed to the Russian troops.
In Ingria and Karelia, along the course of the Neva River, where powerful Swedish fortresses stood, Peter himself led the military operations. Since 1702, Russian troops have won a number of victories here. At the source of the Neva, the Noteburg fortress was besieged. She stood on the island and was considered inaccessible. Peter directed the siege and assault on Noteburg. After a powerful and prolonged artillery bombardment and destruction of part of the fortress walls, Russian troops launched an assault. The city was captured.
Russian troops continued their offensive along the course of the Neva and in the spring of 1703 captured the fortress of Nyenskans at its mouth. In the months that followed, Russian troops continued to build up their successes in the Baltics. The ancient Russian cities of Yam and Koporye were liberated from the Swedes. This is followed by the siege and assault on Dorpat. Finally it is Narva's turn. The city was surrounded and blockaded. The fortress walls were breached on August 9, 1704, during a short and fierce attack, Russian assault columns took Narva. Now in the hands of Peter was not only the entire course of the Neva, but also Karelia, a significant part of the Baltic.
But there was still a strong army under the command of Charles XII himself. Having finished with Poland, he again turned his army against Russia. By this time, Russian troops advanced into Lithuania, occupied part of the Ukrainian lands that were part of the Commonwealth. When Charles XII appeared near the Russian borders, Peter I did not tempt fate and retreated deep into Russian territory. He set himself the task of gathering all the main Russian forces into a fist and at the same time "tormenting the enemy" in every possible way, he intended to give the battle in the most favorable conditions
For the first time, the crowned rivals met face to face under the village of Raevka. Russian dragoons overturned the Swedish cavalry here. After that, Charles XII decided to move south. By this time, the Swedish camp received the news about the transition of the Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazera to their side.
The main part of the Russian army also moved south, accompanying Charles XII, and Peter I himself with a cavalry corps went to meet General Levengaupt's corps moving from near Riga to join the main Swedish army with a huge wagon train of ammunition and food.
On September 28, 1708, near the village of Lesnoy in a wooded and swampy area, Peter with an 11,000th cavalry attacked a 16,000th Swedish corps moving along a forest road. Only about 7 thousand Swedes broke through to Charles XII, losing all the train and artillery.
All autumn and winter 1707 - 1709. Charles XII rushed about Ukraine. Everywhere meeting Russian barriers and fierce resistance of the population.
By April, the significantly thinned, but still strong enough Swedish army laid siege to Poltava. The capture of Poltava opened the way to Moscow, in addition, from here the roads led to the Crimea, with which Charles XII negotiated mutual actions against Russia. The Swedish reserves were also in a hurry to Poltava, and the army of the new Polish king, the Swedish ally, was sent here. Thus, the capture of this small fortress could significantly change the entire course of the war. But Poltava fought off all the fierce assaults of the Swedes. A small garrison and armed urban population fought to the death, organized sorties, inflicted damage on the Swedes.
Spring ended, hot June days came, and the army of Charles XII was never able to capture Poltava. In early June, Peter arrived at the camp of the Russian troops. It was near Poltava that he decided to give a general battle to Charles XII. The tsar himself chose the place of the battle: the Russians stood up as a military fortified camp, having behind the right bank of the Vorskla River, across which bridges were built. Ahead was a small plain, closed on the left flank by dense forest; ahead, where the attack of the Swedes was expected, was also a forest. Next came the Swedish positions, and behind them - Poltava. The Swedes thus found themselves trapped in a narrow stretch of rugged terrain, where it was difficult for them to carry out their favorite wide maneuver. Ahead of them was the Russian army. Behind - Poltava. Peter also developed a battle plan. Peter attributed special importance to artillery, which more than doubled the number of artillery barrels from the Swedes.
On June 26, in his speech to the soldiers, Charles XII recalled glorious victories, called to stand up for his king, promised to defeat the "Russian barbarians" and arrange a feast in their captured tents. In the predawn twilight on June 27, 1709, the Swedes launched an attack. They suffered huge losses, and yet they broke through. At 9 o'clock in the morning, Peter gave the order to withdraw the main part of the army from the camp and made the famous speech: “And they would not think ... to be for Peter, but for the state entrusted to Peter, for his family, for the nation of all Russia. They would know about Peter that his life is inexpensive, if only Russia and Russian piety lived. " Peter personally led the infantry into a counteroffensive. The Swedish breakthrough was stopped, and along the entire front, the Russian regiments, at the signal of the tsar himself, launched a counteroffensive. The Swedish army crumbled. Karl XII and Mazepa fled.
The fleeing Swedes hid in the surrounding forests, but there they were pursued by Russian dragoons. Part of the Swedes reached their camp near Poltava. But here, too, a blow awaited them. The gates of the fortress were opened, the Poltava garrison went on the attack; the Swedes began to throw their weapons to the ground and surrender.
The battle soon died down. Almost 3 thousand Swedes were taken prisoner. In the hands of the Russians was the entire treasury of the king, 264 Swedish banners and standards, including the royal one.
In pursuit of the king, cavalry was sent with an order to capture the sworn enemy of Russia at all costs. But Karl and Mazepa managed to take refuge in Turkish territory. The Swedish army ceased to exist. Peter was overjoyed. He ordered to build a church on the site of the Poltava battle and erect a monument in his honor. Letters of glorious victory were sent to European governments. The peak of the celebrations was the triumphal entry of Peter to Moscow, accompanied by guards regiments, trophies, captured Swedes led by their generals.
But even in the midst of celebrations and feasts, Peter did not forget that although the enemy was broken, he was not completely defeated. Russian troops are being transferred to the Baltic states. Peter helps Augustus II to come to his senses. The protégé of the Swedes Stanislav Leszczynski flees Poland. The troops, led by Sheremetev, begin successful operations in the Baltic States, the corps under the command of Menshikov invades Poland. Saxony and Denmark again return to the Northern Union. Russian troops seize Vyborg, Revel, Riga, and other cities and fortresses. By the autumn of 1709, Estland, Livonia, Karelia were completely liberated from the Swedish troops. Russian prestige in Europe was growing rapidly, and along with this, the fear of the growing Russian power grew. It was after Poltava that the European capitals, primarily London, Paris, Vienna, seriously thought about how to prevent the strengthening of Russia, prevent it from establishing itself in the Baltic Sea, and save Sweden from complete defeat. The original confrontation between Europe and Russia has revived again.
During these highest military and diplomatic successes, Peter received a deafening blow. In 1710 Turkey declared war on Russia. Karl XII and Mazepa, who took refuge in Turkey, achieved their goal - they pushed her against Russia. The first clashes with the enemy were successful: the Crimean Khan's raid on Kharkov was repulsed, the forces of the Cossacks of Right-Bank Ukraine, as well as the Polish troops and Tatars hostile to Russia, were defeated. In the outbreak of war with Turkey, Peter enlisted the support of the Wallachian and Moldavian rulers, and also counted on the support of Serbian troops and the help of August II. With a swift throw, Sheremetev's army rushed southward and in May was already on the Dniester. The king himself was with this army.
But the successfully launched war suddenly changed its course. The Wallachian ruler betrayed Russia and issued Russian military plans to the Turks. The Moldovan ruler was unable to provide food support due to the poor harvest in the country. August II sent no help, and the Serbs were detained on the Wallachian border. In addition, Sheremetev hesitated and allowed the 120,000-strong Turkish army to go first to the Danube and build bridges. Time was lost. Now the Russians could not count on the help of the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula. A terrible June heat began. As a result, the Russian troops in their march from the Dniester to the Prut were forced to meet the main Turkish forces on the scorched, deserted and waterless steppe. Food shortages soon disappeared. The soldiers suffered greatly.
In early July, the Turks were able to encircle the 38,000th exhausted and tired Russian army on the banks of the Prut. The Turkish army numbered 125 thousand people, not counting the Crimean cavalry. A desperate battle broke out on 9 July. The three-hour battle ended with the retreat of the Turks. And yet the position of the Russian army remained desperate. There was no food or water, the soldiers could hardly stand on their feet. The encirclement ring was tightening more and more tightly. The Tsar, his generals, the entire army were threatened with captivity.
Peter decided to ask the Turks for peace. An experienced diplomat, Pyotr Shafirov, was sent to their camp. At the same time, a decision was made to break out of the encirclement in case of failure of the peace negotiations: there could be no question of surrender.
For a long time there was no answer from the Turkish camp. Peter and his associates did not know that there were heated disputes in the Turkish military leadership. The Russians also did not know that, having received the order to attack the Russian camp, the janissaries refused to go on the offensive, because have already experienced the power of Russian resistance. It was not known in the Russian camp that the cavalry corps, sent earlier by Peter towards the Danube, went to the Turks in the rear and was ready to attack them. All this persuaded the Turkish command to negotiate peace.
Without waiting for an answer from his envoy, Peter ordered to deploy the regiments for the last desperate battle. They moved forward. This was the last signal to intimidate the Turks. Their representative immediately appeared in the Russian camp.
Peace conditions were difficult: Russia returned Azov to Turkey, had to tear down the Taganrog fortifications, and pledged to withdraw its troops from Poland. But all the conquests in the Baltics were preserved. The army was given a free return home with weapons, artillery, banners.
After returning from the Prut, Peter with renewed vigor develops military operations in the Baltic. Russian troops appear in Pomerania - on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea. In 1712, in the battle of Friedrichstadt, Peter himself led the battalions in an attack, during which the Swedish corps was utterly defeated, scattered and taken prisoner.
In 1713, Peter transferred the main military operations to Finland. From here, Charles XII received food. His military bases were here. In the summer, the Russians, with the help of a galley fleet, landed troops on the Finnish coast. The main cities of the region opened their gates to the Russians without a fight.
Realizing that it is impossible to completely crush Sweden without destroying its fleet, Peter decides to postpone the war at sea. In the summer of 1714, the Swedish fleet was completely defeated near Cape Gangut.
In European capitals, the news of the victory of the Russian fleet shocked politicians. Panic broke out in Sweden, and the royal court hastily left Stockholm.
When Peter moved sea trade from Arkhangelsk to St. Petersburg, Charles XII ordered to sink all non-Swedish ships that appeared in the waters of the Baltic. In response, Russia increased its military pressure on Sweden. This finally scared the European countries. August II began negotiations with Sweden for peace. England is pushing Denmark to attack Russia. The English king concludes a military alliance with Sweden and orders his squadron to enter the Baltic waters and attack the Russian fleet. Austria also takes an anti-Russian stance.
In 1716-1717. Peter again goes to Europe to strengthen the international position of Russia. He manages to secure Russian support from Holland, France and Prussia. And yet, by the end of the second decade of the 18th century. Russia in martial law, as at the beginning of the century, remains one on one with Sweden. After returning from abroad, Peter is actively preparing for the landing of troops on the territory of Sweden.
The threat of a Russian invasion, the mediation of France, in the end, force Charles XII to begin peace negotiations. But during the siege of one of the Norwegian fortresses, he dies, and the new government intended to continue the war. At this time, the British squadron entered the Baltic waters.
After the breakdown of negotiations, Peter personally led the landing operation. Russian avant-gardes appeared near the capital of Sweden, Stockholm. Swedish garrisons in a number of cities either surrendered or were defeated. These new threats from the Russian troops forced the Swedes to return to the negotiating table, but they were dragged out in every possible way.
The last point in this war was the second naval battle between the Russian fleet and the Swedish fleet, on June 27, 1720. The Russians were the first to attack the enemy's heavy frigates and, in a fierce battle, took four of them on board. Some of the enemy ships were sunk, the rest fled from the battlefield.
Only a year later, after the landing of the 5,000th Russian corps on the Swedish coast, the Swedes agreed to sign the peace. It was imprisoned in the city of Nishtadt on August 30, 1721, according to it, Russia received into eternal possession Livonia, Estonia, Ingermanland, part of Karelia with Vyborg, the cities of Riga, Revel, Dorpat, Pernov, a number of islands in the Baltic Sea. After that, Russia became one of the strongest European countries, a major maritime power.
List of used literature:
1. "History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 18th century." ed. A. N. Sakharova
2. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history"
3. Encyclopedia "History of Russia" V.5, Part 2, ed. Aksenova
4. "The fate of reforms and reformers in Russia" ed. R.G. Pihoi, P.T. Timofeeva
5. magazine "Domestic history" No. 2004-6.
The years 1689-1725 in Russian history refers to the period of the one-man rule of Peter I. At this time, the country underwent many reforms (changes in any sphere of life introduced by law) and transformations.
The role of Peter the Great
The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can be called key, with his policy he was able not only to achieve access to the Baltic Sea, but also to radically transform the country into an advanced power. One of the most significant events in the internal politics of the state was the publication of the decree on single inheritance in 1714, according to which the noble estate (a type of land ownership granted for military or government service and not inherited) was equal in rights with the boyar patrimony (ancestral hereditary land ownership) , and they could now be passed on to only one of the sons. The reason for the adoption of the decree was the desire of Peter I to prevent the fragmentation of estates, which, in his opinion, led the nobles to ruin; however, the main goal of the tsar was to force young noblemen (representatives of the privileged class) who were left without an inheritance to the public service. The consequence of such a social policy was a sharp increase in the number of employees among the nobility and the formation of the Russian bureaucracy. At the same time, this decree caused massive discontent of the nobles, which is why it was canceled under Anna Ioannovna in 1731.
Northern War: Foreign Policy of the Period 1689-1725
The most important and fateful event of this period, and of Russian history as a whole, was the victory in the Northern War, which lasted 21 years. The main reason for entering the war against Sweden for Russia was the need to enter Europe through the Baltic Sea. To fight such a powerful state, the Northern Alliance was formed in 1699, which, in addition to Russia, included Denmark, Saxony and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the war, battles took place, which demonstrated the increased power of the Russian army and thereby strengthened the international authority of Russia. Russian troops, in addition to Peter himself, were led by such generals as F. Apraksin and A. Menshikov, thanks to whose skill Russia ultimately won. The war ended with the signing of the Nystadt Peace Treaty in 1721. The consequence of the victory in the war was the exit of Russia to the Baltic Sea, which facilitated trade and relations with Europe. Russia became one of the world powers, and Peter I received the title of emperor.
Period policy evaluation
In general, the policy of Peter I caused controversy both among his contemporaries and in the future among historians. Historians such as V.N. Tatishchev, Lomonosov considered the reforms of Peter to be the basis for the flourishing of states, others (V.O. Klyuchevsky, M.M. Shcherbatov, N.M. Karamzin) were inclined to believe that his innovations ruined the country and destroyed Russian national foundations. But despite the contradictions regarding reforms, all historians recognize the greatness of Peter I in foreign policy, since it was under him that Russia became a great European power
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1682-1725 - the period of the reign of Peter I Alekseevich in Russia, from October 22, 1721 - the emperor known as Peter the Great. In 16821689. Peter reigned together with his brother Ivan V during the regency of his elder sister Sophia, independently ruled in 1689-1725.
In foreign policy, the main goal of Peter the Great was for Russia to gain access to the seas, therefore, the main directions of foreign policy were western, northwestern and southern. In the south, Peter I in 1695-1700. fought a war with the Ottoman Empire for access to the Black Sea, and with Iran in 1722-1723. - for the western and southern coast of the Caspian. In the west, in Europe, Peter I sought to find allies to fight Turkey, to borrow advanced industrial and military experience. To this end, he in 1697-1698. organized the Great Embassy to Europe. In the northwest, Peter I sought to obtain access to the Baltic Sea. To this end, he in 1700-1721. fought a war with Sweden.
In domestic politics, the goal was to transform Russia into a developed European power. Peter I carried out large-scale reforms in Russia. To strengthen the army in 1705, he introduced recruitment, in 1716 - adopted a new military regulations. A number of military educational institutions were created to train officers. To streamline the administration of the state in 1708, Russia was divided into 8 provinces, divided into provinces; in 1710 the supreme body of power, the Senate, was established, and in 1718-1720. new central management bodies were created - collegia, which replaced orders. In 1718-1720. a system of magistrates was established to govern cities. In 1714, the legal merger of estates and estates was consolidated. Peter I subordinated the church to secular power: in 1700 he forbade the election of a new patriarch, and in 1721 he created a Synod, headed by a civil official - the chief prosecutor. To equalize the old and new aristocracy, Peter I in 1722 introduced the Table of Ranks. In 1722, Peter I introduced a new order of succession to the throne, according to which the emperor himself appointed a successor. To streamline taxation, a population census was carried out in 1710, and in 1724 a poll tax was introduced. The actions of the king often aroused popular discontent. The forced introduction of European customs led to an uprising in Astrakhan in 1705-1706. Attempts to limit Cossack self-government triggered the uprising of 1707-1708. headed by K. A. Bulavin. New taxes and disrespect for national customs caused the Bashkir uprising in 1705-1711.
Historians, for example, S.M. Solovyov, are generally assessed positively during the reign of Peter I: Peter's reforms strengthened the state and introduced the elite to European culture, while strengthening absolutism. The military, technical and economic lag of Russia from Europe was overcome, access to the Baltic Sea was conquered, many spheres of the life of Russian society were transformed. At the same time, the forces of the people were extremely depleted, the preconditions were created for a crisis of the supreme power, which led to the "era of palace coups."
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Fragment comment
Your essay is replete with causal constructs, but the K-3 criterion can only be given two points. But the formulations of the historical roles - Sophia and Peter - need to be improved. The role lies in the concrete action. If the signing of the Eternal Peace, I can count, because the action is given with an indication of its meaning and in any way falls within the competence of the empress. But the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was conceived (i.e., it was a meaningful choice!) Under Fyodor Alekseevich, and this action is more likely related to the activities of Simeon of Polotsk. If you write about Sophia, then her actions in the period from May to September 1682 are more motivated, and therefore personally justified. Think about my proposal. I will give Sophia a K-2 score, but you did not fulfill this criterion perfectly.
Fragment comment
Unconditional causal relationship. The results of the war are indicated in the international and domestic political contexts. K-3 score.
Fragment comment
All these positions can be assessed only by the K-1 criterion. But I cannot count the leadership of the Synod as the historical role of Peter. All provisions of the type "" created "", "" developed "" "" "directed" "in the recommendations to the expert are clearly called inappropriate to the requirements of the criterion K-2.
Fragment comment
I confidently count the causal relationship - expanded, extended. You proposed two positions (the case of Tsarevich Alexei = Charter of 1722), showed their importance for the subsequent era, than invested in the criterion K-4 = indicated a historical perspective.
Fragment comment
With this conclusion, you remain exclusively within the period, and the requirements of the K-4 criterion indicate that the value of the period should be indicated in perspective. You can score on K-4 not for this paragraph, but for pointing out the palace coups that followed the Charter of 1722. To confidently get this point, it was necessary to show what fate awaited the establishment of the Peter the Great era - the Senate, the Synod, the provincial administrative-territorial division, the annexed lands of Ingermanland, Estland, Livonia.
Fragment comment
You do not write anything about this in the main part of the essay, therefore it does not work in the output either.
Historical writing: 1682-1725
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This is the period of the reign of Peter the Great, the period of large-scale reforms that affected all spheres of society. Peter began his reign together with his brother Ivan the Fifth, a sickly and feeble-minded teenager. This order of the two kingdoms developed as a compromise between the Naryshkin and Miloslavsky boyar families - relatives of the two tsars. Until the tsars came of age, their elder sister Sophia Alekseevna was appointed regent with them. The period of her reign was marked by the conclusion of the "Eternal Peace" with Poland in 1686, which secured new territories for Russia and served as the basis for the Russian-Polish alliance in the Northern War. Also during her reign, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was founded, which became the beginning of higher education in Russia.
In 1696, the period of the independent reign of Peter the Great began. In the years 1697-1698. the Grand Embassy to Western Europe was organized, the main goal of which was to find allies among the European states against the Crimean Khanate and Turkey. In addition, during the Great Embassy, the tsar got acquainted with the life and orders of European countries. This event became one of the reasons for the implementation of the great Peter's reforms. Also, the reasons for the reforms include: the backwardness of Russia in socio-economic, military and cultural terms from Western Europe; the elimination of international isolation; previous attempts at transformations of Aleksey Mikhailovich and Fedor Alekseevich; personal qualities of Peter the Great, his desire to turn Russia into a great power.
In 1700 the Great Northern War begins. Its reasons were: the need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea and return the coast of the Gulf of Finland; imperial policy of the Swedish king Charles the Twelfth and its desire to dominate the Baltic. The war lasted until 1721 and ended with the victory of Russia, which achieved access to the Baltic Sea and received territory in the Baltic (Livonia, In
Criteria
- 2 of 2 K1 Indication of events (phenomena, processes)
- 1 of 2 K2 Historical personalities and their role in the specified events (phenomena, processes) of a given period of history
- 2 of 2 Q3 Causal relationships
- 1 of 1 Q4 Assessment of the impact of events (phenomena, processes) of this period on the further history of Russia
- 1 of 1 Q5 Use of historical terminology
- 2 of 2 Q6 Existence of factual errors
- 1 of 1 K7 Presentation form
- TOTAL: 10 out of 11
