The proceedings of the episcopal courts were subject to certain rules. This disappeared with the Inquisition. As a judge, the inquisitor guarded the faith and punished heresy insults to God. He was also a confessor who fought for the salvation of souls from eternal destruction. He strove to fulfill his mission without hesitation in the choice of means. When the accused appeared before the court, he was required to take an oath that he would obey the Church, truthfully answer all questions, betray all the heretics known to him, fulfill any penance that might be imposed on him; if he refused to take such an oath, then he declared himself an exposed and inveterate heretic.
The inquisitor, unlike an ordinary judge, had not only to establish the facts, but also to ferret out the most intimate thoughts of his prisoner. The crime that the inquisitor pursued was spiritual, the criminal actions of the perpetrators were not subject to his jurisdiction. Simple doubt was considered heresy, and the inquisitor had to make sure that, outwardly being a faithful Catholic, the defendant was not a heretic at the bottom of his heart. But the inquisitors believed that it was better to sacrifice one hundred innocents than to miss one guilty one. Of the three forms of initiation of criminal prosecution - accusation, denunciation and search - the third turned into a rule. The accusation as a form of initiation of criminal prosecution was eliminated under the pretext that it caused controversy, that is, it gave the accused the opportunity to defend himself. Denunciation was not common, and from the very first days of the founding of the Inquisition, the search became an almost exclusive form of initiating a case. The accused was seen in advance as the culprit. In 1278, one experienced inquisitor took it as a rule that in areas strongly suspected of heresy, every inhabitant should be summoned to court, demanding that he renounce heresy and questioning him in detail about himself and others, the slightest lack of frankness should later lead to the punishments that were due for those who fell again into heresy. In the protocols of the Inquisition in 1245 and 1246. it speaks of two hundred and thirty interrogations of the inhabitants of a small town in the province of Avignon, of a hundred interrogations in Fanjo, and of four hundred and twenty interrogations in Mas S. Puelles.
No one who had reached the age at which, according to the Church, he was responsible for his actions, could not refuse the obligation to testify before the inquisitor. The councils of Toulouse, Beziers and Albi, prescribing to require an oath of abdication from the entire population, determined this age at fourteen years for men and at twelve for women; others believed that children should be sufficiently developed to understand the meaning of the oath; still others considered them responsible from the age of seven; some set an age limit of nine and a half for girls and ten and a half for boys. True, in the Latin lands, where legal majority came only at twenty-five years, no one younger than this age could be summoned to court; but this obstacle was easily bypassed: a guardian was appointed, under whose cover the minor was tortured and executed from the age of fourteen, when a person was made responsible on charges of heresy.
Absence was considered non-appearance and only increased the presumed guilt by a new sin; failure to appear was considered equal to recognition. Even before the establishment of the Inquisition, the search entered the judicial practice of spiritual courts. In canon law, a provision was introduced that in cases of failure to appear, evidence obtained by the search is sufficient for the prosecution without debate, the prosecution and defense. If the accused did not appear at the trial before the expiration of the established time limit after the announcement of the summons in his parish church, then a conviction was issued in his absence; the absence of the accused was replaced by the "presence of God and the gospel" at the moment when the verdict was read. Frederick II, in his edict of 1220, declared, following the Lateran Council of 1215, that any suspect who fails to prove his innocence within a year should be convicted as a heretic; this decree was also extended to those who were absent, who were subject to condemnation a year after their excommunication from the Church, regardless of whether or not evidence was collected against them. A person who remained a year excommunicated from the Church, not trying to remove excommunication from himself, was considered a heretic who denied the sacraments and did not recognize the Church's right to knit and allow. The Inquisition sentenced to life imprisonment those who could not be charged with any other crime other than evading court, even if they agreed to submit to the Inquisition and renounce.
Even in the grave it was impossible to hide. If the convicted person was sentenced to prison or other light punishment, then his bones were pulled out and thrown away; if his heresy deserved a fire, then his remains were solemnly burned. His descendants and heirs, who were subject to the confiscation of all property and the restriction of personal rights, were provided with some semblance of protection. In the court of the Inquisition, the prosecutor was also a judge.
The church preached the doctrine that the inquisitor was a spiritual and impartial father who, in his concern for the salvation of souls, should not be constrained by any rules; Any questionable issue was resolved "in the interests of faith". The inquisitor was authorized and prepared to keep his trial short; he was not ashamed of form, did not allow legal rules and the intricacies of lawyers to interfere with him; he shortened the proceedings, depriving the accused of the most ordinary opportunity to say a word in his defense, he did not give him the right to appeal and deferral. At no stage of the trial was it possible to reach a legal conclusion by taking into account the procedural formalities that centuries of experience have developed in order to prevent lawlessness and to make the judge feel the full weight of responsibility. The Inquisition clothed the case with deep secrecy even after the pronouncement of the verdict. If it was not necessary to make an announcement about the absent, then even a summons to the court of a person only suspected of heresy was made in secret. About what happened after the appearance of the accused in court, knew a few "modest" people, elected by the judge and who took the oath to keep everything secret; even knowledgeable people, called upon to give their opinion on the fate of the accused, were obliged to remain silent. Extracts from the minutes could only be communicated in exceptional cases and with extreme caution.
The inquisitorial court was not subject to control, the investigation was conducted in secret, with the use of cruel, sophisticated torture
Usually the course of the inquisition process was as follows. An individual was pointed out to the inquisitor as a suspect of heresy, or his name was pronounced by some detainee during his confessions; started a covert investigation and collected all possible evidence on his account; then they secretly demanded to appear in court on such and such a day and hour, and they took a guarantee from him; if he seemed intent on fleeing, he was unexpectedly arrested and held in custody until the day of his appearance at trial. According to the law, the summons to the court had to be repeated up to three times, but this rule was not observed. When the persecution was based on popular rumor, the first ones were called as witnesses, and when the number of guesses and empty rumors spread by these witnesses, who were afraid to incur a charge of sympathy for heresy, seemed sufficient to initiate a motivated case, they suddenly struck a blow. Thus, the accused was already convicted in advance; they looked at him as the guilty one for the very fact that he was summoned to trial. The only way to be saved was for him to admit all the charges collected against him, renounce heresy and agree to any penance that might be imposed on him. If, in the presence of evidence against him, he stubbornly denied his guilt and insisted on his loyalty to Catholicism, then he turned into an unrepentant, inveterate heretic who should be betrayed to the secular authorities and burned alive.
The inquisitor tried to gain recognition. The confession was always accompanied by an expression of conversion and repentance. The Inquisition considered the extradition of like-minded people to be evidence of sincere conversion. The refusal of the repentant heretic to betray his friends and relatives was taken as proof that he did not repent, and he was immediately surrendered into the hands of the secular authorities. One inquisitor of the 15th century. insisted that in no case should the accused be released, taking a surety from him; if he repents, he should be sentenced to life in prison. Denunciations were so important to the Inquisition that they demanded them with both promises and threats. The simplest way to obtain a confession was to interrogate the accused. The inquisitor prepared himself for him, comparing and studying all the conflicting testimonies, while the prisoner remained completely unaware of the evidence collected against him. The ability to conduct interrogations was the main advantage of the inquisitor. Manuals have been compiled containing long series of questions for heretics of various sects. A special kind of subtle art developed, consisting in the ability to set nets for the accused, to put them in a dead end and in contradiction with oneself. It happened, however, that the innocence or cunning of the accused triumphed over all the efforts of the inquisitor; but in this case the inquisitor resorted to deception and torture. In order to snatch a confession from the accused, the inquisitor considered it already established that fact that he still needed to prove, and asked about various small details. At the same time, the inquisitor was advised to turn over the case during interrogation, as if he coped with it, and then sharply declare to the accused that he was telling a lie, that this was the case; take the first paper that comes across and pretend to read in it "everything that can lead the accused into deception." To make this lie more effective, the jailers were ordered to gain confidence in the prisoners, to convince them to confess as soon as possible, since the inquisitor is a gentle person and will treat them condescendingly. Then the inquisitor had to declare that he had incontrovertible evidence and that if the accused wished to confess and name those who misled him, he would be released immediately. A more cunning ruse was to treat the prisoner gently, send experienced agents to his cell to earn his trust and induce him to confess with promises of leniency and intercession. At a convenient moment, the inquisitor himself appeared personally and confirmed these promises, saying that everything that is done to convert heretics is an act of mercy, that penance is a manifestation of love for one's neighbor and a spiritual medicine. When the unfortunate man asked for leniency for his revelations, he was reassured, saying that much more would be done for him than he asked.
In this organization, spies played a prominent role. Experienced agents who entered the prisoner's cell were ordered to lead him from confession to confession until they received enough material to accuse him, but that he did not notice. This was usually entrusted to converted heretics. One of them told the accused that his conversion was sham; after a series of conversations, he came to him later than usual, and the door was locked behind him. A frank conversation ensued, and behind the door were witnesses and a notary who overheard all the words of the victim. Whenever possible, they used the services of fellow prisoners, who received a certain reward for these services. But cruel measures were also used. Anyone who was caught or only suspected of heresy was deprived of his rights. His body was given to the discretion of the Church, and if the most painful physical suffering could compel him to confess to heresy, then they did not stop at any torment in order to "save his soul."
To break the stubbornness of a prisoner who refused to confess or renounce, they sent his wife and children to his cell, whose tears and convictions could persuade him. The prisoner's conditions of detention were dramatically improved, he was treated with visible kindness in the expectation that his resolve would weaken, oscillating between hope and despair. The inquisitor consistently applied all the techniques that could give him victory over the unfortunate. One of the most effective techniques was the slow torture of endless delays in the investigation of the case. The arrested person who refused to confess, or whose confessions seemed incomplete, was sent to his cell, and he was allowed to meditate in solitude and in the dark. After many weeks or months, the prisoner asked to hear him again; if his answers were again unsatisfactory, he was locked up again. It often happened that three, five, ten, or even twenty years elapsed between the first interrogation of a prisoner and the final decision. The unfortunate had to torment themselves in hopeless despair for decades. When they wanted to speed up the results and achieve consciousness, they worsened the prisoner's situation by deprivation of bed, food and torture; they put them on a chain in a damp pit, etc. The inquisitors resorted to more crude and simple instruments of the torture chamber. Torture contradicted not only the principles of Christianity and the traditions of the Church; with the exception of the Visigoths, the barbarians who created the states of modern Europe did not know torture, and their legal systems did not.
However, in 1252 Innocent IV approved the use of torture to disclose heresy, but did not personally authorize the inquisitors or their assistants to torture the suspect. The secular authorities were instructed to torture all captured heretics to confess and betray their accomplices, sparing the life and integrity of the body. Church canons forbade persons of clergy even to be present during torture. In 1256, Alexander IV gave the inquisitors and their assistants the right to forgive each other for "wrongs": from now on, the inquisitor himself and his assistants could subject the suspect to torture. Torture reduced the detention of the accused; it was a swift and efficient method of the Inquisition to obtain the desired confessions. In the documents of the investigation, torture is referred to as a completely common technique. In October 1317. John XXII decided to curtail the abuse of torture and ordered that it be used only with the consent of the bishop, if he could be contacted within eight days.
Medieval torture
But these rules soon fell out of use in practice. The inquisitors did not long put up with such restrictions on their privileges. Subtle scholastics explained that the Pope spoke in general about torture and did not mention witnesses; and the torture of witnesses was left to the discretion of the inquisitors and accepted as a rule. They admitted that the accused, after being caught by the testimony or confessed himself, became, in turn, a witness on the guilt of his friends and that, therefore, he could be subjected to any amount of torture in order to get him to expose. But even when the rules established by the pope were respected, the eight-day period gave the inquisitor the opportunity to act at his discretion after it expired.
It was widely accepted that witnesses could be tortured if they suspected they were hiding the truth; but lawyers disagreed as to the conditions under which torture was justified against the accused. Some believed that a reputable accused could be tortured when there were two witnesses against him, and a person of ill repute could be tortured based on the testimony of only one witness. Others argued that the testimony of one respected person was already enough to initiate torture, whatever the reputation of the accused. Still others believed that “popular rumor” was enough to use torture. Detailed instructions were drawn up to guide the inquisitors on this matter; but the final decision was made by the judge. Lawyers considered it a sufficient reason for torture if the accused showed fear during interrogation, hesitated or changed his answers, even though there was no evidence against him.
The rules adopted by the Inquisition for the use of torture were subsequently adopted by secular courts throughout Christendom. The torture was to be moderate and bloodshed must be carefully avoided. The judge's gaze was an exceptional rule that played a role in the choice of torture. By law, both the bishop and the inquisitor had to be present during the torture. The prisoner was shown the instruments of torture and persuaded to confess. If he refused, he was stripped and tied; then they again urged him to confess, promising him leniency. This often achieved the desired effect. But if threats and admonitions did not achieve the goal, then the torture was used with gradually increasing cruelty. If the accused persisted, they brought in new instruments of torture and warned the victim that they would be used; if even after that the victim did not weaken, they would untie her and appoint a continuation of the torture on another or third day. As a rule, torture could be applied only once; but it was enough to order not to repeat, but only to continue the torture, and, no matter how long the interruption was, it could continue indefinitely. It could also be said that new evidence was obtained and that it required new torture.
The stubborn victim was subjected to the same or even more severe torture. In those cases when they did not achieve anything after the torture, found by the judges sufficient, according to some "jurists", the unfortunates should be released with a certificate that no fault was found for them; others thought they should be kept in prison. In order to circumvent the prohibition of repeated torture, the investigators could, at any moment of the investigation, order the torture to be used on one point and to continue it indefinitely on the contiguous points. Torture was usually used until the accused expressed a desire to confess; then they untied him and carried him into the next room, where they listened to his confessions. If the confession was made in the torture chamber, then it was then read to the prisoner and asked if it was true. There was, however, a rule requiring a twenty-four hour break between torture and a confession or confirmation of a confession, but this was usually not enforced. Silence was considered a sign of consent. The duration of the silence was determined by the judges, who had to take into account the age, sex and physical or moral condition of the prisoner. In all cases, the confession was recorded in the protocol with a note that it was made voluntarily, without threats and coercion. If the accused recanted his confession, then he could be subjected to torture again, which was considered a continuation of the previous one, if it was not decided that he had already been tortured “enough”. Since the renunciation of recognition is "a hindrance to the activities of the Inquisition," he was punished by excommunication, to which the notaries who helped to draw up the renunciation were also subjected. The inquisitors considered the confession to be truthful, and the abdication a perjury, indicating that the accused was an unrepentant heretic and recidivist who should be turned over to the secular authorities. If a person confessed and, released from prison with the imposition of a penance on him, publicly claimed that he was forced to confess by fear, then he was looked at as an unrepentant heretic who should be burned as a repeat offender. If the confession taken back blamed third parties, then either the confession was upheld or the person who made it was punished as a perjury.
Since no consciousness was considered sufficient, if the names of the accomplices were not named, then the inquisitors, who did not even consider the disowners to be repeat offenders, could sentence them to life in prison for perjury. Not a single accused could escape when the judge of the Inquisition had already decided in advance to condemn him. The form in which these proceedings took place in the secular courts was less arbitrary and less effective. However, she gave the life of each person to the will of his enemy, who could bribe two unknown witnesses to support the prosecution.
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A special ecclesiastical court of the Catholic Church called "Inquisition" was created in 1215 by Pope Innocent III. The Latin word inquisitio means wanted. The ecclesiastical tribunal, which was charged with "detecting, punishing and preventing heresies", was established in southern France by Gregory IX in 1229. This institution reached its climax in 1478, when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, with the approval of Pope Sixtus IV, established the Spanish Inquisition. The main task of the Inquisition was to determine whether the accused was guilty of heresy. From now on, the inquisitors themselves were obliged to seek out heretics with all possible zeal.
Goals and means
The Pope issued extremely cruel decrees. According to them, all believers were required to report any suspicious person to the Inquisition. The names of the witnesses were kept secret. Defense lawyers were not allowed to attend the trial. The trial itself took place in strict secrecy. It was led by the inquisitor, who was both judge and prosecutor. The verdict could not be challenged. The accused who confessed and repented of their deeds were sentenced to life imprisonment; those who persisted in their "crime" ended their lives at the stake. In 1252, Pope Innocent IV supplemented the rules for conducting inquisitorial processes with the permission to use torture during inquest. The terror of the Inquisition negatively affected the attitude of the Church towards witchcraft, the accused under torture were increasingly forced to admit that they really were connected with demons, renounced Christian teachings and, with the help of the Devil, caused a lot of harm. The inquisitors collected these confessions and used them as evidence that the Devil not only incited his victims to abandon the Christian faith, but also rewarded them with supernatural powers. Thus, in the eyes of the inquisitors, heresy and witchcraft were combined into a single whole. The most common verdicts of the Inquisitional Tribunal were expulsion and confiscation of property. The death penalty was applied only in extreme cases, usually to preachers of heresies who persisted in their delusions.
The main historical stages
Chronologically, the history of the Inquisition can be divided into three stages:
1. The pre-Dominican stage (the persecution of heretics until the 12th century), the trial of heretics was part of the functions of episcopal authority, and their persecution was temporary and accidental. The embryos of the Inquisition can be found back in the first centuries of Christianity - the duty of deacons was to seek out and correct errors in the faith, in the judicial power of bishops over heretics. The most severe punishment at that time was excommunication. Since the recognition of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, civilians have also joined the church punishments. The death penalty was first pronounced by Theodosius the Great in 382 in relation to the Manichaeans. In the 9th and 10th centuries. bishops achieve a high degree of power; in the 11th century, in Italy, their activity is distinguished by great energy. Already in this era, the church more readily turns to violent measures against heretics. The most severe punishment for heretics already at that time was burning at the stake.
2. Dominican period.
The further development of the Inquisition is due to the activities of Innocent III (1198-1216), Gregory IX (1227-1241) and Innocent IV (1243-1254). Around 1199, Innocent III commissioned two monks to travel around France and Spain to eradicate heresy. This created a kind of new spiritual power, which had its own special functions and was almost independent of the bishops. Installed in 1233, the Inquisitional Courts provoked popular uprisings, but still continued to operate. The same Gregory IX introduced the Inquisition in other European countries, and everywhere the Dominicans were appointed inquisitors. But not everywhere the Inquisition is distinguished by the same strength and character. The greatest development and its strength reached in Rome. The peak of the Italian Inquisition falls on the 16th century, under popes Pius V and Sixtus V.
3. Spanish Inquisition.
In Spain, the medieval Inquisition was noted for its exceptional ferocity towards heretic Christians, Muslims and Jews. The Spanish Inquisition was established by the Dominican Thomas de Torquemada (1420–1498), who was appointed by the rulers of the country as the Grand Inquisitor and was confirmed in this position by the Pope. Initially, the Spanish rulers used the Inquisition against Muslims and Jews, but later it turned into a weapon in the fight against political opponents. But, whatever its tasks, the Spanish Inquisition left a bloody mark on the history of their country. It did not differ too much from the medieval Inquisition in its methods and procedure of legal proceedings, but its victims numbered in the thousands. The Spanish king Philip II (ruled 1556-1598) strengthened the Spanish Inquisition with the intention of eradicating the slightest signs of heresy and Protestantism in his country. In October 1559, he decided to personally supervise the burning of 12 heretics. Philip's Inquisition persecuted him with particular cruelty. The trials of the heretics were carried out in secret, so that those who were falsely accused and tortured could not even turn to the local clergy. As before, famous people also became victims of these processes.
4. Roman Inquisition.
Pope Paul III established the Roman Inquisition in 1542. The action of the Roman Inquisition was limited to the borders of Italy. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) called on the Inquisition to be more active, but even ardent Catholics among the European sovereigns refused to launch a religious war against their own subjects. In practice, Catholic princes executed only the smallest number of Protestants, and only when their Protestantism posed a political threat. However, in Italy, the Inquisition, under pressure from Pope Paul IV (ruled 1555-1559), contributed a lot to the eradication of Protestantism. It helped even more to eradicate the licentiousness acquired by Italians during the Renaissance.
Famous victims of the Inquisition
The inquisitorial process of Jeanne d'Arc took place in Rouen in January-May 1431.
The inquisition
Jeanne was found guilty on all major counts as an apostate and heretic, after which she was burned at the stake. On May 23, 12 points of her main misconceptions were announced to Jeanne. The letter indicated that Joan's words about the appearances of angels and saints to her were either inventions, or came from devilish spirits. The appearance of an angel who brought the crown to King Charles is a fiction and an encroachment on the angelic rank. Jeanne is gullible if she believes that by good advice it is possible to recognize the saints. Jeanne is superstitious and arrogant, believing that she can predict the future and recognize people whom she has not seen before. Jeanne breaks divine law by wearing men's clothing. She encourages to kill enemies, and claims that she does it according to the will of God. Leaving her home, she broke the covenant to honor her parents. Her attempt to escape by jumping off the Beaurevoir Tower was a manifestation of despair leading to suicide. Jeanne's reference to the assurances of the saints that she will inevitably go to heaven if she preserves her virginity is reckless and contradicts the foundations of the faith. The statement that the saints speak French because they are not on the side of the English is blasphemous towards the saints and violates the commandment of love for one's neighbor. She is an idolater who summons demons. She does not want to rely on the judgment of the Church, especially in matters of revelation. At a court session on May 29, the judges confirmed the fact of a relapse of heresy and decided to transfer Jeanne to secular justice. Compatriots idolized Joan and transferred to her the features of the Blessed Virgin Mary, who, with her chastity, saved her native France from troubles. But if the French considered Jeanne a saint, then the British assured that she was a witch and fled from the battlefield in fear. The British argued that a simple peasant woman could not behave on the battlefield like a true warrior and experienced military leader.
On May 30, the final verdict on excommunication from the Church as an apostate and heretic and surrender to secular justice was announced in the Place de la Vieux Market in Rouen. Execution followed on the same day.
Jeanne went down in history under the name of the Maid of Orleans, the people's heroine of France and the symbol of all-conquering faith and dedication. At the moment she is canonized.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Polish astronomer and thinker.
He was born in the small town of Torun on the banks of the Vistula River into a merchant's family. He began with attempts to improve the geocentric system of the world, canonized by the church, set forth in Ptolemy's "Almagest". In those days, it was believed that the earth was in the center of the world, and the sun, stars and planets were moving around it. This system was called geocentric. Copernicus gradually came to the creation of a new heliocentric system of the world, according to which the Sun, and not the Earth, occupies a central position, while the Earth is one of the planets revolving around its axis. The doctrine was named heliocentric from the Greek word "helios" - "sun".
Copernicus set forth his theory in the book "On the Circulation of the Celestial Spheres", which he was in no hurry to publish, because he knew that he would certainly be persecuted by the Inquisition. The Church believed that the Bible, which says that the sun moves around the earth, is irrefutable proof of the geocentric system of the world. But even more irrefutable were the calculations of Copernicus.
The scientist's work came out on the day of his death. The teachings of Copernicus set out in the book eliminated the opposition between the earthly and the heavenly, the laws of nature turned out to be the same for the entire Universe as a whole and the Earth in particular.
Copernicus' theory was viewed by the Catholic Church as heresy, and that is why in 1616 Copernicus's book "On the Circulation of the Celestial Spheres", published in 1543, was included in the "Index of Forbidden Books" and remained banned until 1828.
Giordano Bruno.
Born into the family of a poor soldier and at the age of seventeen he took vows into a monastery, became a monk. However, Bruno stayed in the monastery for only ten years, for he had to flee from there, fearing persecution for his ideas about the structure of the Universe and the court of the Inquisition. However, Bruno went further than his teacher. He developed the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus and put forward the position of the plurality of inhabited worlds.
But the Inquisition persecuted Bruno not only for his scientific views. The scientist also strongly rejected the idea of an afterlife, and in Bruno's religion he saw a force that generates wars, discord and vices in society. He criticized religious views of the world and most of the Christian dogmas, denied the existence of God, the Creator of the world. Such a Catholic Church could not forgive him.
Bruno was deceived into Italy, where he was arrested and kept in the dungeons of the Inquisition for seven years. He was offered to renounce his views, but Giordano Bruno did not repent and did not change his testimony.
Then Bruno was tried and burned at the stake in Rome in the Square of Flowers.
The scientist was right: in the 19th century, a monument was erected at the place of Bruno's execution - humanity really appreciated the works of the great thinker.
Galileo Galilei.
He made a number of important scientific discoveries in the field of mechanics and astronomy. Galileo's discoveries confirmed the truth of Copernicus's heliocentric theory and the idea of the infinity of the Universe, the physical homogeneity of terrestrial and celestial bodies, the existence of objective laws of nature and the possibility of their knowledge. After the publication of Galileo's work "Dialogue on the two main systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican" in 1632, the scientist was subjected to the trial of the Inquisition and was forced to renounce his views. However, the abdication was formal. Galileo was sentenced to imprisonment for a period to be established by the Pope. He was not declared a heretic, but “strongly suspected of heresy”; this wording was also a grave accusation, but saved from the fire. After the pronouncement of the verdict, Galileo on his knees pronounced the text of the abdication offered to him. Copies of the verdict, by personal order of the Pope, were sent to all universities in Catholic Europe.
The great writer, Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) was a true fighter for his beliefs.
Everyone knows his "Divine Comedy" - a poem that occupies one of the main places in the history of world literature. The poem is written in the first person. Her hero - Dante himself - wanders through the circles of Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, communicates with the souls of the dead, but the unearthly is often inseparable from the real world.
Dante was a Catholic, believed in God and respected the highest justice, which condemned sinners to torment in Hell. But as a true humanist, he could not agree with the sometimes very cruel sentences of the Lord.
Naturally, such a condemnation of the Divine will could not but irritate the Inquisition, which was all the more dissatisfied with the "Divine Comedy" because the dogma of Purgatory was introduced and approved by the Catholic Church much later than the creation of the poem. The description of Dante's journey through Purgatory was already pure heresy.
Therefore, it is not surprising that his poem was immediately banned by the Catholic censorship.
Dante was disliked by the Catholic Church also because he was always an active fighter against the Pope and took part in the political struggle in Florence. For opposing the papal policy of the ruler of the city, he was forced to flee from Italy in 1302 and lived in exile until the end of his days.
Dante fought for the independence of his home country. He was sentenced in absentia to be burned at the stake by the Inquisition. However, when world fame came to the poet, Florence invited the poet to return to his homeland, but at the same time put forward such humiliating conditions and renunciation of his own views that Dante rejected this offer.
He spent the last years of his life in the city of Ravenna, where he died and was buried. Florence has repeatedly appealed to the authorities of Ravenna, including today, with requests to reburial Dante's ashes in Italian soil, but Ravenna has invariably refused.
These are only some of the most famous victims of the Inquisition, but the total number of victims of this "holy organization" is enormous. Not all of them were burned at the stake, but all of them were infringed on their rights, all were deeply traumatized and their lives ruined.
Hammer of witches
The Hammer of the Witches is a famous treatise on demonology, written by two Germanic monks, Dominican inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, and published in Speyer in 1487. Its authors were already well-known "witch hunters", and the approval of Pope Innocent VIII finally made the "Hammer of the Witches" the reference book of inquisitors.
The witch hunt manual was in three parts.
The first part was aimed at the psychological and social aspect of judges, it set out the church's point of view on the essence of witchcraft, where it was declared the worst of crimes and was ruthlessly punished.
The second part is intended for potential victims and hunters, it covers the theory of the existence and activities of witches. This is the largest and most important part of the book, it contains eighteen chapters on the methods of witchcraft sabotage and eight more chapters on how to eliminate witchcraft.
The third part consists of 35 questions and is completely devoted to the legal side of these issues (similar in structure to the code) - evidence of guilt in witchcraft, rules of court proceedings, methods of sentencing torture, interrogation, etc.
This book is very superficially connected with church commandments, but the authors clouded the minds of people, which led to fatal consequences.
The Inquisition destroyed, from tens to hundreds of thousands of innocent women.
Establishment of the Inquisition
Answer: INQUISITION
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1st letter I; 2nd letter H; 3rd letter K; 4th letter B; 5th letter I; 6th letter Z; 7th letter I; 8th letter C; 9th letter I; 10th letter I;
- special church court in the middle ages
- In the Catholic Church in the XIII-XIX centuries. anti-heresy judicial police agency
- the service of the devil supervised
- The 13th century Catholic forensic organization
- mockery, torment, torture
- In the Middle Age
- a forensic police organization in the Catholic Church, established in the 13th century
- investigative and punitive body of the Catholic Church
- investigative and punitive body of the Catholic Church
- this word, which has been causing fear for several centuries on all people in Europe, is translated simply as "investigation"
- punitive organ of the church
- repressive body of the Catholic Church for the fight against heretics (XIII-XIX centuries)
- special church court in the middle ages
- punitive organ of the church
- this is the Spanish word for "investigation"
The ecclesiastical court is a special legal institution that is part of the structure of the Christian church and performs judicial and investigative functions. So, according to the laws of the Russian Empire, the Orthodox Church had special diocesan (consistorial) courts. Their duty was to consider disciplinary, civil, family and marriage and criminal cases against persons of clergy. The jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical court included misdemeanors and crimes against deanery and good conduct, incompatible with the office of a minister of the church. He dealt with complaints against clergy, mutual disputes about the right to use church property.
The register of punishments at the disposal of the church court included a ban on holding services, remarks, reprimands, and defrocking. The capital punishment was excommunication - exclusion from the membership of a given church. Canon law distinguished several types of excommunication - great, or "deadly"; solemn, called "anathema"; small, temporary, or "healing".
The ecclesiastical court considered cases of secular persons only in special cases, when it was a question of misdemeanors and crimes for which the guilty person was subjected to church penance, as well as in marriage and family matters (marriages illegally contracted by clergy; termination and dissolution of marriages, certification of the validity of marriage; certification the fact of the birth of a child from legal marriage, etc.)
Those accused by the diocesan court and disagreeing with the accusation made could file an appeal or complaint with the Holy Synod, which was the second instance of the ecclesiastical court.
History knows such forms of church courts, whose activities were mostly non-legal in nature. This primarily applies to the courts of the Catholic Inquisition.
The Court of the Inquisition (from Latin inquisitio - search) is a tribunal of the Catholic Church, created to fight heretics in the 13th century, and which operated in Catholic states until the 18th-19th centuries. He is distinguished by illegal means and methods - the use of false witnesses and informers, torture investigation, bringing to justice the relatives of the perpetrator and the spread of conviction to his descendants up to the third generation; the punishment of children is just as cruel as in relation to adults. After the sentencing, the convicted person put on special, shameful clothes, symbolizing involvement in sin and crime. A cone-shaped cap was put on him, and he was subjected to the auto-da-fe (Spanish Auto da fe - act of faith) procedure, which most often meant "merciful" execution "without the shedding of blood" - burning at the stake.
Witchcraft processes were widely practiced, aimed at identifying those guilty of crimes against the Christian faith who were allegedly possessed by demons and involved in witchcraft. Until the XIV century. witchcraft cases were tried by criminal courts. In 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued a special bull in which he declared disbelief in witchcraft a dangerous heresy and called for the decisive eradication of all forms of witchcraft.
Cloaca maxima
In 1489 the German Catholic theologians G. Institoris and J. Sprenger published the book The Hammer of the Witches, in which the torture investigation and the burning of those accused of witchcraft at the stake were justified as necessary means of fighting for the purity of the Christian faith.
The first of the Catholic countries where the activities of the court of the Inquisition were prohibited was France. By the decree of the French Convention of August 22, 1791, the possessed were declared sick and exempted from prosecution. In the European states conquered by Napoleon, the court of the Inquisition was also liquidated. In the Spanish colonies of America, it was destroyed during the War of Independence (1810-1826).
Gloomy figures in robes are dragging a tear-stained, simple-haired girl to the square. The thin monk reads the sentence, his sunken eyes burning with sacred fury on his stern face. The accused begs for mercy, but the executioners are adamant. Fanatical faith compels them to shed new blood for the glory of the Lord. The flames devour the sinner to the jubilation of the crowd.
This, or something like that, usually comes to mind when it comes to the Inquisition. But was it really so? There are many stereotypes about the Inquisition. Which of them are true, and which are nothing more than a child from the marriage of ignorance with partiality?
Let's compare the typical stereotypes about the Inquisition with reality.
Inquisition court
Stereotype: The Inquisition existed in the Middle Ages.
And in the Middle Ages too. The first half of the 13th century should be considered the time of the beginning of the Inquisition. Religious repression existed long before that, but a developed organization for the eradication of heresy did not yet exist. The strengthening of the church under Pope Innocent III, the ambitious desire of each pope to become "king over kings" and the threat of the Albigensian heresy in the south of France required new means to strengthen the vertical of power. The search for and condemnation of heretics was then the responsibility of local bishops. But the bishop could be afraid of angering his flock, or he could simply be bribed, so an outside "auditor" was better suited for repression.
On a note: the word "inquisition" is translated from Latin as "investigation". Accordingly, an inquisitor is an investigator. The official name of this office sounds like "The Holy Department of Investigation of Heretical Sinfulness". Originally - Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium. Holy Inquisition - abbreviation.
Pope Gregory IX, the ideological follower of Innocent, transferred the fight against heresy to the jurisdiction of monastic orders, mainly the Dominican order. This is how the Inquisition was born as a developed centralized organization of professional exterminators of harmful ideas.
The Inquisition can be roughly divided into papal (so-called Ecumenical) and state. The division is conditional, since the Vatican influenced the state inquisition, and the local authorities influenced the papal one. The State Inquisition operated in Spain and Portugal and was created at the initiative of their monarchs. The Ecumenical Inquisition was directly subordinate to the Pope and operated mainly in Italy, southern France and the Mediterranean islands. Papal inquisitors usually did not have a permanent place of work and moved from place to place - to where they had something to fight with. The Inquisitor did not travel with an entire army of staff. The local bishop and secular ruler provided him with everything he needed, including people.
The end of the Inquisition does not at all coincide with the end of the Middle Ages. She successfully survived the Renaissance, Reformation, New time, and only in the era of the Enlightenment received a blow from which she did not recover. A new era - a new morality: In the 18th century, the activities of the Inquisition were banned in most European countries. In states where Catholicism was especially strong, such as Spain and Portugal, this organization survived until the beginning of the 19th century. So, the Spanish Inquisition was abolished only in 1834 and a few years before that even signed the death warrant to the convict.
The Roman Inquisition survived even the 19th and 20th centuries and still exists today under the name of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Of course, this is not at all the Inquisition, the mere mention of which terrifies. In principle, there is no question of any punishment for heretics or pagans. The Congregation is mainly engaged in examining Catholic priests. Whether they preach correctly, whether they interpret the Bible correctly to parishioners, whether they dishonor the church with immoral behavior, and so on. The most terrible thing that can follow the verification of the modern Inquisition is the deprivation of church dignity.
Saint Dominic, the founder of that same order. Note the dog with a torch on the left - the symbol of the order. It is interesting that "Dominicans" in Latin is consonant with the phrase "the dogs of the Lord"
(Dominicanes - Domini canes).
Stereotype: The Inquisition existed only on the territory of the Catholic countries of Western Europe.
Yes and no. The Inquisition as a developed, disciplined and influential organization really existed only in Catholic Europe. But the persecution of heretics and the burning of witches, the actions for which the Inquisition is famous, took place in other countries. Moreover, compared to some non-Catholics, the inquisitors seem to be models of humanity and tolerance.
One of the most famous Protestant leaders, John Calvin, clearly formulated his doctrine of the "correct" faith and called other believers heretics. In Geneva, under Calvin's rule, heresy was equated with treason and punished accordingly. The role of the Inquisition in Geneva was performed by a consistory of twelve elders. Like the Catholic inquisitors, the elders only established guilt, leaving the punishment to the secular authorities. Fifty-eight religious criminals were sentenced to death in five years, and many more went to prison. Calvin's ideological heirs continued his work with dignity.
Despite the absence in the early Russian legal monuments of norms on the use of the death penalty by burning, chronicle sources report several cases of its application. The first mention of the burning is contained in the chronicle record for 1227 - four wise men were burned in Novgorod
"Burning of Archpriest Avvakum", 1897, Grigory Grigorievich Myasoedov
On a note:
"Hammer of witches"(Malleus Maleficarum in the original) - the famous manual for the inquisitors, by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. Even people unfamiliar with history have heard of this book. What is she talking about? About terrible torture? Not only that.
The treatise is divided into three parts. The first of these is general philosophical reflections on witchcraft. What is the nature of a witch? how is a witch related to the devil? Why does God allow witches to exist? - these are the main questions of the first part. Interestingly, witchcraft, according to the authors, is inextricably linked with female sexuality. The idea of a woman's inclination to sin is typical of those times.
The second part of the book is devoted to considering the abilities of witches and means of protection against witchcraft. What kinds of charms can a witch cast? In what cases is a guardian angel able to protect from a spell? How to heal a possessed person? And only in the third part are there instructions for the inquisitor: how to look for witches, conduct an investigation, etc. Many pages are devoted to the purely legal side of the issue. Yes, and there is torture too.
"Tribunal of the Inquisition", F. Goya (1812-1819)
Stereotype: Any dissent in the eyes of the church is heresy.
The word "heresy" has a clear definition. Heresy is an incorrect (from the point of view of the dominant doctrine) understanding of the sacred text. In other words, the heretic recognizes the Bible as holy scripture, but does not agree with its official interpretation. That is, for a Christian, a “wrong” Christian can be a heretic, but not an atheist or a pagan. For example, for a Catholic, a heretic is, for example, a Cathar, but for a Cathar, a Catholic is a real heretic.
Gentiles, however, do not fall under the jurisdiction of the church and therefore cannot be condemned by the Inquisition. Because of this, by the way, the holy department of investigations has hardly taken root in the colonies - there are fewer Christians Europeans than natives. An Indian could not be condemned for paganism, but a peasant woman praying to an idol for fertility could be - she was baptized.
Engaging in science or, for example, occultism also does not in itself make a person a heretic. However, one can get to the court of the Inquisition not only for heresy, because witchcraft is a separate “article”. And for blasphemy or immoral acts (debauchery and sodomy) one could expect serious trouble.
Stereotype: Inquisitors eradicated heresy because they were religious fanatics.
It is so easy to write off actions, the motives of which are not clear, on stupidity and calm down on it! A person just prays in a different way, but they kill him for it - it's stupid! Of course, if the churchmen were not fanatics, they would live in peace.
In fact, everything is far from so simple. Any state has an ideology that explains to an ordinary citizen why rulers are needed and why those who are in power now should be in the same place in the future. In Europe, from late Rome to the beginning of the Enlightenment, Christianity was such an ideology. The monarch is the anointed of God, he rules according to the will of the Lord. God is the supreme sovereign, and earthly rulers are his faithful vassals. A natural and harmonious picture of the world for medieval minds. Everyone remembers how in "The Lord of the Rings" Aragorn healed by the laying on of hands? So, this episode is not taken by Tolkien from the ceiling. Once upon a time, people really believed that a king was capable of such a miracle. He's the anointed of God! And his power is from God.
Anyone expressing doubts about the state ideology also doubts the sacred right of the sovereign to rule the country. If the priests lie and in heaven everything is not at all like that, then maybe our king is not rightfully warming the throne with his ass?
In addition, many heresies, in addition to purely religious provisions, carried clearly anti-state ideas. Amalricane, Cathars, Bogomils and other heretical movements advocated universal equality and the abolition of private property. Such an almost communist ideology was justified by heresiarchs with the help of the Bible and was interpreted as "a return to true, unspoiled Christianity." Do not think that since the heretics were the victims, then they were certainly lambs. The same Cathars, in terms of fanaticism, left Christians far behind.
It is interesting: to convince everyone of the need for an uncompromising struggle against heretics, the church actively used what would now be called black PR. Enemies were credited with actions that should cause deep disgust in any normal person: kissing the devil and each other on the anus, drinking the blood of children, copulating with animals, etc.
According to the treatise "Hammer of the Witches", a witch can be identified by her birthmarks.
At the same time, the clergy were not only regular propagandists for the kings, but they themselves possessed power and wealth. In the XIII century, for example, in general, everything went towards the establishment of an all-European theocracy with the Pope at its head. The Catholic Church possessed many of the features of a state. Some European cities were directly ruled by archbishops: Riga, Cologne, Mainz.
If the parishioners stop believing in the holy mission of the Mother of the Church, they will stop paying tithing and obeying. A very common punishment of the Inquisition was a monetary fine, so the eradication of heresy was a materially profitable business. This state of affairs has fueled many false accusations.
Thus, in the eyes of the church, any heresy is an ideology of revolution, an attempt at peace and stability. It is natural for those in power to nip any oppositional ideas in the bud. It was not fanaticism, but common sense that dictated the churchmen by any means to maintain order that was beneficial to them.
Stereotype: Scientists were persecuted by the Inquisition ..
Scientists often came to the court of the Inquisition, but it is a rare exception, not a rule, for them to end up there precisely for doing science. More often than not, the reason was anti-church propaganda, passion for the occult or revolutionary (in the direct, political, sense) ideas.
Moreover, before the Age of Enlightenment, the overwhelming majority of scientists had a church dignity. After the collapse of Roman civilization, against the background of general savagery, only a well-organized church, less affected by the barbarians, managed to preserve the remnants of civilization. Priests and monks were then the most educated part of society, and only from them it was possible to get a good education. At the same time, the clerics did not shy away from the scientific and philosophical research of the pagans, and the same Plato and Aristotle, the monks crammed like a catechism. The ideologist of the Inquisition, the philosopher Thomas Aquinas, wrote many pages of commentaries on the works of Aristotle. The conflict "religion versus science" appeared only in the 18th century. At the same time, even in the 19th century, it was usually a priest who taught the poor to read and write.
Stereotype: What about Giordano Bruno?
Are you talking about the same Dominican monk Giordano Bruno, who defended the theory of the Frombrok priest Copernicus? So, in addition to the heretical, but still not "firing squad" theory of the plurality of planets, the denunciation against Bruno included denial of retribution for sins, attribution of magic to Jesus Christ, insults against the churchmen and (attention!) The intention to found their own religion. That is, to create an organization that will compete with the church. And this is not in our humane time, when, however, you can also sit down for an politically incorrect statement or inciting hatred. This is at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. And you say - "for science"!
Other notable burn victims
- Joan of Arc- the heroine of the Hundred Years War. She was captured by the enemy, where her trial began. This was a typically political process, although formally Jeanne was burned for heresy. She claimed that the saints spoke to her and ordered to kill enemies. Interestingly, among the many accusations, there were such strange by modern standards as wearing men's clothes and disrespecting parents.
- Jacques de Molay- Master of the Knights Templar. Prosecutors attributed to him and his knight brothers the worship of demons, the performance of blasphemous rituals, and sodomy. The real reason for the arrest is the growing power and wealth of the order. The Templars became dangerous to the French crown, and Philip IV the Handsome signed a decree arresting them. Inquisitors-accusers in this episode act as executors of the will of the secular authorities. Master de Molay was burned to death after much torture.
- Jan Hus- a preacher, one of the ideologists of the Reformation. He spoke out against the corruption of the Catholic Church and paid for it. During the trial, I received an invitation to repent several times and always refused. According to legend, he exclaimed: "Oh, holy simplicity!" at the sight of an old woman putting wood in his fire.
- Etienne Dole- French poet and writer. He criticized the religious policy of the authorities, for which he was accused of heresy and burned.
- Girolamo Savonarola - preacher and ruler of Florence. Religious fanatic. He fought against debauchery, entertainment and secular literature. He was so radical in his views and policies that he displeased the papal throne. Hanged with the subsequent burning of the body.
iron maiden - Iron maiden. A heavy metal band was named after this device.
Stereotype: The Spanish Inquisition exterminated Jews
The Spanish Inquisition offered Jews to convert to Christianity or leave the country. Jews who did not want to be baptized were forcibly deported from Spain. Most of the Jews left for Muslim countries, which at that time were more civilized and tolerant. Among those who left there were also those who managed to get a normal job in another country, but there were few of them. The emigrants remained almost indigent, because under the pretext of inadmissibility of exporting valuables from the country, the inquisitors robbed them. The fate of most Jews in a foreign land was unenviable: death or slavery awaited them.
The remaining Jews also had a hard time. It was the marans, the baptized Jews, who became the main victims of the Inquisition. The converts were under strict and vigilant control. If the investigation established that the person who identified himself as a Christian actually secretly professes Judaism, then serious problems awaited the unfaithful son of the church.
Stereotype: Inquisitors were incredibly bloodthirsty and often tortured.
Modern man will certainly be amazed at the description of torture applied to heretics and witches. “How cruel the inquisitors are! - he will think. "How did society tolerate them?" I have to surprise: the inquisitors themselves did not torture anyone. The holy fathers did not stain their hands with blood, because the secular authorities did it for them, providing their executioners and jailers.
"What does it change? - you ask. - It was done at the behest of the Inquisition? My answer is that the use of torture was common in the medieval court. The Middle Ages are generally something like the "dashing nineties" stretching for many centuries. The people are hungry and from this angry, the bandits-feudal lords will not divide the territory in any way, there is chaos around, human life is worth nothing. The court of this dark era did not know the words "presumption of innocence" and "human rights". Torture is another matter - they both intimidate a potential criminal, and allow you to quickly extract a confession. As the Strugatsky brothers put it: the normal level of medieval atrocities.
“… Why are you silent? It was necessary to be silent earlier. "
It is important to note that torture was not a punishment. A similar system of justice operated in ecclesiastical and secular courts, according to which each type of evidence had a certain predetermined weight. There was "perfect" evidence, one of which is completely sufficient to establish guilt. This included a sincere confession. Torture was often used because it was the easiest way for the accuser to use it. You don't need to think too much - I waited for the executioners to work with ticks, and the case can be closed. If the accused confessed and repented, the torture was immediately stopped. More often than not, the fear of torture alone was enough. For a really long time only people who really believed in the idea suffered.
In addition to the confession, other evidence was quoted, the weight of which was considered equal to half, a quarter or one-eighth of the perfect evidence. For example, the testimony of a trustworthy witness is half of perfect evidence, two witnesses are whole. The word of a noble person or a cleric weighed more than the word of a commoner. In the presence of such witnesses or other weighty evidence, the need for torture disappeared.
It is interesting:Although the accused was not given the name of the informer, the Inquisition court offered some protection against perjury. The accused was asked if he had any enemies and asked to name them. None of the named could act as a witness. If the court established that the denunciation was knowingly false, the informer was severely punished.
Criminal suspects were tortured much more often than "political" ones. Why is the Inquisition famous for its savage torture? It's just that the inquisitors, being educated by the standards of those times, diligently entered all the procedures into the protocol. Unlike many worldly judges.
It was clear to the responsible investigator that the use of torture would not actually bring any closer to establishing guilt. It was found that innocent people often slandered themselves in order to stop the pain. In the 17th century, the law of most European countries began to restrict torture, and a century later it was prohibited.
The most famous truth-takers:
- Spanish boot- a device that gradually compresses the leg and, after a long use, breaks the bone.
- Water torture- a tube is inserted into the victim's mouth, through which a large volume of water is poured over many hours. Despite the seeming harmlessness, this torture is painful and can even kill.
- Rack- a device for unscrewing joints existing in various versions. The victim was either stretched on both sides, or hung by twisted arms and weights were tied to the legs.
Iron Maiden- analogue of a coffin with spikes on the inner surface. The thorns are set so as not to hurt vital organs.- Torture by fire- They coat the victim's feet with oil and put hot coals next to them. In this case, the feet are fried as if in a frying pan.
- Impalement- one of the most terrible tortures. It can last for many hours, with the stake gradually sinking into the internal organs. Sometimes, so that the victim did not die, she was removed from the stake, and then planted again.
Stereotype: Inquisitors burned many people.
The "merciful execution without the shedding of blood" heretics were in fact very rarely subjected to. Throughout the investigation, the defendant was constantly asked to repent. If he agrees, he will most likely get off with public repentance procedures. It is also possible to wear special clothes that betrayed a former heretic as a punishment. Monetary fines were also very common. At the same time, the accused was considered to have returned to the bosom of the church. In the case of a second conviction for heresy, the punishment was already much stricter.
If the heretic persisted and did not want to repent (which was very rare), the church ... what do you think? Refused it! The Inquisition confirmed the guilt of the heretic, declared that he was no longer a good Christian, and handed him over to the secular authorities. What do you think awaits the apostate? Merciful pardon, after all, only inquisitors are cruel to heretics? Let's listen to a man who did not wear a Dominican robe, Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich Hohenstaufen:
« Heretics are predatory wolves, sons of destruction, angels of death, sent by a demon to destroy simple souls. These are vipers, these are snakes! And it goes without saying that the death penalty is the only worthy punishment for these offenders of God's majesty, rebels against the church. God Himself commands to kill heretics; these are the members of Satan, they must perish every single one».
Such a worldview typically for those times. Having obtained the guilty of heresy, representatives of the secular authorities execute the apostate according to the then secular laws. Usually a bonfire is laid for religious crimes.
And finally, about the number of victims. Death sentences usually accounted for about three percent of the total number of sentences. We will hardly ever see the exact number of those killed. Based on the statistics of modern researchers, we can say that over the entire period of its existence, the Inquisition sentenced to death from one to three tens of thousands of people. In all Catholic countries together and for several centuries. Is it a lot or a little? For comparison, the Committee of Public Safety alone killed much more during the French Revolution. However, it should be borne in mind that the total population during the Inquisition was much inferior to the population of later eras.
Let me remind you of something else from those times: here, for example, or here is a somewhat controversial opinion. But suddenly, but on the topic The original article is on the site InfoGlaz.rf The link to the article this copy was made from is
Indeed, you read my judgment with more fear than I hear it. "- Giordano Bruno - to his inquisitors in 1600 BC.
(Inquisitio haereticae pravitatis), or the Holy Inquisition, or the Holy Tribunal (sanctum officium) - the institution of the Roman Catholic Church, which had the purpose of finding, judging and punishing heretics. The term Inquisition has existed for a long time, but until the XIII century. did not have a later special meaning, and the church did not yet use it to mean that branch of its activity, which was aimed at persecuting heretics.
The rise of the Inquisition.
In the XII century. The Catholic Church faced the growth of oppositional religious movements in Western Europe, primarily with Albigensianism (Cathars). To combat them, the papacy has entrusted the bishops with the obligation to identify and judge "heretics" and then hand them over for punishment to secular authorities ("episcopal inquisition"); this order was fixed in the decrees of the Second (1139) and Third (1212) Lateran Councils, the bulls of Lucius III (1184) and Innocent III (1199). For the first time these regulations were applied during the Albigensian Wars (1209-1229). In 1220 they were recognized by the German emperor Frederick II, in 1226 - by the French king Louis VIII. From 1226-1227, the highest punishment for "crimes against the faith" in Germany and Italy was burning at the stake.
However, the "episcopal inquisition" turned out to be ineffective: the bishops were dependent on the secular authorities, and the territory subordinate to them was small, which allowed the "heretic" to easily hide in the neighboring diocese. Therefore, in 1231 Gregory IX, referring cases of heresy to the sphere of canon law, created for their investigation a permanent organ of ecclesiastical justice - the Inquisition. Initially directed against the Cathars and Waldensians, it soon turned against other "heretical" sects - the Beguins, Fraticelli, Spirituals, and then against the "sorcerers", "witches" and blasphemers.
In 1231 the Inquisition was introduced in Aragon, in 1233 - in France, in 1235 - in Central, in 1237 - in Northern and Southern Italy.
Inquisition system.
Inquisitors were recruited from members of monastic orders, primarily Dominicans, and were directly subordinate to the Pope. At the beginning of the 14th century. Clement V set an age limit for them at forty. Initially, each tribunal was headed by two judges with equal rights, and from the beginning of the 14th century. - by only one judge. From the 14th century. they consisted of legal consultants (qualifiers) who determined the "heretical" statements of the accused. In addition to them, the number of employees of the tribunal included a notary who certified the testimony, attesting witnesses who were present during interrogations, a prosecutor, a doctor who monitored the state of health of the accused during torture, and the executioner. Inquisitors received an annual salary or part of the property confiscated from the "heretics" (in Italy, one third). In their activities, they were guided by both papal decrees and special manuals: in the early period, the most popular was the Practice of the Inquisition by Bernard Guy (1324), in the late Middle Ages - the Hammer of the Witches J. Sprenger and G. Institoris (1487).
There were two types of inquisitorial procedure - general and individual investigation: in the first case, the entire population of a given area was interviewed, in the second, a call was made to a certain person through the priest. If the summoned did not appear, he was subjected to excommunication. The one who appeared swore an oath to tell frankly everything that he knew about the "heresy." The very course of the proceedings was kept in deep secrecy. Torture authorized by Innocent IV was widely used (1252). Their cruelty sometimes provoked condemnation even among the secular authorities, for example, Philip IV the Handsome (1297). The accused was not given the names of the witnesses; they could even be excommunicated, thieves, murderers and perjurers, whose testimony was never accepted in secular courts. He was denied the opportunity to have a lawyer. The only chance for the condemned was to appeal to the Holy See, although formally it was forbidden by the bull of 1231. A person who had once been convicted by the Inquisition could be brought to justice again at any time. Even death did not stop the investigation procedure: if the deceased was found guilty, his ashes were removed from the grave and burned.
The system of punishments was established by Bull 1213, decrees of the Third Lateran Council and Bull 1231. Those convicted by the Inquisition were transferred to civil authorities and subjected to secular punishments. A "heretic" who "repented" already during the trial was entitled to life imprisonment, which the Inquisitorial Tribunal had the right to reduce; this type of punishment was an innovation for the penitentiary system of the medieval West. The prisoners were kept in cramped cells with a hole in the ceiling, they ate only bread and water, sometimes they were shackled and chained. In the late Middle Ages, imprisonment was sometimes replaced by hard labor in galleys or in workhouses. A stubborn "heretic" or again "fallen into heresy" was sentenced to be burned at the stake. Conviction often entailed the confiscation of property in favor of the secular authorities, who reimbursed the costs of the Inquisition Tribunal; hence the special interest of the Inquisition in wealthy people.
For those who confessed to the Inquisition Tribunal during the "period of mercy" (15-30 days, counting from the moment the judges arrived in a particular locality), assigned to collect information (denunciations, self-incriminations, etc.) about crimes against faith, church punishments were applied. These included interdict (a ban on worship in a given area), excommunication and various types of penance - strict fasting, lengthy prayers, scourging during mass and religious processions, pilgrimage, donations for charitable deeds; the one who had time to repent wore a special "penitential" shirt (sanbenito).
Inquisition since the 13th century to our time.
The 13th century was the culmination of the Inquisition. The epicenter of its activity in France was the Languedoc, where the Cathars and Waldenses were persecuted with extraordinary cruelty; in 1244, after the capture of the last stronghold of the Albigensians of Montsegur, 200 people were sent to the fire. In Central and Northern France in the 1230s, Robert Lebugre acted on a special scale; in 1235 in Mont-Saint-Aim, he arranged the burning of 183 people. (in 1239 he was condemned by the Pope to life imprisonment). In 1245, the Vatican granted the inquisitors the right of "mutual forgiveness of sins" and freed them from the obligation to obey the leadership of their orders.
The Inquisition often encountered resistance from the local population: in 1233, the first inquisitor of Germany, Konrad of Marburg, was killed (this led to an almost complete cessation of the activities of the tribunals in German lands), in 1242 - members of the tribunal in Toulouse, in 1252 - inquisitor of Northern Italy Pierre of Verona; in 1240 the inhabitants of Carcassonne and Narbonne revolted against the inquisitors.
In the middle of the 13th century, fearing the growing power of the Inquisition, which had become the fiefdom of the Dominicans, the papacy tried to put its activities under stricter control. In 1248 Innocent IV subordinated the inquisitors to the Bishop of Azhansky, and in 1254 transferred the tribunals in Central Italy and Savoy to the hands of the Franciscans, leaving only Liguria and Lombardy for the Dominicans. But under Alexander IV (1254-1261), the Dominicans took revenge; in the second half of the 13th century. they actually ceased to reckon with the papal legates and turned the Inquisition into an independent organization. The post of Inquisitor General, through which the popes supervised her activities, remained vacant for many years.
Numerous complaints about the arbitrariness of the tribunals forced Clement V to reform the Inquisition. On his initiative, the Vienne Council of 1312 obliged the inquisitors to coordinate the judicial procedure (especially the use of torture) and sentences with the local bishops. In 1321, John XXII further restricted their powers. The Inquisition gradually fell into decay: judges periodically recalled, their sentences were often cashed. In 1458 the inhabitants of Lyons even arrested the president of the tribunal. In a number of countries (Venice, France, Poland), the Inquisition came under state control. Philip IV the Handsome in 1307-1314 used it as a tool to defeat the wealthy and influential Templar order; with its help, the German emperor Sigismund dealt with Jan Hus in 1415, and the British in 1431 with Jeanne d'Arc. The functions of the Inquisition were transferred into the hands of secular courts, both ordinary and extraordinary: in France, for example, in the second half of the 16th century. about "heresies" were considered both by parliaments (courts), and specially created for this purpose "chambers of fire" (chambres ardentes).
At the end of the 15th century. the inquisition has experienced its rebirth. In 1478, under Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, it was established in Spain and for three and a half centuries was an instrument of royal absolutism. The Spanish Inquisition, created by T. Torkvemada, became famous for its particular cruelty; Its main target was the recently converted to Christianity Jews (Maranas) and Muslims (Moriscos), many of whom secretly continued to profess the old religion. According to official data, in 1481-1808 in Spain at the auto-da-fe (public execution of "heretics") almost 32 thousand people died; 291.5 thousand were subjected to other punishments (life imprisonment, hard labor, confiscation of property, pillory). The introduction of the Inquisition in the Spanish Netherlands was one of the reasons for the Dutch revolution of 1566-1609. From 1519 this institution operated in the Spanish colonies of Central and South America.
At the end of the 15th century. the inquisition has acquired particular importance in Germany; here, in addition to "heresies", she actively fought against "witchcraft" ("witch hunt"). However, in the 1520s, in the German principalities, where the Reformation won, this institution was done away with forever. In 1536, the Inquisition was established in Portugal, where the persecution of the "new Christians" (Jews who converted to Catholicism) began. In 1561, the Portuguese crown introduced it to their Indian dominions; there she took up the eradication of the local "false teaching" that combined the features of Christianity and Hinduism.
The successes of the Reformation prompted the papacy to transform the inquisitorial system towards greater centralization. In 1542, Paul III established the permanent Holy Congregation of the Roman and Ecumenical Inquisition (Holy Chancellery) to oversee the activities of local tribunals, although in reality its jurisdiction extended only to Italy (except Venice). The office was headed by the pope himself and consisted first of five and then ten cardinals-inquisitors; it had an advisory council of specialists in canon law. She also exercised papal censorship, publishing the Index of Forbidden Books from 1559. The most famous victims of the papal inquisition were Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei.
Starting from the Age of Enlightenment, the Inquisition began to lose its position. In Portugal, her rights were significantly curtailed: S. de Pombal, the first minister of King Jose I (1750-1777), in 1771 deprived her of the right of censorship and eliminated the auto-da-fe, in 1774 he forbade the use of torture. In 1808 Napoleon I completely abolished the Inquisition in Italy, Spain and Portugal, which he had captured. In 1813, the Cadiz Cortes (parliament) abolished it in the Spanish colonies as well. However, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire in 1814, it was rebuilt in both Southern Europe and Latin America. In 1816, Pope Pius VII prohibited the use of torture. After the revolution of 1820, the institution of the Inquisition finally ceased to exist in Portugal; in 1821 he was abandoned by the Latin American countries that had freed themselves from Spanish rule. The last executed by the verdict of the inquisitorial court was the Spanish teacher K. Ripoll (Valencia; 1826). In 1834, the Inquisition was liquidated in Spain. In 1835, Pope Gregory XVI officially abolished all local inquisitorial tribunals, but retained the Sacred Chancellery, whose activities from that time were limited to excommunication and the publication of the Index.
By the time of the Second Vatican Council 1962-1965, the Holy Office remained only an odious relic of the past. In 1966, Pope Paul VI actually abolished it, transforming it into the "Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith" (Latin Sacra congregatio Romanae et universalis Inquisitionis seu Sancti Officii) with purely censorship functions; The index has been canceled.
The Apostolic Constitution of John Paul II Pastor Bonus of June 28, 1988 states: The duty due to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith is to promote and preserve the doctrine of faith and morality throughout the Catholic world: for this reason, everything that in any way touches on such matters faith is within her competence.
In a landmark act, John Paul II (1978-2005) reevaluated the historical role of the Inquisition. On his initiative, Galileo was rehabilitated in 1992, Copernicus in 1993, and the archives of the Holy Chancellery were opened in 1998. In March 2000, on behalf of the church, John Paul II brought repentance for the "sins of intolerance" and the crimes of the Inquisition.
Water torture
Water torture was usually resorted to in cases where the torture on the end was unsuccessful. The victim was forced to swallow water, which dripped slowly onto a piece of silk or other fine cloth placed in her mouth. Under pressure, he gradually sank deeper and deeper into the victim's throat, causing the sensations that arise in a drowning person. In another version, the victim's face was covered with a thin cloth and water was slowly poured onto it, which, getting into the mouth and nostrils, made it difficult or stopped breathing almost until choking. In another embodiment, the victim was either plugged the nostrils with tampons or squeezed the nose with the fingers, and water was slowly poured into the open mouth. From the incredible efforts to swallow at least a little air, the victim's blood vessels often burst. In general, the more water was “pumped” into the victim, the more cruel the torture became.
Holy hunters
In 1215, by decree of Pope Innocent III, a special ecclesiastical court was established - the Inquisition (from the Latin inquisitio - investigation), and it is with it that the phrase "witch hunt" is associated in the mass consciousness. It should be noted that although many "witch" trials were indeed carried out by the Inquisition, most of them are on the conscience of secular courts. In addition, the witch-hunt was widespread not only in Catholic, but also in Protestant countries, where there was no Inquisition at all. By the way, initially the Inquisition was created to combat heresy, and only gradually witchcraft began to fall under the concept of heresy. There are varying accounts of how many people were killed during the witch hunt. According to some data - about two tens of thousands, according to others - more than one hundred thousand. Modern historians are leaning towards an average figure of about 40 thousand. The population of some regions of Europe, for example, the outskirts of Cologne, as a result of the active struggle against witchcraft, significantly decreased, the fighters against heresy did not spare children, who could also be accused of serving the devil. One of the tasks of witch hunters was to search for signs by which it would be easy to identify a sorcerer or a sorcerer. The water test was considered a reliable test for witchcraft: a tied suspect was thrown into a lake, pond, or river.
Anyone who was lucky not to drown was considered a sorcerer and was subjected to the death penalty. The water test used in Ancient Babylon was more humane: the Babylonians dropped charges if "the river cleans this man and he remains unharmed."
It was widely believed that on the body of everyone involved in witchcraft there is a special mark that is insensitive to pain. This mark was searched for with needles. The description of such "devilish signs", as well as the fact that it was customary for witches to be kept in separate prisons and to avoid their touch, led some historians to believe that the persecution and extermination of lepers was actually behind the witch hunt.
In the XV-XVII centuries, Western Europe, represented by the Catholic and Protestant churches, began their bloody hunt, which went down in history as a "witch hunt." Both churches seemed to have gone crazy, recognizing witches in almost all women: she went out for a walk at night - a witch, collecting herbs - a witch, treating people - doubly a witch. Even the purest soul and body girls and women fell under the classification of witches.
For example, in 1629, nineteen-year-old Barbara Gobel was burned at the stake. The executioner's list said about her: "The most holy virgin of Wurzburg." It is not clear what caused this manic desire for "cleansing". Of course, Protestants and Catholics did not consider themselves beasts, as a sign of this - all potential witches were subjected to simple tests, which, in the end, no one could pass. The first test is whether the suspect has a pet: a cat, a crow, a snake. Even if neither a snake nor a raven was found in the house, many had a cat or a cat. Of course, it also happened that the "witch" does not even have a snake or a raven, but even a cat; then a beetle in a dung heap, a cockroach under the table, or the most ordinary moth will come down. The second test is the presence of the "witch's mark". This procedure was carried out as follows: the woman was completely undressed and examined. A large birthmark, nipples larger than the GOS of that time - a witch. If the sign is not found on the body, it means that it is inside, the commission was guided by such "iron logic"; the prisoner was tied to a chair and examined as they say "from the inside": they saw something unusual - a witch. But those who passed this test are also "servants of Satan". Yes, their body is too ideal for a simple woman: Satan rewarded them with such a body for his carnal pleasures - the reasoning of the Inquisition. As you can see, the potential witch was such, regardless of the results of the test. The witch is revealed, captured - what's next? Shackles, chains, dungeon - this is the near future for the elect by the church. Let's try to look a little further. Torture - there are two options: denial and death by mutilation, or agreement in everything and death at the stake. The choice of "tools of truth" was great.
Some had enough pulled out nails and teeth to confess during interrogation, others - broken legs and arms. But there were desperate women who wanted to prove their innocence. It is here that sadism, perversion and cruelty of the almighty's servants reveal themselves. The prisoners were twisted between two logs, starting from the legs, "squeezing" them like towels, boiled in resin and oil, imprisoned in an "iron maiden" and drained blood to the last drop, poured lead down their throats. This is just a small fraction of the horrors that happened in the torture chambers, which are usually located right under the monasteries. Most, or rather almost all of the victims of the Inquisition, did not live to see the day of their execution. The Inquisition claimed more than two hundred thousand lives.
The Orthodox Church also did not stay away from this exciting hunt. In ancient Russia, Vedic processes arose already in the 11th century, soon after the establishment of Christianity. Church authorities were investigating these cases. In the oldest legal monument - "The Charter of Prince Vladimir on Church Courts", witchcraft, sorcery and sorcery are referred to the number of cases that were examined and judged by the Orthodox Church. In the monument of the XII century. "The Word of Evil Dusekh", compiled by Metropolitan Kirill, also speaks of the need to punish witches and sorcerers by the church court. The chronicle notes that in 1024 in the Suzdal land, the Magi were captured and<лихие бабы>and put to death by burning.
They were accused of being the culprits of the crop failure that befell the Suzdal land. In 1071, the Magi were executed in Novgorod for publicly condemning the Christian faith. The Rostovites did the same in 1091. In Novgorod, after interrogation and torture, they burned four "magicians" in 1227. According to the chronicle, the execution took place at the bishop's court at the insistence of Archbishop Anthony of Novgorod. The clergy supported among the people the belief that sorcerers and witches were capable of actions hostile to Christianity, and demanded a cruel reprisal against them. In the teachings of the unknown author "Kako Zhiti for Christians," the civil authorities were urged to hunt down sorcerers and sorcerers and give them over to "all-ending torment", that is, death, under fear of church curse. "You must not spare those who have done evil before God," the author of the lecture argued, arguing that those who saw the execution "would fear God." and death. Metropolitan John believed that cruelty would frighten others not to perform "magic" actions and would turn the people away from sorcerers and sorcerers.
An ardent supporter of the bloody persecution of sorcerers and witches was also the famous preacher who lived in the 13th century, the Vladimir bishop Serapion, a contemporary of the first trials against witches in the west (the first trial arose in Toulouse in 1275, when Angela Labaret was burned on charges of carnal relations with the devil), “And when you want to cleanse the city of wicked people,” Serapion wrote in his sermon, addressing the prince, “I rejoice at this. murder, some by imprisonment, and others by imprisonment "The bishops were looking for sorcerers and witches, they were brought to the episcopal court for investigation, and then handed over to the secular authorities for punishment by death. Following the example of its Catholic comrades-in-arms, the Orthodox Inquisition developed in the 13th century. and methods of recognizing witches and sorcerers by fire, cold water, by weighing, piercing warts, etc. At first, the clergy considered those who did not drown in water and remained on its surface to be sorcerers or sorcerers. But then, after making sure that most of the accused could not swim and quickly drowned, they changed their tactics: they began to recognize those who could not stay on the water guilty. To discern the truth, the test of cold water, which was dripped onto the heads of the accused, was also widely used, following the example of the Spanish inquisitors. Supporting faith in the devil and his power, representatives of the Orthodox Church declared any doubt about the reality of the devil to be heretical. They persecuted not only those accused of having intercourse with evil spirits, but also those who expressed doubts about its existence, the existence of witches and sorcerers who acted with the help of devilish powers. The victims of Orthodox inquisitors were mainly women. According to church ideas, women easily entered into intercourse with the devil. Women were accused of spoiling the weather, crops, that they were the culprit of crop failure and hunger. Metropolitan Photius of Kiev developed in 1411 a system of measures to combat witches. In his letter to the clergy, this inquisitor proposed to excommunicate all who would resort to the help of witches and sorcerers. 4. In the same year, at the instigation of the clergy, 12 witches, "prophetic wives" were burned in Pskov, they were accused of sorcery.
In 1444, on charges of sorcery in Mozhaisk, boyar Andrei Dmitrovich and his wife were popularly burned.
At all times, while the witch hunt was going on, there were people protesting against it. Among them were priests and secular scientists, for example, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes.
Gradually their voices grew louder, and their morals gradually softened. Torture and cruel executions were used less and less, and in the enlightened 18th century, with rare exceptions, the witch-hunt in Europe gradually faded away. Surprisingly, the fact is that executions of people suspected of witchcraft continue to this day. For example, in May 2008, 11 alleged sorcerers were burned to death in Kenya, and in January 2009, a campaign against witches began in the Gambia. Additional information - Although the scale of the witch hunt is amazing, it should be noted that the risk of being its victim was ten times less than the likelihood of death from the plague, which claimed millions of human lives. - The brutal torture used in medieval Europe against suspected witchcraft was also used in ordinary criminal practice. - It is generally accepted that the peak of the witch-hunt falls on the Middle Ages, but a truly large-scale persecution of sorcerers and sorcerers unfolded in the Renaissance.
Moreover, the witch-hunt was supported by such a great church reformer and rebel as Martin Luther. It is to this fighter against indulgences that the phrase belongs: “Sorcerers and witches are the essence of evil devilish offspring, they steal milk, bring bad weather, send damage to people, take away the strength in their legs, torture children in the cradle ... force people to love and intercourse, and the intrigues of the devil are innumerable. " - Since the word "witch" in Russian is feminine, it is often believed that the victims of the witch hunt were mainly women. Indeed, in many countries the number of women accused reached 80-85%. But in a number of countries, for example, in Estonia, more than half of those accused of witchcraft were men, and in Iceland for 9 executed sorcerers there was only one executed witch.
The Middle Ages - the era of long bloody wars, mass executions and deadly epidemics. The growing savagery of the people of that time was the root cause of all the nightmares and horrors that enveloped Europe.
The Holy Inquisition, already from the beginning of the 12th century, has thus become an indicator of human cruelty and the desire to rule at any cost. Its main task was the search and extermination of heretics and apostates, represented by scientists, oppositionists and ordinary peasants. People were tortured, rotted in prisons and sent to the undying fire of the Holy Inquisition.
Etymology
The inquisition(from lat . Inquisitio, "Searches", "investigations") - a separate judicial institution of the Catholic Church, the main duties of which were to identify and eradicate heresy and blasphemy.
The general name for a number of institutions of the Roman Catholic Church, whose task was to combat heresy.
History of origin
Beginning in the 12th century, the Catholic Church faced an unprecedented rise in alternative religions in Western Europe. In order to calm down and overcome opposition movements, the papacy entrusted the bishops with new functions, according to which they were obliged to identify, judge and hand over heretics to secular authorities for punishment.
In the XII century Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbossa instructed dad Lucius III to develop a scheme for the search and disclosure of religious crimes. The Pope, using the directive, ordered all newly arrived bishops to select informers from among the local residents who were supposed to notify the new hierarch of all crimes against the church in the area entrusted to him. The bishop collected all the facts of the atrocities and sent them to special church courts.
Newly established ecclesiastical court of the Catholic Church was formed in 1215 by Pope Innocent III and got the name - "Inquisition".
In 1229, Pope Gregory IX a special church tribunal, who was engaged in the search, prevention and punishment for the spread of heresies.
The essence and means of the Inquisition
The essence of the Inquisition was to determine the involvement of the defendant in heresy.
The Holy Inquisition was looking for heretics and witches who were accused of having connections with evil spirits. An interesting fact is that in addition to the inquisition of the church, secular authorities were also involved in the persecution of witches.
Great importance was attached to frank confession. The Catholic Church tried to prevent extrajudicial reprisals by holding special inquisitorial courts. In addition to routine interrogations, the Inquisition used more sophisticated methods of obtaining information, such as torture. If the suspect survived during the "in-depth interrogation", confessing and repenting for what he had done, then the materials of his case were transferred to the court.
Usually, the sentences passed by the Inquisitorial Court were reduced to the death penalty (burning at the stake) and were executed by the secular authorities.
Historical stages
The history of the Inquisition can be divided into 3 chronological periods:
- pre-Dominican(persecution of heretics until the XII century);
- Dominican(starting with the Toulouse Cathedral of 1229);
- Spanish Inquisition.
First period characterized by episodic persecution of certain gentiles, and their trial was only a small part of the duties of bishops.
During second period special commissioned inquisitorial tribunals are beginning to be created, which were in the hands of Dominican monks.
Third period was marked by the transformation of the inquisitorial system into an apparatus for centralizing monarchical power in Spain with the claims of its monarchs to complete political and religious supremacy in Europe. A distinctive feature of this period is the struggle with the Moors and Jews. Later, with the help of the Jesuit Order, a new fighting force of the 16th century Catholic reaction against Protestantism was created.
Spanish Inquisition
The Inquisition in Spain dates back to the 13th century and is the most cruel and bloody in the history of the persecution of the Catholic Church. It reached its apogee already in the 15th century, thanks to the bull of Pope Sixtus IV, which determined the principles of observing church doctrines, religious conversion to Christianity, as the true faith, of all Jews (to Marranos) and Muslims (to Morrisks) and the discovery of heresies, followed by exposing them.
Regular persecution of infidels begins with the reform of the inquisitorial system by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, subsequently uniting Aragon and Castile into one monarchy.
In 1480, a special inquisitorial tribunal was created for the first time in the city of Seville., whose purpose was to persecute people who secretly performed Jewish rituals.
In 1483 with the approval of Pope SixtusIVhigh inquisitor becomes the spiritual mentor of Queen Isabella of Castile, who made his name synonymous with bloodthirstiness and fanatical cruelty that ruined and maimed hundreds of thousands of lives.
The main vocation of Torquemada was the complete religious and political unification of Spain. A whole network of special inquisitorial institutions was created, which included the Central Inquisitional Council and four local tribunals, the number of which was soon increased to 10.
In addition, the Spanish government willingly entrusted the inquisitors with the role of censors, who carefully checked and banned all, in their opinion, immoral and heretical books, and their authors were persecuted and tortured.
The targets of persecution were not only heretics, but also active political figures. Very often even wealthy citizens found themselves in the role of victims, having completely "correct" Christian beliefs.
In addition to the already familiar torture, the so-called acts of faith (auto-da-fe), the meaning of which was the public burning of dissenting citizens disliked by Torquemada and the Spanish crown. Subsequently, these processes were put on stream, destroying rich and high-status people, while seizing all their property in favor of the state treasury and the inquisitorial bodies.
The exact number of victims of the Spanish Inquisition conducted by Torquemada in the period from 1481 to 1498 is not fully understood, but according to calculations carried out at the beginning of the 19th century, the number of victims could reach 100,000 people... Almost 9 thousand men and women were burned at the stake, 6.5 thousand were strangled and more than 90 thousand were tortured and forcibly confiscated.
However, there is also newer evidence according to which the "Grand Inquisitor" Torquemada is guilty of burning only 2 thousand people, which means that the numbers of victims of the Spanish Inquisition are significantly exaggerated. But this is only part of the truth, the full picture and the exact number of victims, we are unlikely to ever know.
Orthodox Inquisition in the Russian Empire
The position of the Orthodox Church regarding heretics was fundamentally different from the principles that guided the Western (Catholic) Inquisition.
The Inquisition in Russia (Russian Empire) was introduced in 1721 when Tsar PeterI created the Holy Synod, with written in it Spiritual Regulations... One of the points of this law appointed a special position - "Protoinquisitor", which was occupied by Hieromonk Paphnutius. According to the new rules, each diocese had its own "provincial inquisitor", to whom ordinary "inquisitors" from cities and counties were subordinate.
The inquisitors of the Orthodox Church, as a rule, were fiscal, and the object of their attention was the clergy and what was associated with their activities.
The duties of the inquisitor included:
- monitoring the implementation of the rules of the Spiritual Regulations by the clergy;
- non-admission of simony (buying or selling church positions, dignity);
- checking for compliance with the position held (archimandrite or abbot);
- the fulfillment of the Holy Rules by the clergy.
In addition to their main functions, the inquisitors monitored the collection of taxes from the schismatics. If a spiritual mentor appeared among the Old Believers, he was immediately brought to the Synod, preventing the spread of Old Believer beliefs. In addition, the inquisitors were required to monitor the implementation of state laws, both among the clergy and among the peasants.
Spiritual Inquisition in Russia did not last long and was destroyed by Catherine I.
End of the Inquisition
Since the Enlightenment, the Inquisition began to lose ground.
An ardent opponent of the inquisition movement was Sebastian José di Carvalho y Melo (Pombal), who was the first minister of the King of Portugal José I. At his submission, already in 1771, the Inquisition was deprived of the censorship right and completely eliminated the auto-da-fe (act of faith, burning at the stake). and in 1774, the use of torture against prisoners was completely banned.
In 1808, the French emperor Napoleon I Bonaparte completely abolished the Inquisition in the occupied territories of Spain, Italy and Portugal. Later, Pope Pius VII finally banned the use of torture.
After the Portuguese Revolution of 1820, the Inquisition was finally abolished throughout the entire state, and from 1821 the Spanish colonies of Latin America also abandoned it.
In 1834, by decree of Queen Mary Christina of Bourbon-Sicilian, the Inquisition in Spain was finally canceled.
Due to the impossibility of further revival of medieval inquisitional movements, already in 1835 Pope Gregory XVI officially abolished all local inquisitional tribunals, leaving only the Sacred Chancellery, whose duties included only excommunication (anathema) and the publication of the Index of Forbidden Books.
In 1966, Pope Paul VI officially abolished the Inquisition, replacing it with the Congregation of Faiths and abolishing the Index.
On March 12, 2000, Pope John Paul II performed a ceremony of repentance for the sins of the sons of the church and their crimes during the Inquisition.
Books and films about the Inquisition
The events that took place during the era of the Holy Inquisition were reflected in literature as well. Among the most famous books about the Inquisition are:
- the story "The Well and the Pendulum" (author Edgar Allan Poe, 1842);
- the novel "Leiden Beauty" (author Henry Ryder Haggard, 1901);
- the historical novel The Beautiful Margaret (author Henry Ryder Haggard, 1907);
- the historical novel "The Dogs of the Lord" (author Rafael Sabatini, 1928);
- the novel "The Name of the Rose" (author Umberto Eco, 1980);
- the novel "Memories of the Monastery" (author Jose Saramago, 1982).
Among the most significant films that reflected the events of the bloody inquisition, it is worth noting:
- The Passion of Jeanne d'Arc (1928);
- Galileo Galilei (1968);
- Giordano Bruno (1978);
- The Inquisitor: The Well and the Pendulum (1990);
- Warrior of God (1999);
- Jeanne d'Arc (1999);
- "In the Time of the Witches" (2005);
- The Executioner (2005);
- The Last Judgment (2006);
- Black Death (2010).
