Earth is not a planet isolated in space. Most of all, it is associated with the bodies of the solar system located close to it - the Sun and the Moon. Gravitational fields keep the Earth in a circumsolar orbit. Together with the axial rotation, they cause periodic ebbs and flows on the planet's surface. The movement of the Earth takes place in the sphere of influence of the solar wind. The Earth is also exposed to X-ray and ultraviolet radiation, perceives radio waves, radiation and thermal energy, which is the driving force behind the development of inanimate and living nature.
The Earth's mass is growing by about 40,000 tons annually as a result of meteorites and cosmic dust falling onto its surface. Strongly ionized fluxes of radiation of atomic nuclei, mainly hydrogen, constantly come from distant space. Cosmic radiation and solar wind are the causes of many unusual natural phenomena on Earth: auroras, magnetic storms, air ionization, etc.
The Earth does not perceive the influence of space passively. With the help of her individual unique planetary characteristics, she transforms it, creates an environment around herself that is different from the cosmic one. Powerful earthly magnetic and gravitational fields interact with cosmic ones, changing their average characteristics, providing them with new qualitative properties and quantities. Most meteors, asteroids and comets burn up in the Earth's atmosphere before reaching its surface. From the upper layers of the atmosphere, some of the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are torn off the planet and go beyond the forces of gravity. As a result of the interaction of the Earth with space, a space was formed, called M.M. Ermolaev (1975.) Geographic. Geographic space encompasses the sphere of interaction of cosmic factors with terrestrial ones from the upper boundary of the magnetosphere to the surface of Mohorovichich, that is, the lower boundary of the earth's crust. Since this interaction at different vertical levels has its own characteristics, it is customary to distinguish the following four components in the geographic space.
1. Near space. The upper limit is the limit of the magnetosphere (80-90 thousand km), the lower one is 1500-2000 km above the Earth's surface. Here the closest interaction of cosmic factors with the magnetic and gravitational fields of the Earth takes place. From the protons and electrons captured by the magnetic field, a radiation belt is formed around the planet.
2. High atmosphere. The lower border is limited by the stratopause. It converts primary cosmic rays into secondary ones, heats up the atmosphere, and forms a continuous layer of ozone.
3. Geographic envelope. It is located between the ozone layer and the lower boundary of the active layer of sedimentary rocks, which are influenced by exogenous factors. This is the only shell in the solar system and, possibly, in the Universe, in which the interaction of cosmic factors with earthly factors has created favorable conditions for the emergence and development of various forms of life.
4. Underlying bark. It extends from the lower boundary of the geographic envelope to the surface of Mohorovichić. This is the arena of endogenous factors that create the primary relief of the planet. Various exogenous processes, which are driven by solar energy, constantly alter the primary relief of the earth's surface.
The concept of geographic space scientifically substantiates the position of the geographic envelope in the sphere of constant interaction of cosmic factors with terrestrial ones. This specific near-earth space is a prerequisite for the origin and development of life on the planet. Its special study allows us to understand the essence of many natural phenomena and physical and geographical processes.
Geographic space encompasses a vast in extent sphere of interaction of cosmic factors with terrestrial ones, which in its volume significantly exceeds all the inner geospheres of the planet taken together. Within this space, a special place belongs to the geographic shell of the Earth due to the presence of the organic world in it, which makes it extremely complex in structure, properties and dynamics. The processes taking place in the Universe, primarily on the Sun, are very active in the natural state and functioning of all near-earth shells that are part of the geographic space. These influences and their mechanism in our time are carefully and comprehensively studied by scientists.
Test questions and tasks
1. What is the Universe? What is it also called?
2. What types of galaxies or star clusters do you know?
3. What are the most abundant chemical elements in space?
4. What are the structural features of our Galaxy?
5. What is the closest star to the Earth?
6. What are the differences in the chemical composition of the Sun and the Earth?
7. What is an astronomical unit of length?
8. How do the inner planets differ from the outer ones?
9. What makes the Earth different from other planets?
10. In which planets have astronomical rings been found?
11. What chemical elements are most often found in meteorites?
12. Why is the Moon turned to the Earth all the time with one side?
13. What are the known ideas and hypotheses about the origin of the Earth and other planets of the solar system?
14. Make a diagram of the structure of the solar system.
15. What solar-terrestrial connections form the geographic space of the Earth?
I offer you a fragment of a geography lesson in a profile (socio-economic) grade 11 on the topic: "The geographical location of the city."
I conducted this lesson within the framework of the city seminar "Social design as a form of organizing civic education in the context of the profiling of a general educational institution."
Since 2008 I have been working on the innovative educational and methodological complex “Geography. Profile level. Grades 10-11 ", which became the winner of the competition of the National Training Foundation" Informatization of the education system ". Author IUMK V.N. Kholina - PhD in Geography, Head of the Department of Regional Economics and Geography, Faculty of Economics, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia.
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Dear Colleagues!
I offer you a fragment of a lesson in the 11th grade on the topic: "Geographical location of the city."
Here is a matrix card that will help you determine the place of this topic in the pre-profile and profile courses in geography:
Theme | Geographical position of the city | |||
Class | ||||
Place in the curriculum | Section number 3 "Population of Russia" | Section No. 2 "Regions of Russia" | Section number 1 "Geography in the modern world" | Section number 5 "Cities and rural settlements" |
Topic number 14 "Where and how people live" | Topic number 3 "European part of Russia" | Topic number 1 "Geography as a Science" | Topic number 1 "Urbanization" |
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Lesson number 63 “Settlement and urbanization. Types of settlements " | Lesson number 25 "Moscow - the capital of Russia" | Lesson number 4 "Space - the object of studying geography" | Lesson number 4 "Why some cities grow, while others do not" |
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Lesson number 64 "Cities of Russia, historical features of formation" | Lesson number 26 "Cities of the Central Region" | Lesson number 5 "Geographical location as a factor in the emergence and development of cities" | Lesson number 5 "Why some cities are growing, while others are not" |
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Lesson number 65 "Cities of the Rostov Region" | Lesson number 30 "Cities on old waterways" | |||
Lesson number 31 "St. Petersburg - the" economic hub "of Russia" | ||||
Lesson number 32 "St. Petersburg - the" second capital "of Russia" | ||||
Lesson number 38 "The largest cities of the Volga region" | ||||
Lesson number 50 "Cities of the Urals" | ||||
Lesson objectives | educational: 1. To study how the process of urbanization took place in Russia. 2. Study the typology and functions of cities. 3. To study the importance of cities in the material and spiritual life of the population. 4. Get acquainted with the problems of cities. developing: 1. Develop the ability to analyze statistical data, maps. | educational: 1. Acquaintance with the cities of Russia as centers of the formation of the customs and traditions of the Russian people. 2. Acquaintance with cities as industrial centers, their importance in the country's economy. 3. Acquaintance with the environmental problems of cities. developing: 1. Formation of the ability to characterize the city (industrial hub) by maps and schematic maps. | educational: 1. Study of the object and subject of study of geography. 2. Study of the concept of geographic location. developing: 1. Development of skills: Work with various sources of information; Comparisons of cartographic materials; 2. Development of card reading skills. | educational: 1. To form an idea of the geographical position of cities as a factor in their growth (decline) and development. developing: 1. Development of geographical thinking skills. 2. Development of the ability to work with a variety of sources of information. |
Practical work | № 17 "Drawing on a contour map of the cities of millionaires, explaining the features of their location on the territory of the country" | № 9 "Comparison of cities in terms of transport and geographical location, historical, cultural and economic role in the life of the country" | № 1 "Geographical location as a factor in the emergence and development of cities" | № 1 "Choosing a place for the construction of the city" |
Objectives of the practical work | 1. To form an idea of the uneven distribution of cities of millionaires across the territory of the Russian Federation. 2. Allocation of the main zone of settlement | 1. To form an idea of the various functions, the role of cities in the meaning of the country | 1. To form an idea of the influence of the factor of geographical location on the emergence of cities and the change in this factor over time. 2. Develop the analytical skills of students. |
So, you see that we begin to study the geographical position of the city at the pre-profile level in grades 8 and 9, updating this topic at the profile level in grades 10 and 11.
Teacher: Guys, now we will carry out with you the practical work "Choosing a place for building a city."
Purpose of work:
To form an idea of the influence of the factor of geographical location on the emergence of cities and the change in this factor over time.
Develop the analytical skills of students.
You know that SOE is the most important spatial resource for economic development, it influences not only the choice of location for the construction of economic objects (enterprises), cities, but also actively influences their functioning.
Let's remember the factors that influence the choice of the optimal place for the creation of cities.
Students:
Agroclimatic resources (at the initial stages of the development of society, the climate, relief, and the availability of fresh water were of great importance).
Division of labor (originally, cities played the function of a fortress, protection from enemy attacks, with the advent of crafts between settlements, trade relations arose, which led to the emergence of food surpluses, providing an opportunity for the growth and development of the city).
Natural resources (which played an important role in the industrialization of society, for example, metallurgy originated where deposits of coal and iron are compactly located).
Transport arteries (intersection of main or convenient national or international trade routes).
Teacher: And now you need to choose the optimal place to locate the city in different historical periods and justify your choice using the factors that we have just talked about.
Interactive work:Students take turns going to the board, completing the assignment, explaining their choice.
Student 1: (1600) reads the assignment, chooses the letter A, explains his choice.
I believe that point A is the most optimal place for building a city, because it is located by the river, and this is a supply of fresh water, a cheap vehicle, access to the ocean, there is a possibility of the growth of this city.
Switches the task, reads, answers all questions, concludes: The main factors in choosing a location: protection from attack, the prospects for the growth of the city, the availability of drinking water.
Teacher : And there is such a city on the map, let's see the historical background:
Most coastal towns are located in convenient bays. However, in subsequent centuries, these benefits of geographic location may remain unrealized.
In addition to the bay, the deep river became an important advantage of the geographical position of New York. Hudson, along which ships could climb up to Albany. In 1825, the Erie Canal was laid from the Hudson to the Great Lakes, and New York became the main link in the cheapest waterway from the developed Midwest to the coast. By the time the railways became the main transport, New York, it would seem, should have lost the advantages of its geographical position, had already gained enormous potential, becoming the undisputed leader among cities not only in the United States, but also in the world.
Student 2: (1830) reads the assignment, chooses the letter B, explains his choice.
I believe that point B is the most optimal place for building a city, because there is an outlet to the ocean, which means it is possible to build a convenient bay. Switches the task, reads, answers all questions, concludes: The main factors in choosing a location: proximity to the ocean (external relations).
Teacher: the main factors can also be attributed to a convenient location for protection from attack, the proximity of the PR - forest as a building material and a source of heating.
Student 3: (1860) reads the assignment, chooses the letter A, explains his choice.
I believe that point A is the most optimal place for building a city, because there is fresh water, a railway passes, and this is an intersection of transport routes.
Switches the task, reads, answers all the questions, concludes that she was mistaken, chooses point D, performs the task again, indicating the same factors, given that there is no threat of flooding.
The main factor: transport accessibility.
Student 4: (1890) reads the assignment.
Analyzing the plan of the area, I can say that the factor of transport accessibility will play in the choice of the optimal location of the city, but here an ecological problem arises.
Teacher: taking into account that in 1890. the environmental factor was not taken into account, since traffic was less intense and the automotive industry was in its infancy.
I believe that point B is the most optimal place for building a city, because there is transport accessibility here.
Switches the task, reads, answers all questions, concludes:
The main factors in choosing a location: transport accessibility.
Teacher:
Conclusion: the choice of a site for the construction of a particular city is determined by both the profitability of the SE and the specifics of the location. The significance of these factors depends on the historical period and changes with the course of the socio-economic development of society.
Write an analytical report on how the role of SOE factors has changed in the course of the development of society and the economy.
Students' speeches …….
Teacher: With the development of society and the economy, the role of SOE factors changed:
At first it was protection from hostile Indians and a connection with the Old World (convenient bays).
Then the presence of wood as a building material and a source of heating.
Transport accessibility (intersection of highways).
Student and - ecological.
Teacher: Yes, now, when choosing the optimal location for a city, an orientation is added to the environmental factor.
Homework:You should use this influence when completing the 2007 City Optimal City Map in your workbook on page 5.
Geographic space is one of the most important concepts of geography and geopolitics. And, at the same time, one of the most controversial. It was the object of close attention in Russian literature in Soviet times, and continues to be discussed now [Gladkiy 2010; Osipov 2010]. The most fundamental of the really existing ones can be considered physical space. But it is understood in different ways. Back in the Soviet period, there was a tendency for different interpretations of this concept by representatives of the natural and social branches of geography [see. e.g .: Lazukov, Lyamin 1987, p. 38]:
- 1) space as the being of self-developing objects and the geographic envelope as a whole, associated with the "geographic form of the movement of matter" and studied mainly by natural geography;
- 2) relational space as spatial relations studied by economic and, in part, physical geography - mathematical and geometric formalization, change of phenomena from place to place, territoriality, chorological models, etc .;
- 3) the third option is the perception of space as a "container", i.e. as a simple receptacle for matter, objects and processes (absolute or "Newtonian" space).
Accordingly, representatives of the natural sciences of geography (as well as some fighters against "bourgeois chorology" among economic geographers) objected to the "spatial" essence of geography itself if space is understood as relational. Indeed, natural geography is often more interested in the internal structure and chemical composition of geographic objects than in their spatial distribution. V.A. Anuchin, proceeding from the position that only matter is real, believed that “space itself ... cannot be the subject of science as something non-existent "(italics mine .- A.E.) "[Anuchin 1982, p. 17]. On the same basis
For more details see [Elatskov 2012].
N.K. Mukitanov divided geographical knowledge into substantive and formal levels [Mukitanov 1985]. Further, with a careful and generalized examination of the concepts, it turns out that the properties of extension and duration, which are customary for the definition of space and time, are not universal. They are based on more fundamental features - stability and variability relationships and states. "The need for the concept of space in physics was dictated by the relative stability of rigid bodies, the need for a universal category of space is dictated by the presence of relations of stable quantities in objects of any nature" [Sagatovsky 1973, p. 197]. Indeed, with abstract absolute variability, even units of space are impossible, and with absolute stability - units of time.
The presented variants of interpretation are quite acceptable for a discussion about space in general. but geospace also has specific properties. For its consideration, one can start from any of the above positions, although the relational concept has a clear advantage [Magyg 1983]. When applied consistently, these approaches come down to almost the same result. It is no coincidence that in the geographical encyclopedic dictionary, separated by semicolons, two different definitions of geospace are presented, presented in unity [Geographic ... 1988, p. 56]. Geospace inevitably uses its own geocentric frame of reference, tied to physical body planets. Moreover, any parts of the planet only in aggregate, connected by special relations make up the Earth. And here it is no longer important how to understand space in general. As E.B. Alaev, “for a geographer, geographic space - in contrast to the philosopher's perception of the concept of space - is always a form inextricably linked with content” [Alaev 1983, p. 104]. Setting a non-inertial frame of reference also means that any phenomena associated with it inevitably have a temporal characteristic (even if we abstract from it). There can be many specific definitions. However, as noted by Yu.N. Smooth, in the overwhelming number of definitions it is impossible to avoid the logical circle - definitions geospaces across geo objects etc. [Smooth 2010, p. 236].
The “building material” of space-time is events (they have both temporal and spatial definiteness) [Mostepanenko 1974, p. 48]. For research tasks, we are forced to discretize time - to break it down into moments and situations (in this we are helped by the unevenness of changes). We also discretize space (usually focusing on its unevenness). Thus, “moment” and “place” (as well as the “event” that unites them) are special relationships within geospace, revealed or imagined by an observer. Each geographic object or process has its own individual (own) geospace.
Some uncertainty in the interpretation of geospace was caused by an attempt to introduce the concept of a "single geographic field" or "geofield". From the positions we are considering, it can be argued that the geospace is permeated by many fields of different nature. However, a number of authors oppose the “single geofield” to geospace as a narrower “static” concept. But a geographic space without time is any kind of space, but not a geographic one. “The concept of the geographical field in its current form sheds too little light on the essence of geographical science” [Gladkiy 2010, p. 190].
What are the boundaries of geospace? They can be associated, for example, with the magnetic and gravitational fields of the planet [Osipov 2010, p. 128] or with a geographic shell 1. True, the search for clear formal boundaries can lead to the fact that “space and place are reduced only to volume, to area, i.e. to a trivial container ”[Kostinsky 1997, p. 22]. Therefore, geo space is determined not so much by size as by content. The boundaries of the "humanitarian space", according to Yu.N. Gladkiy, coincide with the boundaries of humanized nature [Gladkiy 2010, p. 242], but it is no longer limited to the near-surface layer of the planet. This is of particular importance for modern political geography and geopolitics, which have acquired astropolitical or cosmogeopolitical divisions [Pyrin 2011; Dollman 2002]. E. Dollman writes: “Following the examples of Sir Halford Mackinder and Nicholas Spykman, neoclassical astropolitics asserts: Whoever controls low Earth orbit commands near space; Whoever commands the near space dominates the Earth; Who dominates the Earth determines the fate of humanity. " Modern military geography, along with the World Ocean and the atmosphere, also considers near-earth space.
Thus, it makes sense to use the Clarke Belt (geostationary orbit, 35786 km above sea level) as the upper boundary - a very unique, strategically important and geographically related part of space. It is here that it is proposed to draw the outer boundary of near-earth space. However, this border should not be absolutized. Satellites in high elliptical orbits, advantageous for servicing the circumpolar regions of the Earth, reach an altitude of 50 thousand km at their apogee. It should also be noted that the English-language term geospace, in contrast to geographic (al) space, often means just near-earth space (literally “geocosmos”), which in many studies is compared with the Earth's magnetosphere.
The boundary of the geographic envelope is drawn by different authors for the ozone layer, tropo- or stratopause, i.e. from 10 to 50 km above sea level.
wandering in its maximum volume (in the broad sense, geospace-D).“The part of the universe connected with the Earth, i.e. of the entire objective material world "E.B. Alaev called geoversum, but irrationally limited it only to a geographic shell [Alaev 1983, p. eighteen]. The part of this geospace inhabited by man is usually called Oikumene. Secondly, it stands out geographic proper space (in the narrow sense, geospace-11). O.I. Back in 1977, Chablius expressed the idea that “geospace is a subspace of the system of terrestrial spaces” [cit. Quoted from: Lazukov, Lyamin 1987, p. 28]. A. Göttner believed that “phenomena that are devoid ... of connection with other phenomena of the same area of the earth ... are not included in the area of geographical consideration” [Göttner 1930, p. 119-120]. N.N. Baransky expressed the maxim that "what is everywhere should not be anywhere in geography." Of course, with this view, it is obvious that geography is only one of the sciences that study geospace. There are also political phenomena that are not included in the object of political geography. In a sense, it can be considered that geospace-1 and geospace-11 relate to each other as an object and subject of geographic science.
From the point of view of N.V. Kaledin, the geospace that political geography deals with is “the multifaceted unity of the material substrate ... of a number of planetary spheres - natural, economic, social, ethnic, political, ecological, ideological, etc., in which various activities are carried out society, including political ”[Kaledin 1996, p. 81]. Apparently, one can agree with this, with the exception of the obligatory binding to human activity, which identifies geospace only with the environment. Thus, geospace consists of geospheres of different nature, formed around the center of mass of the Earth. One of the private geospheres is the political space, which is “not the space of physical bodies in which political activity is carried out, but this activity itself, taken from an attributive point of view” [Aksenov 1993, p. 64]. It should be noted that it is preferable to talk about political geospace because the term "political space" in political science is often used exclusively in a functional sense.
Each geosphere is characterized by special parameters of stability and variability and, therefore, they can be considered as separate geographic (sub) spaces. Moreover, the relationship between stability and variability is uneven within the same geosphere. In this context, one can mention, for example, the different rates of demographic transition. Political scientist A.Yu. Melville states: “... Different groups of countries, in a sense, live in different political times. Hence, in particular, a serious methodological problem for their synchronous comparisons ”[Melville 2007, p. 119]. The processes taking place in different functional geospheres throughout human history are fundamental to political phenomena developing on their basis. Let's briefly designate them. This is a demographic process, ethnogenesis, social and territorial division of labor, social and political organization of society, internationalization and globalization, spiritual and cultural development, civilization process, formation process, space consolidation, dynamics of the natural environment.
Socio-geographical spaces (political, economic, confessional, etc.), in turn, are made up of several components (subspaces), including:
- subjects;
- functional infrastructure;
- individual and mass consciousness;
- specific forms of activity;
- institutions;
- resource environment of this activity.
Any functional geospace is closely related to other geospheres, and this connection is different from place to place.
Considerable discussions were caused by the concept of "noosphere", introduced into Russian science by V.I. Vernadsky. The most radical approach, following Teilhard de Chardin, was the interpretation of the noosphere as the ideal or mental space of the planet. This interpretation, however, caused a negative reaction from Marxist geographers [eg: Anuchin 1982, p. 40]. However, this approach has become widespread by now. An alternative and less controversial term in this case is psychosphere (proposed by N.N. Lange). At the same time, the geographical elements of the so-understood noosphere are localized through people and their communities. Inside the mental geosphere (noosphere or psychosphere), virtual figurative geospaces are formed, representing the mapping of geospace onto individual and collective consciousness in the form of images (including political and geographic ones) [Zamyatin 2004]. More and more attention is paid to the study of geographical images in Russian science, although in the West such studies have been carried out within the framework of behaviorist geography since the middle of the 20th century [see: Johnston 1987, p. 197]. In our country, however, this trend was previously regarded as anti-scientism and a departure from the scientific principles of cognition [Mukitanov 1985, p. 115-116]. Although, rather, this is a transition from the field of geography to the field of psychology and cultural studies. The content of the geographic image is only a simplified and distorted individual model of geospace. But the images themselves, as ideal entities localized through people-carriers, are for an outside observer the elements of the noosphere and parts of the real geospace. And in this capacity they are interesting for geography.
If you follow D.N. Zamyatin, then first geographical markers are included in the cognitive political space (bright elements localized by consciousness in geospace and creating a subjective coordinate system), on the basis of which political and geographical images are formed [Zamyatin 2004, p. 106]. Unmarked objects can "fall out" of the shaped space (it is "curved", for example, along roads). In the context of geography, the basis for identifying the cognitive geospace was the fact that researchers understood: they not only “discover” geographic reality, but also construct it themselves [Kostinsky 1997, p. eighteen]. The concept of "virtual information space" (cyberspace), which pulls geospace to a virtual information point, is increasingly being used. However, it should be borne in mind that without a real geospace there is no virtual one generated by it, but not vice versa. At least because of the territorial binding of the equipment and its users.
Metric and topological parameters of different geospheres or subspaces are not the same. But at least one dimension must be allocated based on the topology of the physical geospace. A legitimate question may arise here: is only one geographic dimension sufficient if any territory is considered at least two-dimensional? In our opinion, yes. In particular, if only latitudinal differences and patterns are presented in statistical data, then these data are already geospatial. The metric of the subspace itself depends on its type. Thus, distances and remoteness are estimated not only in kilometers, but also in terms of costs, travel time, social contacts, etc.
In the 20th century, “space” was interpreted very broadly. Abstract spaces developed by mathematics have become widespread in social, humanitarian and geographical research. We are especially interested in functional space. One of its main differences is that the geospatial topology is not preserved in it, and the coordinate systems are in no way connected with the planetary one and, in the general case, cannot be transformed to it. So, in the functional political space, the coordinate system is exclusively political: “The political space does not coincide with the geometric (physical) space. Those who have power over us, we traditionally associate with the "top", and meanwhile the boss can sit on the same floor with his subordinates "[Batalov 1995, p. 90]. A lot of functional spaces, including the political one, are “tied” to geospace. They are not only material objects, but also ideal formations of different nature. Any functional system that has geo objects as elements is geospatial. True, this does not yet make it geographic. According to Yu.N. Smooth, “the unavoidable specificity of geography lies in the fact that the space in it is associated with the imprecise structure of its own objects ... The humanitarian space studied ... by economics and other disciplines of the social cycle is associated mainly with the point structure of objects ...” [Gladky 2010 , with. 240].
Geodesy (translated from the Greek. "Division of the earth") is a science, the subject of which is the figure of the Earth (the shape of its surface as a whole) and its dimensions, the image of the earth's surface on plans and maps.
To date, surveyors have reliably determined the size and shape of the Earth, created a state geodetic network (see 4.2), which, in turn, allows them to have maps that adequately reflect the reality and simulate geographic space.
Geodetic measurements are made with special high-precision instruments (theodolites, optical range finders, levels) on the surface of the Earth, in its bowels, atmosphere and space. The results of geodetic measurements are processed with using a computer.
We can say that geodesy studies the level surface of the Earth, that is, it studies the whole. But this whole consists of parts - small areas of the physical surface on which a person works. Their study, image on plans and maps as a result of special work, which are called surveys, is the subject of topography - place, "grapho" - I write).
Topography is a discipline that studies ways and methods of depicting small areas of terrain on topographic maps (plans). , 4 ,
Topographic surveys are a set of works to create an original topographic map, plan.
There was a time when topography was called inferior geodesy by some. It's as ridiculous as calling arithmetic lower algebra. By our time, the correct idea of higher geodesy has developed as a scientific discipline designed to develop methods and methods for determining the size of the Earth and its shape. Her competence also includes the study of horizontal and vertical movements of the earth's crust.
Professor VV Vitkovsky said well about the connection between geodesy and topography: "The vastness of the land forces us to study it in parts, and the study of parts requires knowledge of the whole: this whole, that is, the general appearance and dimensions of the Earth, is studied in geodesy."
Thus, all three sciences - geodesy, topography and cartography - are closely related. From geodesy, the idea of the whole is known - about the figure of the Earth and its dimensions; topography allows you to create maps of the terrain of small territories (note that these maps exist for vast areas of the country); cartography has mastered the methods of graphic representation of this earthly space in all its diversity and any dimension.
Maps allow you to simultaneously see a space of any size - from a small area of terrain to the earth's surface as a whole. They contain the necessary qualitative and quantitative characteristics, allow you to obtain various cartometric parameters, that is, cartographic information suitable for further analysis. Only with the help of cartographic information, it is possible to establish some natural and social patterns of the spread of phenomena, to give a visual representation of the location of objects and phenomena, their combination, interaction both in the past and in the present. The map “stores” space and time in a model graphic form.
A map in the lessons of geography, history, biology, etc. is a means of scientific knowledge, activation of thinking. To depict a phenomenon on a map means to understand its structure and essence.
Often, the creation of maps becomes the goal of a large team of specialists, the task of expeditionary research (for example, geological, soil, geobotanical, landscape mapping). And vice versa, maps are preliminarily studied if the exploration of a certain region begins. Therefore, the assertion of N. N. Baransky is true that the map is the "alpha and omega" of geography.
Cartographic knowledge is necessary for a specialist to:
the formation of spatial thinking;
the ability to work with cartographic models in order to obtain information;
drawing up maps and displaying special information in graphic form in order to study the patterns and features of the spatial distribution of geographical phenomena;
the use of the cartographic method in teaching geography and other sciences related to the knowledge of geographic space, with the patterns of distribution of phenomena and processes.
Figure 1 gives an idea of the place of cartography in the system of geographical sciences.
Rice. 1. The place of cartography in the system of sciences (after N. K-Mukshpanov, 1985)
The dominance of geometry - the language of spatial forms - has been unconditional in geography for centuries. The development of the idea of social space presupposes the development of another system for describing spatial relationships and structures.
The way of description, image, accumulation of information is the most geographical way - cartographic.
The map is "written" in a figurative geographic language that knows no barriers. However, it has its own characteristics in different countries, reflecting their characteristics and level of development in different eras. Suffice it to recall Chinese maps on silk, monastic medieval schemes of the universe, navigational maps of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries (Portolans), rich in historical information Russian "blueprints", modern atlases, electronic maps, various geographic information systems to make sure that each era leaves monuments , including maps. This is the invaluable value of cartography.
Maps are used in scientific research, but the ability to work with graphically expressed information is necessary not only for specialists, but also for a very wide range of people both in the field of management, business, entrepreneurship, and in the case of ensuring, for example, personal environmental safety, any human need. The map is a source of information for people of different professions - teachers, ecologists, economists, engineers, agronomists, military leaders, managers, travelers.
At the same time, the central place is occupied by knowledge of the language of the map, developed by mankind in the process of cultural development just for the analysis of the spatial distribution of information about natural and social processes. The acquisition of the ability to work with geographic information, perform mental actions with it, solve specific problems, transform and compose a geographic description of the field of one's possible actions is an indispensable quality of an educated person.
The development of methods for using maps as a means of scientific research is the main task of modern cartography.
Let us note another important feature of cartography, which consists in the development of its cognitive functions as a means of studying the objective world and acquiring new knowledge.
The cognitive property of maps is understandable if we understand them as graphic models with the help of which the real world is studied.
In our time, the importance of cartography is enhanced by the fact that the information base for managing the social and economic development of society is changing at all levels - from federal to local.
Spatially distributed geographic information in the form of thematic maps, electronic maps, various geographic information systems begins and will occupy a leading place in the information support for managing the development of society.
Cartography closely cooperates with mathematics, computer technology, automation, space imagery, earth and social sciences, and the philosophical theory of knowledge.
The links between cartography and informatics are of particular importance. Much effort has been made by cartographers, especially scientists from Moscow State University, to investigate the relationship between cartography and information transfer theory.
1.2. Geographical representation and cartography
Space - time, as you know, is a universal form of being, a form of existence of matter. Spatial extension is inherent in all material objects. Space has several dimensions. The coordinates of an object characterize its position in relation to neighboring coexisting objects.
The maps can reflect all the variety of natural and social phenomena that have spatial distribution. In this regard, it is necessary to consider the concept of geographic space, which is based on the concepts of geometry, physics, and philosophy.
Initially, practically, the concept of space is based on human experience. In its most basic form, it is the experience of sight and touch. Geography was thought to begin with a sense of distance, by comparing places separated by that distance. The ancient Greeks called a simple description of a place topography.
Comparison of two localities can be done in two ways: in the form of an "image" (the so-called artistic and regional approach, which is closer to art than to science) and in the form of a logical scheme, such as a map.
We meet with a regional geographic approach in the works of Homer, Strabo; an example of a logical approach is the maps of Eratosphen, Ptolemy.
We can say that humanity has gone from the initial sensory perception of space to its accurate depiction by means of cartography.
1.2.1. GEOMETRIC MAPPING OF SPACE 1
As you know, geometry is called the language of spatial forms, and the presence of the "ge" particle is evidence that the forms and surfaces of the Earth were studied in antiquity.
1 This section is interesting for acquaintance with the course of scientific thought in connection with the formation of spatial representations. For more details, see: D. Harvey, Scientific explanation in geography. - M., 1974,
Representations of space can be displayed using various (but corresponding to their purpose) formalized geometry systems.
The first attempt of Euclid to provide a basis for empirical observations and particular theories that had accumulated in Ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, ended with the creation of a model of the axiomatic approach - a geometric system that has an extremely wide application. The Beginnings, written by Euclid around 300 BC e., guided and activated geometric thought for over 2000 years.
Euclid's geometry reflects the properties of real physical space with sufficient accuracy. However, on a cosmic scale, Euclidean geometry can be considered only as a first approximation to the description of the real structure of geographic space. Euclidean three-dimensional space is an approximate abstract image of real space.
The very concept of space in mathematics has developed as a result of a gradual, ever wider generalization and modification of the concepts of geometry, which appeared in connection with the development of mathematics, physics, mechanics.
At the end of the 15th century, the development of projective geometry began to be of great importance, and only at the end of the 19th century. it came to be understood as non-Euclidean.
In the period between the appearance of "Principles" and the development of non-Euclidean geometries, the success of geometry was the presentation of its problems in algebraic form. In Ancient Egypt and Babylon, apparently, they used a coordinate system to solve spatial problems, but only in the 17th century. Descartes showed convincingly that every geometric result can be reduced to an algebraic one. (So, any point on a plane can be represented by two coordinates indicating the distance from that point to two axes.)
Analytical and differential geometry developed later are also based on Descartes' concepts.
In most geometric systems, the original surface is flat, and the relationships between objects placed on this surface change. This opens up an approach to building systems using geodetic lines. In Euclid's system, a straight line is defined as the shortest path between two points. (All such paths are called geodetic lines.) At the beginning of the 19th century. the mathematician K-F. Gauss studied the properties of such shortest paths on curved surfaces (the Gauss-Kruger projection for topographic maps). GF Riemann generalized Gauss's ideas about geodesic lines and convincingly showed that various systems of geometry are special cases of what was later called the geometry of Riemannian spaces. The peculiarity of Riemann's approach is that the required type of space geometry is determined by the rules adopted (or implicitly used) for carrying out spatial measurements. The theory outlined by Ry-man turned out to be so general that it can be extended to more than three dimensions. Proceeding from it, it is possible to consider n-dimensional space.
The Russian mathematician N.I. Lobachevsky, the founder of non-Euclidean geometry, understood space as an extension inherent in all material objects.
According to Lobachevsky, one can come to the concept of space by considering the world as an endless sequence of material bodies bordering each other and abstracting from all their other properties. In this case, the properties of space are the geometric properties of material bodies.
Further, with the development of science, it was realized that the question of mathematical space is different from the question of physical space. Riemann's geometry had no obvious application to physics, but A. Einstein proved that the structure of the Universe is close to Euclidean.
The analysis of various systems of geodetic lines, their relationship with different coordinate systems and those various forms of surfaces to which these forms are attached, represents a direct path to the creation of new systems of geometry. At the end of the XIX century. F. Klein chose the path of constructing a geometric system based on the topological characteristics of objects. His system is essentially non-metric, which in itself is significant as an indication of the qualitative nature of many mathematical concepts.
Topology relies on some essential properties. For example, the essential difference between a sphere and a plane is that the sphere is closed and finite, while the plane is open and infinite. Hence the idea of the nature of the image of a sphere on a plane, that is, the traditional methodological problem of cartographic projections - the image of parallels and meridians on a plane. There are various ways to solve it. Ptolemy and Mercator were looking for a concrete solution, deriving it from geometry. The modern view of cartographic projections is based on the concepts of projective and analytic geometry.
Gauss's contribution turned out to be fundamental. He did not simply solve the problem of mapping a sphere to a plane, but considered the more general question of such a mapping of any arbitrary surface to another arbitrary surface, which preserves similarity relations. In the development of these works, he created differential geometry, which underlies modern work on cartographic projections.
The geographic aspect of this issue is that the history of geography can be partially considered as the history of the development of spatial representations, since, methodologically, space is the main organizing concept in geography. In empirical work, geographers often resort to formalized spatial languages when considering specific geographic problems.
In geography, cartography, as in many other sciences, the dominance of Euclid's geometry was unconditional for many centuries; it was believed that this language was the only one possible for the discussion of spatial problems. The development of new ideas and representations of a complex social space required the search for another system for describing spatial structures. In a number of cases such languages were found, and it became necessary to be able to move from one spatial language to another. Therefore, a discussion of the development of the nature of spatial representations is necessary before the study of the geospace gratification proper.
A simple example of the use of a formalized language in geography is the use of a coordinate system. So, points on the surface of the Earth are called by their own names, but you can replace their names with the corresponding geographical coordinates and establish general relationships between them in this spatial language of latitudes and longitudes.
In general terms, the position of an object or phenomenon in space and time can be described proceeding from a system of four coordinates (x, y, z, t).
There is no doubt that the concept of "geospace" is multivalued, and it can be considered in different ways, multidimensionally.
The concept of geographic space, its structure is necessary to understand the essence of cartographic modeling - an adequate and complete display of phenomena and objects of a natural and socio-economic nature in graphic ways.
Within the earth's shell, the main form of space is geographic space, geospace (GP).
The geospatial concept of geospace was developed by M.M.Ermolaev in the 60s. He singled out a geographic space that affects the geographic envelope from the outside and from the inside. The boundary of the geophysical field of the Earth (up to 60 thousand km from the earth's surface) was considered the limit of geospace from the outside. Inside the Earth, the geospace extends to the base of the earth's crust (less than 100 km - to the border of Mohorovichich 1).
This view only interprets the general scientific philosophical concept of space and time, performing mainly methodological functions in relation to the specifics of the material world studied by geography, be it a geographic envelope, a geographic environment, a landscape, a geosystem, etc.
For a geographer, geospace is always an environment, a form, inextricably linked with content. We can say that geographic space in the most general sense is a form of the existence of material systems within the geographic envelope.
See: Introduction to Physical Geography, Moscow, 1973.
Rice. 2. Scheme of geographic space as a unity of geosystems (according to U.I. Merest and S. Ya-Nymmik)
Everything that exists in the world belongs to any geosystem: landforms - to geomorphological, lakes, seas - to hydrological, population - to demographic, etc. Therefore, geospace is the relationship between geosystem components within a specific territory. The difference between territory and geospace is that the territory, as such (the surface of the Earth, more precisely, the land is the sum of separate territories), serves as a common background (arena) for the location of various natural and social geosystems. The area is inherent in the territory, the configuration is the location.
It is generally accepted that geospace is a complex, constantly evolving natural-social complex, “the interconnection of the main social processes and natural circumstances on which a planetary civilization is built” 1. In geography, the idea of many spaces is widely used to describe the most diverse phenomena - social, political, natural.
It can be specified that geospace is the order of mutual placement of objectively existing geosystems. This order can be described by certain parameters, coordinates, and various characteristics. The prefix "re" specifies the belonging of systems to the terrestrial space, to the geographic envelope, determines the ability to depict them within any "territory (Fig. 2).
Geographers use two terms - space and territory, often filling them with one meaning. So, in the "Geographical Encyclopedic Dictionary" (1988, p. 56), the concept of geographic space is defined by transferring the term "space" from philosophy to geography by analogy, but taking into account the characteristics of the Earth as a planet.
In philosophy, "space" is a universal form of being, which is inseparable from matter and time; it is an abstract concept that expresses the existence of a connection between things with each other, as well as the order in which they are placed relative to each other. And in geography, obviously, space should be understood as a philosophical conceptual category, as an objective, universal and cognizable form of the existence of geographic objects.
Recently happened a departure from its physicalist interpretation. Attempts are being made to highlight different types of spaces, associated with certain aspects of life:
- Physical the type of space that is the base. It should be emphasized that it cannot be identified with space as a universal form of motion of matter, since the latter is an abstract philosophical concept. ... "
- Biological space, the existence of which has been proven in ethology - one of the branches of the science of animal behavior in the natural environment.
- Social space as a space that regulates relations in society. In the "Russian Sociological Encyclopedia" he was given the following definition:
Social space is an attributive form of existence and development of socially organized matter (society). Social space expresses the coexistence and interaction of various aspects and moments of social life, characterizes the length, density and structure of the social form of the movement of matter.
This rather formalistic definition was previously interpreted in the “Concise Dictionary of Sociology” in a more meaningful way: “Social space is a socially developed part of natural space as a habitat for people, the spatial and territorial aspect of the life of society, a characteristic of the social structure of society in terms of the“ location ”of social groups and layers, “space” (conditions, possibilities) of their development ”.
- Socio-psychological space as a subjectively perceived space. In the West, in the 1960s and 70s, the geography of the perception of space became widespread. This kind of space, important for cognition, does not philosophically contradict materialism. After all, human consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it.
Geographers use, as a rule, simple representations of space, simple spatial languages, for example, Euclid's geometry, Descartes's coordinate system. There is nothing in this that distinguishes geography from other "imprecise" sciences. But even touching on the exact sciences, it should be noted that, despite the existence of Einstein's theory of relativity, practically all modern technology - computers, television, radio, space flight control, modern chemistry and biology - dispenses with Newtonian ideas about space and time.
There are attempts classification of space and in geography, one of which was undertaken by the Polish geographer S. Leshchitsky. He proposed to single out the following types of space in geography:
- geodetic space. It is determined by the size and shape of the globe (geoid);
- physical and geographical space, in contrast to geodesic, is qualitatively differentiated into land, oceans, seas, which, in turn, are differentiated in the physico-chemical-biological relation;
- socio-economic space is the territory in which a person lives and acts, where all human settlements are concentrated. In terms of size, it is inferior to the physical and geographical space, especially due to the large water areas. However, mankind has made significant progress in the economic development of the World Ocean.
Geographic space has structures. The structural nature of geospace reflects the complex structure of the geographic envelope.
Private geographic spaces are also allocated in accordance with the objectives of the study by content-geographic characteristics, i.e. by the nature of the laws prevailing in them.
As for the socio-economic space, this is primarily a correlative concept. It characterizes the localization and spatial fragmentation of human activity and its results. The connection of this space with time is carried out through human activity. The organization of the socio-economic space is largely determined by the time limit and daily mode of activity. In the process of historical development, the socio-economic space is "compressed" due to the progress of communications, and time is "denser" due to its saturation with activities.
Compression of geographic space refers to the relative reduction in the scale of the earth's surface due to advances in transport and communications.
M. Sorokin gives the following quite graphic comparisons. In 1492 Columbus covered the distance between the port of Paloe (Spain) and the island of San Salvador (Bahamas) in 70 days, in 1838 the Great Western paddle steamer crossed the Atlantic in 15 days, half a century later the screw ship City of Paris "Covered the route from Liverpool to New York in 6 days, in 1927 Charles Lindbergh flew from New York to Paris on a single-engine propeller-driven aircraft in 33.5 hours, and nowadays the Concorde supersonic jet airliner overcomes the same way in 3.3 hours. Despite the fact that the routes do not coincide somewhat, the difference in distances is not so great and can be neglected. Thus, we can conclude that over a period of about 500 years, the time spent on overcoming the Atlantic has decreased by more than five hundred times.
Concept territory different from the concept space its concreteness, attachment to certain coordinates.
Territory(lat. territorium, from terra - land, country) - a part of the earth's land surface with its inherent natural, as well as properties and resources created as a result of human activity. It is characterized by the presence of a special type of resources:
Length (area);
Features of the geographical location;
A certain type (s) of natural landscape;
The degree of economic development;
The ability to fulfill the role of "the spatial basis of the activities of society."
All these properties of the territory within which the objects are located and interactions occur between them significantly affect the objects and interactions. In particular, the location of an object is a factor in its individualization, i.e. specific features that distinguish the object from objects similar in their substantial properties. In other words, location modifies both objects and processes. However, this approach has nothing to do with the extreme - some geopolitical ideas of space. In a number of works on geopolitics, the role of the spatial factor in the life of society is so exaggerated and absolutized that it is declared the basis of political action. Central to German geopolitics in the 1920s and 1940s, the concept of "living space" refers to pseudoscientific concepts developed to justify international aggression.
