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Old Russian literature years. Old Russian literature. New style: expressive-emotional

Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century and developed over the course of seven centuries, until the Peter's era. Kievan Rus was replaced by the time of the principalities of North-Eastern Russia with the center in Vladimir, the chronicle Russian land survived the Mon-Holo-Tatar invasion, freed itself from the yoke. The Grand Duke of Moscow became Tsar, Sovereign of All Great, and White, and Small Russia. The last offspring of the "Rurikov tribe" died, and the Romanov dynasty reigned on the throne. Russia became Russia, passing on the richest literary traditions to its successor.

The term "Old Russian literature" is conditional. Since the 13th century, the literature we study has been the Eastern Slavic literature of the Middle Ages. Continuing to use the term historically assigned to the named phenomenon, let's not forget about its real semantic content.

Old Russian literature is divided into several periods (according to D.S.Likhachev):

literature of Kievan Rus (XI-XIII centuries);
literature of the XIV-XV centuries;
literature of the 16th century;
literature of the 17th century.

In the era of Kievan Rus, the formation of literary genres took place, the foundations of all East Slavic literatures - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian - were laid. At this time, the genres of Greek and Byzantine literature began to develop on a national basis. In the process of the formation of the Old Russian literary language, an important role is played not only by the living spoken language of that time, but also another language closely related to it, albeit foreign in origin, the Old Church Slavonic language.

The literature of the next two periods is already the literature of the Russian people proper, which acquired national independence in the north-east of Russia. This is the time for the creation of traditions, the development of new ideas in Russian culture and language, the time that is called the Pre-Renaissance.

The 16th century is the time of the development of journalistic genres. "Domostroy" was created - a set of everyday rules and instructions reflecting the principles of patriarchal life. "Domostroy" requires the rigor of the home.

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the Great Menaea of the Chetya was created - a collection of twelve books, including reading for each month. Each of the twelve books has from one thousand five hundred to two thousand large format sheets. It took about twenty-five years to compile the whitelist. The books include works of various genres, to the creation, translation and editing of which a large number of Russian writers, translators, scribes and copyists were involved. At the same time, the "Facial Code" was created, which contains the position of world history from the creation of the world to the 15th century. The surviving ten volumes number about ten thousand sheets, decorated with 17,744 miniatures (color illustrations).

The 17th century is an era when the worldview of people changes, old literary forms disintegrate, new genres and ideas appear. The transition to the literature of Peter's time is outlined. Satirical and everyday literature is developing, the focus of attention is gradually shifting to the life of an ordinary person - not a prince, not a saint.

Old Russian literature is not like the literature of modern times: it is permeated with different thoughts and feelings, it has a different way of depicting life and a person, a different system of genres.

In the Middle Ages, it is impossible to draw a clear line between secular and ecclesiastical literature. They developed together, not denying, but enriching one another. The main types of Old Russian literary creativity - chronicle, life, eloquence which includes teachings, genres in praise and the words; military stories, walking (walking) and messages... There was no poetry, drama, novel, or story in the modern sense of these genres in the 11th-16th centuries. They appear only in the 17th century.

All genres of Old Russian literature are developing in close relationship with oral folk art. The folklore element influenced the chronicle most of all. Like folklore, ancient Russian literature did not know the concept of copyright: every scribe could use everything that was written before him. This manifested itself in ubiquitous text borrowing. The scribes tried to leave unchanged only the texts of the liturgical books and legislative acts.

The main role of the book in the culture of Ancient Rus is to serve as a means of saving the soul. In this regard, the most important were the New Testament, Holy Scripture, patristic creations, hagiographic literature and church traditions. Historical works and monuments of business writing were also considered important. Secular writings that did not pursue didactic goals were valued least of all. They were considered "vain".

At the beginning of its development, Old Russian literature is very closely connected with everyday life, especially with the life of liturgical services. In addition to literary significance, works of art also have practical, applied ones. Only gradually over time is there a separation of the artistic and aesthetic function from the everyday, applied one.

Old Russian literature is pre-realistic, medieval, the study of it shows us how different our perception of the world is from the perception of our ancestors. In the minds of the inhabitants of Ancient Russia, the book was a symbol of Christianity, enlightenment and a special way of life. When Christianity was tested by idolaters, the first thing that was tested was the book. The Life of the Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir tells how the pagans demanded that Patriarch Photius put into the fire a book that teaches the Christian faith. The Gospel did not burn in the fire. The defeated pagans believed in the truth of the new teaching and were baptized. Both the book and the writing itself are covered with a miracle halo. The Slavic alphabet was given to Constantine after his prayer as a divine revelation. The concepts of "Christianity", "book" and "miracle" were closely intertwined with each other.

The miracle of the Russian language is that a person, even with a little philological training, can read (prepared) texts almost a thousand years ago. But often words that seem familiar to us have a different meaning, there are many incomprehensible words, syntactic constructions are difficult to perceive. The names of objects, names, details of everyday life, the very logic of events - everything requires a comment. Without trying to ponder the meaning of the work, the modern reader seems to be deceiving himself. So, for example, "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom" seems to him an amusing fairy tale, and its theological problems and philosophical depth remain unnoticed.

Over the past centuries, the stereo-types of social consciousness, norms of behavior, human thinking have radically changed, old words have acquired a new meaning, actions have been filled with a different content. Already with the invention of printing, the attitude to the book began to differ. Material from the site

Initially, all literature was exclusively ecclesiastical. The themes and ideas of the works could be different, but the attitude of the authors and readers was deeply religious. This is manifested not only in liturgical and theological texts, but also in the description of history, in military stories and secular subjects.

In the view of the Orthodox Middle Ages, "veneration of books" was a moral merit and virtue, man's approach to comprehension of God. For this it was necessary to read and re-read spiritual literature “in the night and in the day”. The Tale of Bygone Years writes that this is exactly what Yaroslav the Wise did. The art of reading consisted in a slow, concentrated and deliberate perception of what was written "with all my heart." The reader stopped, re-read important passages, carefully peering into the depth of the meaning. Such a culture of reading taught to recognize the hidden nature of things behind the outer shell, to comprehend the "spiritual eyes" of the world invisible to the simple eye.

The book is a microcosm in which “lovers of soul-nourishing words” enjoy eternal truths and receive spiritual medicine - consolation and instruction. One should have read not in a second, but hiding from the bustle of everyday life and empty worries. It was believed that by turning to a work with sinful thoughts, nothing useful for the soul can be extracted from it. Until now, the ancient belief in the miraculous power of the word is preserved in our minds.

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Old Russian literature began to form after the adoption of Christianity and at first was supposed to acquaint one with the history of religion and contribute to its spread. Another important function at this stage was to educate readers in the spirit of the Christian commandments. For this reason, the first works (Old Russian literature covers the period from the 11th to the 17th century) were mainly ecclesiastical in nature. Gradually, stories from the lives of ordinary people began to enjoy more and more popularity, which contributed to the emergence, and then more and more dissemination of "secular" works. Under the influence of these factors, the main genres of Old Russian literature were formed. All of them, up to the 15th century, were united by a common approach to the events depicted: the historical basis did not allow the author's fiction.

Features of the formation of genres

There is an opinion that the literature of Ancient Rus came from Byzantine and Bulgarian. This statement is partly legitimate, since the system of genres among all these peoples actually has a certain similarity. However, it should be borne in mind that the states at that time were at different stages of development (Russia lagged significantly behind Byzantium and Bulgaria), and the tasks faced by the authors were different. Therefore, it would be more correct to say that ancient Russian literature adopted the existing experience of the West. It was formed based on folklore and the needs of society. The genres of Old Russian literature were concretized depending on the practical goal and were divided into primary and unifying ones. On the whole, they were a dynamic system that responded vividly to any changes in society.

Primary genres of Old Russian literature

These included a life, a teaching, a word, a story, a chronicle story or legend, a weather record, a church legend. The first four are best known.

Life is a work containing a story about the life of the saints. It was perceived as a model of morality that should be imitated, and was built according to certain canons. The classical life contained a story of birth (usually a supplicated child) and a pious life, a description of the miracles associated with the hero, the glorification of the saint. One of the most famous works of this genre was The Life of Saints Gleb and Boris, written in a harsh time for the country. The images of the princes were supposed to contribute to unification in a common struggle against the invaders.

A later version was "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, Written by Himself." Perceived more as a variant of an autobiography, it is interesting in that it presents a picture of social life during the period of the schism of the church.

The teachings that contained the rules of human behavior regardless of his position also belong to the genres of Old Russian literature. They had a powerful educational effect on the reader and touched upon various areas of life. The most famous teaching was compiled by Vladimir Monomakh and is addressed to youth. Its content is fully consistent with Christian commandments, therefore it was perceived as a book of life for posterity.

Old Russian eloquence was fully manifested in such a genre as a word. It could have different directions. An example of a solemn work is the "Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, written at the beginning of the 11th century in connection with the construction of military fortifications in Kiev. This is the glorification of the Russian princes and the Russian state, which are in no way inferior to the powerful Byzantium and its rulers.

The pinnacle of this genre was the work about the campaign of the Russian prince against the Polovtsians.

"A word about Igor's regiment"

Despite the ongoing controversy over the authenticity and authorship of this work, it became absolutely innovative for its time. Any genres of Old Russian literature, as already noted, possessed certain canons. "Word ..." is significantly different from them. It includes lyrical digressions, a violation of the chronology in the narrative (the action is sometimes transferred to the past, then it is turned to the present), inserted elements. The means of depiction are also unconventional, many of which correspond to elements of folklore. Many researchers put the "Word ..." on a par with the early feudal epic works of different peoples. In fact, this is a poem about the courage and resilience of soldiers, an expression of grief for the dead, a call for the need to unite all Russian princes and lands. In addition, "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" allows one to assess the place and role of the state in international history.

Uniting

There are also unifying genres of Old Russian literature. All readers are familiar with examples of the chronicle. This also includes the chetya-menaea ("reading by months", including stories about saints), a chronograph (description of events of the 15th and 16th centuries) and patericon (about the life of the holy fathers). These genres are called uniting genres (introduced by D.S.Likhachev), since they can include living, and teaching, and the word, etc.

Chronicle

The greatest attention, of course, deserves the works in which a record was kept of the events that took place over the years, which could be of a general nature or be more specific: with details, dialogues, etc.

Chronicle as a genre of Old Russian literature began to form presumably already at the end of the 10th century. But the actual work of this genre is taking shape under Yaroslav the Wise.

At the beginning of the 12th century, on the basis of the available records, the monk Nestor, who lived in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, compiled the "Tale of Bygone Years". Its events cover a large period: from the origin of the Slavic tribes to the present. A laconic and expressive description allows, after several centuries, to present the history of the formation and development of the Russian state.

The story

This genre of Old Russian literature was based on translations of Byzantine and folklore works and is the most studied to date. The stories were divided into:

military - in the center is a historical personality and an important battle ("The Tale of the Battle on the Kalka River");
satirical - about socially significant issues, often were in the nature of parodies ("The Tale of the Shemyakin Court");
household - ("The Story of Grief-Misfortune").

The pinnacle was "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", which is called the hymn of loyalty and love.

Popular in Russia were also walks (or walks), which first told about the travels of pilgrims to the holy land ("The Walking of Hegumen Daniel"), and later, in connection with the development of trade, about the travels of merchants. It was a story about what was seen with my own eyes.

The system created by the 17th century, which included various genres of Old Russian literature, marked the transition to the literature of the new era.

The literature of Ancient Rus' originated in the 11th century. and developed over the course of seven centuries before the Peter's era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the variety of genres, themes, images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works, conversations are held about the most important philosophical, moral problems, about which the heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form love for the Fatherland and their people, show the beauty of the Russian land, therefore these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.

The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. So the images, ideas, even the style of writing were inherited by A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy.

Old Russian literature did not arise from scratch. Its appearance was prepared by the development of the language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria, and was conditioned by the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works that appeared in Russia were translated. The books were translated that were necessary for the divine service.

The very first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, date back to the end of the 11th-beginning of the 12th century. v. The formation of Russian national literature took place, its traditions took shape, features that determined its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.

The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.

Features of Old Russian literature

1. Historicism of content.

Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's fiction. The authors of works of fiction, even if they describe the true events of real persons, conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Russia, it was not at all like that. The Old Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the XVII century. Household stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Russia.

Both the Old Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually took place. So the chronicles were for the people of Ancient Russia a kind of legal document. After the death of the Moscow prince Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilievich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar khan to judge their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to Moscow reign, referred to the ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.

2. The handwritten nature of being.

Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Russia did little to change the situation until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special reverence for the book. About which even individual treatises and instructions were written. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to instability of ancient Russian literary works. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could continue for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are concepts such as "manuscript" (handwritten text) and "list" (rewritten work). The manuscript can contain lists of different works and can be written by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term "editorial", that is, purposeful reworking of a monument caused by social and political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.

The existence of a work in manuscripts is closely related to such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.

The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muffled, implicitly, Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were reworked: some phrases or episodes were inserted from them or inserted into them, stylistic "decorations" were added. Sometimes the ideas and assessments of the author were even replaced by the opposite. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.

Old Russian scribes did not at all seek to discover their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous, the authorship of others has been established by researchers on indirect grounds. So it is impossible to ascribe to someone else the works of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated "weaving of words." The style of the messages of Ivan the Terrible is inimitable, boldly mixing grandioseness and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation.

It happens that in a manuscript this or that text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally correspond and not correspond to reality. So among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turovsky, many apparently do not belong to him: the name of Cyril Turovsky gave these works additional authority.

The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian "writer" did not deliberately try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.

4. Literary etiquette.

A well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term for the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - "literary etiquette."

Literary etiquette is composed:

From the idea of how this or that course of the event should have taken place;

From ideas about how the actor should behave in accordance with his position;

From ideas about what words the writer should have described what is happening.

Before us is the etiquette of the world order, etiquette of conduct and verbal etiquette. The hero is supposed to behave in this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only with appropriate expressions.

The main genres of Old Russian literature

The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the "poetics of the genre". It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature, the genre did not play such an important role.

A sufficient number of studies have been devoted to the genre originality of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear class of classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.

1. Life genre.

Life is a description of the life of a saint.

Russian hagiographic literature has hundreds of works, the first of which were written in the 11th century. The life that came to Russia from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity became the main genre of Old Russian literature, the literary form in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Russia were clothed.

The compositional and verbal forms of life have been polished for centuries. A lofty theme - a story about a life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - defines the author's image and the style of the story. The author of the life leads the story excitedly, he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic, admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality, his excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. Such an atmosphere is created by the narrative style - high solemn, saturated with quotes from the Holy Scriptures.

When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be threefold: an introduction, a story about the life and deeds of a saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks the readers for forgiveness for the inability to write, for the rudeness of the narration, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a "biography" of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of the saint is freed from all that is everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names of historical persons. The action of life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and concrete space; it unfolds against the background of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.

At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most critical parts of life, requiring great literary art, a good knowledge of rhetoric.

The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.

2. Eloquence.

Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of the most ancient period in the development of our literature. Monuments of ecclesiastical and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.

Solemn eloquence demanded depth of design and great literary skill. The orator needed the ability to effectively construct a speech in order to capture the listener, tune in a high mood, corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - "word". (There was no terminological unity in Old Russian literature. A military tale could also be called a "word".) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and disseminated in numerous copies.

Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrowly practical goals, it demanded the posing of problems of a wide social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for the creation of "words" are theological questions, questions of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, domestic and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.

The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.

Teaching eloquence is teaching and conversation. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and are written in the Old Russian language, which is generally accessible to people of that time. Lectures could be given by church leaders, princes.

Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes, they contain information necessary for a person. "Instructions to the brethren" by Luke Zhidyaty, bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of conduct that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not say "shameful" words. Go to church and behave in it quietly, honor elders, judge by the truth, honor your prince, not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.

Theodosius of Pechorsky is the founder of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: do not be late for church, put three earthly obeisances, observe decency and order when singing prayers and psalms, bow to each other when they meet. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora requires complete detachment from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigilance. The hegumen sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.

3. Chronicle.

Chronicles were weather (by "years" - by "years") records. The annual record began with the words: "In the summer." After that, there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of descendants. These could be military campaigns, raids of steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.

It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.

Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk, who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. It was customary to start telling about history in those days from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to "bring them together", that is, combine them, choosing from each one that he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials related to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to presenting the events of his time. The result of this great work was the collection of chronicles. After some time, this collection was continued by other chroniclers.

Apparently, the first major monument of Old Russian chronicle writing was the annals compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this collection, it is believed, was the hegumen of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).

Nikon's work formed the basis for another corpus of chronicles, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature, he received the code name "Primary Code". Its unnamed compiler added to Nikon's collection not only news of recent years, but also chronicle information from other Russian cities.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus - "The Tale of Bygone Years" was born.

It was compiled in Kiev in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its likely compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor, who is also known for his other works. When creating the Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler drew on numerous materials, which he added to the Primary Code. These materials include Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Russia and Byzantium, monuments of translated and Old Russian literature, oral legends.

The compiler of the "Tale of Bygone Years" set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Russia, but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.

The chronicler tells in detail about the settlement of the Slavic peoples in antiquity, about the settlement by the Eastern Slavs of the territories that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the manners and customs of different tribes. The "Tale of Bygone Years" emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.

The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus. The story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Rus, about the spread of a new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the "Tale".

The richness of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years suggests that its compiler was not only an editor, but also a talented historian, deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the "Tale", tried to imitate him and almost certainly placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new compilation of chronicles.

Introduction

The emergence of ancient Russian literature

Literature genres of Ancient Russia

Periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature

Features of Old Russian literature

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The centuries-old literature of Ancient Russia has its own classics, there are works that we can rightfully call classics, which perfectly represent the literature of Ancient Russia and are known all over the world. Every educated Russian person should know them.

Ancient Russia, in the traditional sense of the word, embracing the country and its history from the 10th to the 17th centuries, had a great culture. This culture, the immediate predecessor of the new Russian culture of the 18th-20th centuries, nevertheless had some of its own, characteristic only for it, phenomena.

Ancient Russia is glorified all over the world for its painting and architecture. But it is remarkable not only for these "dumb" arts, which allowed some Western scholars to call the culture of Ancient Rus the culture of great silence. Recently, the discovery of ancient Russian music has begun anew, and more slowly - much more difficult for understanding art - the art of speech, literature. That is why Hilarion's The Word about Law and Grace, The Word about Igor's Campaign, The Walking Beyond Three Seas by Afanasy Nikitin, The Works of Ivan the Terrible, The Life of Archpriest Avvakum and many others have now been translated into many foreign languages. Getting acquainted with the literary monuments of Ancient Russia, a modern person will easily notice their differences from the works of literature of the modern era: this is the lack of detailed characters of the characters, this is the parsimony of details in describing the appearance of the heroes, their surroundings, the landscape, this is the psychological lack of motivation of actions, and the "facelessness" of remarks that can be conveyed to any hero of the work, since they do not reflect the individuality of the speaker, this is the "insincerity" of monologues with an abundance of traditional "commonplaces" - abstract reasoning on theological or moral topics, with exorbitant pathos or expression ...

All these features would be easiest to explain by the discipleship nature of Old Russian literature, to see in them only the result of the fact that medieval writers have not yet mastered the "mechanism" of plot construction, which in general terms is now known to every writer and every reader. All this is true only to some extent. Literature is constantly evolving. The arsenals of artistic techniques are expanding and enriched. Every writer in his work relies on the experience and achievements of his predecessors.

1. The emergence of Old Russian literature

Pagan legends in Ancient Rus were not written down, but transmitted orally. Christian doctrine was set forth in books, therefore, with the adoption of Christianity in Russia, books appeared. Books were brought from Byzantium, Greece, Bulgaria. The Old Bulgarian and Old Russian languages were similar, and Russia could use the Slavic alphabet created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius.

The need for books in Russia at the time of the adoption of Christianity was great, but there were few books. The process of copying books was long and difficult. The first books were written by the charter, or rather, they were not written, but drawn. Each letter was outlined separately. The continuous letter appeared only in the 15th century. First books. The oldest Russian book that has come down to us is the so-called Ostromir Gospel. It was translated in 1056-1057. by order of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir.

The original Russian literature arose around the middle of the 11th century.

Chronicle is a genre of Old Russian literature. Consists of two words: "summer", that is, year, and "write". "Description of the years" - this is how you can translate the word "chronicle" into Russian

Chronicle as a genre of Old Russian literature (only Old Russian) arose in the middle of the 11th century, and the chronicle ended in the 17th century. with the end of the Old Russian period of literature.

Features of the genre. Events were arranged by year. The chronicle began with the words: In summer, then the year from the creation of the world was named, for example, 6566, and the events of this year were set forth. I wonder why? The chronicler, as a rule, is a monk, and he could not live outside the Christian world, outside the Christian tradition. And this means that the world is not interrupted for him, is not divided into past and present, the past is connected to the present and continues to live in the present.

Modernity is the result of past deeds, and the future of the country and the fate of an individual depend on today's events. Chronicler. Of course, the chronicler could not tell about the events of the past on his own, so he drew on older chronicles, earlier ones, and supplemented them with stories about his time.

To prevent his work from becoming enormous, he had to sacrifice something: skip some events, rewrite others in his own words.

In the selection of events, in the retelling, the chronicler voluntarily or involuntarily offered his view, his assessment of history, but it was always the view of a Christian, for whom history is a chain of events that have a direct relationship. The oldest chronicle is "The Tale of Bygone Years", compiled by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. The title is written as follows (of course, translated from the Old Russian language): "Here are the stories of the past years, where the Russian land came from, who became the first to reign in Kiev, and how the Russian land arose."

And here is its beginning: "So let us begin this story. According to the flood, the three sons of Noah divided the earth, Shem, Ham, Japheth. ... Shem, Ham and Japheth divided the land, casting lots, and decided not to share the share of their brother with anyone and lived each in his part. There was a single people ... After the destruction of the pillar and after the division of the peoples, the sons of Shem took the eastern countries, and the sons of Ham took the southern countries, Japheth took the west and the northern countries. From these 70 and 2 languages the people also came Slavic, from the tribe of Japheth - the so-called noriks, who are the Slavs. " Connection with modernity. The chronicler associated this biblical event about the division of the earth with modern life. In 1097 the Russian princes gathered to establish peace and said to each other: Why are we destroying the Russian land, arranging strife among ourselves? May we henceforth unite with one heart and watch over the Russian land, and let each one own his fatherland.

Russian chronicles have long been read and translated into modern language. The most accessible and fascinating about the events of Russian history and the life of our ancestors is written in the book "Stories of Russian Chronicles" (author-compiler and translator T.N. Mikhelson).

... Literature genres of Ancient Russia

Old Russian genre story literature

To understand the peculiarity and originality of the original Russian literature, to appreciate the boldness with which Russian scribes created works that "stand outside genre systems", such as "The Lay of Igor's Campaign", "The Teaching" of Vladimir Monomakh, "The Prayer" of Daniel Zatochnik and the like , for all this it is necessary to get acquainted with at least some samples of certain genres of translated literature.

Chronicles.Interest in the past of the Universe, the history of other countries, and the fate of the great people of antiquity was satisfied with the translations of Byzantine chronicles. These chronicles began narrating events from the creation of the world, retelling the biblical history, citing individual episodes from the history of the countries of the East, telling about the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and then about the history of the countries of the Middle East. Having brought the story to the last decades before the beginning of our era, the chroniclers went back and recounted the most ancient history of Rome, starting from the legendary times of the founding of the city. The rest and, as a rule, most of the chronicles were occupied by the story of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The chronicles ended with a description of events contemporary to their compilation.

Thus, the chroniclers created the impression of the continuity of the historical process, of a kind of "change of kingdoms." Of the translations of the Byzantine chronicles, the most famous in Russia in the XI century. received translations of "The Chronicle of George Amartolus" and "The Chronicle of John Malala". The first of them, together with a continuation made on Byzantine soil, brought the story to the middle of the 10th century, the second - to the time of Emperor Justinian (527-565).

Perhaps one of the defining features of the composition of the chronicles was their desire for an exhaustive completeness of the dynastic series. This feature is typical for biblical books (where long lists of genealogies follow), and for medieval chronicles, and for the historical epic.

"Alexandria".The novel about Alexander the Great, the so-called "Alexandria", enjoyed immense popularity in Ancient Russia. This was not a historically accurate description of the life and deeds of the illustrious military leader, but a typical Hellenistic adventure novel 7.

In "Alexandria" we encounter topical (and also pseudo-historical) collisions. "Alexandria" is an indispensable part of all ancient Russian chronographs; from editorial office to editorial office, the adventure and fantastic theme is becoming increasingly stronger in it, which once again indicates an interest in the plot-entertaining, and not the historical aspect of this work itself.

"Life of Eustathius Placis".In the ancient Russian literature, imbued with the spirit of historicism, addressing worldview problems, there was no place for open literary fiction (readers apparently trusted the miracles of Alexandria - after all, all this happened a long time ago and somewhere in unknown lands, at the end of the world!), Everyday story or a novel about the private life of a private person. Oddly enough at first glance, but to a certain extent, the need for such subjects was filled with such authoritative genres closely related to religious issues as the lives of saints, paterics or apocrypha.

Researchers have long noticed that the lengthy lives of Byzantine saints in some cases were very reminiscent of an antique novel: sudden changes in the fate of heroes, imaginary death, recognition and meeting after many years of separation, an attack by pirates or predatory animals - all these traditional plot motives of the novel of adventures in a strange way coexisted in some Lives with the idea of glorifying an ascetic or martyr for the Christian faith 8. A typical example of such a life is the Life of Eustathius Placis, translated back in Kievan Rus.

Apocrypha.Apocrypha - legends about biblical characters that were not included in the canonical (recognized by the church) biblical books, discussions on topics that worried medieval readers: about the struggle in the world of good and evil, about the ultimate fate of mankind, descriptions of heaven and hell or unknown lands "at the end of the world."

Most of the apocryphal stories are entertaining narratives that amazed the readers' imagination either with everyday details of the life of Christ, the apostles, prophets, unknown to them, or with miracles and fantastic visions. The church tried to fight against apocryphal literature. Compiled special lists of prohibited books - indexes. However, in judgments about which works are unconditionally "renounced books", that is, unacceptable for reading by faithful Christians, and which are only apocryphal (literally apocryphal - secret, intimate, that is, designed for a reader sophisticated in theological issues), medieval censors do not there was unity.

The indices varied in composition; in collections, sometimes very authoritative, we find alongside the canonical biblical books and lives also apocryphal texts. Sometimes, however, even here they were overtaken by the hand of devotees of piety: in some collections the sheets with the text of the apocrypha were torn out or their text was crossed out. Nevertheless, there were a lot of apocryphal works, and they continued to be rewritten throughout the centuries-old history of ancient Russian literature.

Patristics.A large place in the Old Russian translated writing was occupied by patristics, that is, the works of those Roman and Byzantine theologians of the 3rd-7th centuries who enjoyed special authority in the Christian world and were revered as "church fathers": John Chrysostom, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzin, Athanasius of Alexandria and others.

In their works, the dogmas of the Christian religion were explained, the Holy Scriptures were interpreted, Christian virtues were affirmed and vices were exposed, various worldview questions were raised. At the same time, works of both teaching and solemn eloquence had considerable aesthetic value.

The authors of the solemn words intended to be pronounced in the church during the divine service, perfectly knew how to create an atmosphere of festive ecstasy or reverence, which was supposed to cover the believers when remembering the glorified event of church history, perfectly mastered the art of rhetoric, which Byzantine writers inherited from antiquity: not incidentally, many of the Byzantine theologians learned from pagan rhetoricians.

In Russia, John Chrysostom (d. 407) was especially famous; from words that belonged to him or were attributed to him, whole collections were compiled, bearing the names "Zlatoust" or "Zlatostruy".

The language of liturgical books is especially colorful and rich in paths. Here are some examples. In the service menaea (a collection of services in honor of the saints, arranged according to the days when they are venerated) of the XI century. we read: "The vines of thought have appeared ripe in the grapes, thrown into the winepress of torment, thou hast exuded the wine of tenderness to us." A literal translation of this phrase will destroy the artistic image, therefore, we will only explain the essence of the metaphor.

The saint is compared with a ripe bunch of grapevine, but it is emphasized that it is not a real, but a spiritual ("mental") vine; the tortured saint is likened to grapes, which are crushed in a "winepress" (pit, vat) in order to "exude" juice for making wine; the saint's torments "exude" the "wine of affection" - a feeling of reverence and compassion for him.

A few more metaphorical images from the same service menaus of the 11th century: "From the depths of malice, the last climb of the heights of virtue, like an eagle, flying high, gloriously in the east, praise Matthew!"; "Strained the prayer bows and arrows and the serpent lutago, the crawling serpent, thou art killed, blessed, having delivered the holy flock from that harm"; "Thou hast gloriously passed the towering sea, the delightful polytheism, with a storm of divine rule, a quiet haven for all who were trapped." "Prayer bows and arrows", "the storm of polytheism", which heaves waves on the "lovely [insidious, deceptive] sea" of vain life - all these are metaphors designed for a reader with a developed sense of the word and sophisticated imaginative thinking, excellently versed in traditional Christian symbolism.

And as can be judged by the original works of Russian authors - chroniclers, hagiographers, creators of teachings and solemn words, this high art was fully perceived by them and implemented in their work.

Speaking about the system of genres of Old Russian literature, one more important circumstance should be noted: this literature for a long time, up to the 17th century, did not allow literary fiction. Old Russian authors wrote and read only about what was in reality: about the history of the world, countries, peoples, about the commanders and kings of antiquity, about holy ascetics. Even passing on frank miracles, they believed that it could be, that there were fantastic creatures inhabiting unknown lands, through which Alexander the Great passed with his troops, that in the darkness of caves and cells demons appeared to the holy hermits, then tempting them in the form of harlots , then frightening in the guise of animals and monsters.

Talking about historical events, ancient Russian authors could report different, sometimes mutually exclusive versions: some say so, the chronicler or chronicler will say, and others - differently. But in their eyes this was just the ignorance of informants, so to speak, a delusion from ignorance, but the idea that this or that version could be simply invented, composed, and even more so composed for purely literary purposes - such a thought to writers of the older time, apparently, seemed implausible. This non-recognition of literary fiction also, in turn, determined the system of genres, the range of subjects and topics to which a work of literature could be devoted. The fictional hero will come to Russian literature relatively late - not earlier than the 15th century, although even at that time he will still disguise himself as a hero of a distant country or a long time ago.

Explicit fiction was allowed only in one genre - the genre of the apologue, or parable. It was a miniature story, each of whose characters and the entire plot existed only in order to visually illustrate any idea. It was an allegory story, and that was its meaning.

In ancient Russian literature, which did not know fiction, historical in large or small, the world itself appeared as something eternal, universal, where both the events and actions of people are determined by the very system of the universe, where the forces of good and evil are always fighting, a world whose history is well known ( after all, for each event mentioned in the annals, the exact date was indicated - the time elapsed from the "creation of the world"!) and even the future is predetermined: prophecies about the end of the world, the "second coming" of Christ and the Last Judgment awaiting all people on earth were widespread.

This general ideological setting could not but affect the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, once and for all determine what and how should be depicted.

Old Russian literature, like other Christian medieval literatures, is subject to a special literary and aesthetic regulation - the so-called literary etiquette.

3. Periodization of the history of ancient Russian literature

The literature of Ancient Rus is evidence of life. That is why history itself, to a certain extent, establishes the periodization of literature. Literary changes generally coincide with historical ones. How should the history of Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries be periodized?

The first period in the history of Old Russian literature was the period of relative unity of literature. Literature mainly develops in two (interconnected cultural relations) centers: in Kiev in the south and in Novgorod in the north. It lasts a century - XI - and captures the beginning of the XII century. This is the century of the formation of the monumental-historical style of literature. The century of the first Russian lives - of Boris and Gleb and the Kiev-Pechersk ascetics - and the first surviving monument of Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years". This is the century of the united ancient Russian Kievo-Novgorod state.

The second period, the middle of the XII - the first third of the XIII century, - the period of the emergence of new literary centers: Vladimir Zalessky and Suzdal, Rostov and Smolensk, Galich and Vladimir Volynsky; at this time, local features and local themes emerge in literature, genres diversify, a strong stream of topicality and journalism is introduced into literature. This is the period of incipient feudal fragmentation.

A number of common features of these two periods allow us to consider both periods in their unity (especially taking into account the complexity of dating some translated and original works). Both first periods are characterized by the dominance of the monumental-historical style.

Then comes a relatively short period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, when stories are created about the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops into Russia, about the battle on Kalka, the capture of Vladimir Zalessky, "The Word about the Death of the Russian Land" and "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". Literature shrinks to one theme, but this theme manifests itself with extraordinary intensity, and the features of the monumental-historical style acquire a tragic imprint and lyrical elation of a high patriotic feeling. This short but flamboyant period should be considered separately. It stands out easily.

The next period, the end of the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, is the Pre-Renaissance century, which coincides with the economic and cultural revival of the Russian land in the years immediately preceding and following the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. This is a period of expressive-emotional style and patriotic upsurge in literature. the period of the revival of annals, historical narration and panegyric hagiography.

In the second half of the 15th century. In Russian literature, new phenomena are revealed: monuments of translated secular narrative literature (fiction) are spreading, the first original monuments of this type appear, such as "The Tale of Dracula", "The Tale of Basarga". These phenomena were associated with the development of the reformation-humanist movements at the end of the 15th century. However, the insufficient development of cities (which in Western Europe were the centers of the Renaissance), the subordination of the Novgorod and Pskov republics, the suppression of heretical movements contributed to the slowdown of the movement towards the Renaissance. The conquest of Byzantium by the Turks (Constantinople fell in 1453), with which Russia was closely linked culturally, closed Russia within its own cultural boundaries. The organization of a single Russian centralized state absorbed the main spiritual forces of the people. Publicism is developing in literature; the internal politics of the state and the transformation of society occupy more and more attention of writers and readers.

From the middle of the XVI century. in the literature, the official trend is more and more reflected. The time is coming for "the second monumentalism": traditional forms of literature dominate and suppress the individual beginning in literature that emerged in the era of the Russian Pre-Renaissance. Events of the second half of the 16th century. delayed the development of fiction, the amusement of literature. century - the century of transition to the literature of the new era. This is the century of the development of the individual principle in everything: in the very type of the writer and in his work; the century of the development of individual tastes and styles, writing professionalism and a sense of copyright ownership, individual, personal protest associated with tragic turns in the writer's biography. The personal beginning contributes to the emergence of syllabic poetry and regular theater.

... Features of Old Russian literature

The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.

Features of Old Russian literature

1. Historicism of content.

2. The handwritten nature of being.

The existence of a work in manuscripts is closely related to such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.

4. Literary etiquette.

Literary etiquette is composed:

from the idea of how this or that course of the event should have taken place;

from ideas about how the actor should behave in accordance with his position;

from the idea of what words the writer should have described what is happening.

The main genres of Old Russian literature

1. Life genre.

Life is a description of the life of a saint.

At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most critical parts of life, requiring great literary art, a good knowledge of rhetoric.

The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.

2. Eloquence.

The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the "Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.

3. Chronicle.

It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus - "The Tale of Bygone Years" was born.

The compiler of the "Tale of Bygone Years" set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Russia, but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.

Conclusion

So, the main range of works of monuments of ancient Russian literature are religious edifying works, the lives of saints, liturgical chants. Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century. One of its first monuments - "The Word of Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev - was created in the 30s and 40s. XI century. The 17th century is the last century of Old Russian literature. During its course, the traditional ancient Russian literary canons are gradually destroyed, new genres are born, new ideas about man and the world.

Literature is also called the works of ancient Russian scribes, and the texts of the authors of the 18th century, and the works of Russian classics of the last century, and the works of modern writers. Of course, there are obvious differences between the literature of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. But all Russian literature of the last three centuries is not at all like the monuments of Old Russian verbal art. However, it is in comparison with them that she reveals much in common.

The cultural horizon of the world is constantly expanding. Now, in the XX century, we understand and appreciate in the past not only classical antiquity. The Western European Middle Ages have firmly entered the cultural baggage of mankind, back in the 19th century. seemingly barbaric, "Gothic" (the original meaning of this word is precisely "barbaric"), Byzantine music and icon painting, African sculpture, Hellenistic novel, Fayum portrait, Persian miniature, Inca art and much, much more. Humanity is freed from "Eurocentrism" and egocentric focus on the present 10.

Deep penetration into the cultures of the past and the cultures of other peoples brings times and countries closer together. The unity of the world is becoming more and more tangible. The distances between cultures are shrinking, and there is less and less room for national hostility and stupid chauvinism. This is the greatest merit of the humanities and the arts themselves - a merit that will only be fully realized in the future.

One of the most urgent tasks is to introduce into the circle of reading and understanding of the modern reader the monuments of art of the word of Ancient Rus. The art of the word is in organic connection with the visual arts, with architecture, with music, and there can be no true understanding of one without understanding all other areas of the artistic creation of Ancient Russia. Fine art and literature, humanistic culture and material culture, broad international ties and a pronounced national identity are closely intertwined in the great and unique culture of Ancient Rus.

Bibliography

Likhachev D.S. Great heritage // Likhachev D.S. Selected works in three volumes. Volume 2. - L .: Art. lit., 1987.

Polyakov L.V. Book centers of Ancient Russia. - L., 1991.

The Tale of Bygone Years // Literary Monuments of Ancient Rus. The beginning of Russian literature. X - early XII century - M., 1978.

Likhachev D.S. Textology. Based on the material of Russian literature of the X-XVII centuries. - M.-L., 1962; Textology. A brief sketch. M.-L., 1964.

Old Russian literature- "the beginning of all beginnings", the origins and roots of Russian classical literature, national Russian artistic culture. Her spiritual, moral values and ideals are great. It is filled with patriotic pathos 1 of service to the Russian land, state, and homeland.

To feel the spiritual riches of ancient Russian literature, it is necessary to look at it through the eyes of its contemporaries, to feel like a participant in that life and those events. Literature is a part of reality, it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and fulfills enormous social responsibilities.

Academician D.S. Likhachev invites readers of Old Russian literature to mentally travel back to the initial period of the life of Russia, to the era of the inseparable existence of the East Slavic tribes, in the XI-XIII centuries.

The Russian land is huge, and the settlements there are rare. A person feels lost among the impenetrable forests or, on the contrary, among the vast expanses of the steppes that are too easily accessible to his enemies: “the land of the unknown,” “the wild field,” as our ancestors called them. To cross the Russian land from end to end, you have to spend many days on horseback or in a boat. Off-road conditions in spring and late autumn take months and make it difficult for people to communicate.

In boundless spaces, a person with special strength was drawn to communication, he strove to celebrate his existence. Tall, light churches on hills or on steep river banks mark the places of settlements from a distance. These structures are distinguished by surprisingly laconic architecture - they are designed to be visible from many points, serve as beacons on the roads. The churches seem to have been sculpted by a caring hand, keeping the warmth and caress of human fingers in the irregularities of their walls. In such conditions, hospitality becomes one of the basic human virtues. Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh calls in his "Teachings" to "welcome" the guest. Frequent travel from place to place belongs to no small virtues, and in other cases even turns into a passion for vagrancy. The dances and songs reflect the same desire to conquer space. About Russian lingering songs it is well said in "The Lay of Igor's Campaign": "... the dvitsy sing on the Danube, - voices twist across the sea to Kiev." In Russia, even the designation for a special type of courage associated with space, movement was born - "daring".

In the vast expanses, people with a special keenness felt and appreciated their unity - and first of all, the unity of the language in which they spoke, in which they sang, in which they told the legends of deep antiquity, again testifying to their integrity, indivisibility. Under the conditions of that time, even the word "language" itself acquires the meaning of "people", "nation". The role of literature is becoming especially significant. It serves the same purpose of unification, expresses the people's self-awareness of unity. She is the keeper of history, legends, and these latter were a kind of means of developing space, celebrating the sacredness and significance of this or that place: a tract, a mound, a village, etc. Legends told the country a historical depth, were that "fourth dimension" within which the entire vast Russian land, its history, and its national certainty were perceived and became "visible". The chronicles and lives of saints, historical stories and stories about the founding of monasteries played the same role.

All ancient Russian literature, up to the 17th century, was distinguished by its deep historicism, rooted in the land that the Russian people occupied and mastered for centuries. Literature and the Russian land, literature and Russian history were closely linked. Literature was one of the ways of mastering the surrounding world. It is not for nothing that the author of praise for books and Yaroslav the Wise wrote in the annals: "These are the rivers that make the universe drink ...", he compared Prince Vladimir with a farmer who plowed the land, Yaroslav with a sower who "sowed" the land with "book words." The writing of books is the cultivation of the land, and we already know which one - Russian, inhabited by the Russian "language", i.e. the Russian people. And, like the labor of a farmer, the correspondence of books has always been a holy thing in Russia. Here and there sprouts of life were thrown into the ground, grains, the sprouts of which were to be reaped by future generations.

Since rewriting books is a sacred matter, there could only be books on the most important topics. All of them in one way or another represented "book teaching". Literature was not of an entertaining nature, it was a school, and its individual works, to one degree or another, were teachings.

What did ancient Russian literature teach? Let's leave aside those religious and ecclesiastical issues with which she was occupied. The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love for the motherland, fostered civic consciousness, and strove to correct the shortcomings of society.

If in the first centuries of Russian literature, in the XI-XIII centuries, she urged the princes to stop strife and firmly fulfill their duty to defend the homeland, then in the subsequent ones - in the XV, XVI and XVII centuries - she no longer only cares about defending the homeland, but also about reasonable state structure. At the same time, throughout its development, literature has been closely linked with history. And she not only reported historical information, but sought to determine the place of Russian history in the world, to discover the meaning of the existence of man and mankind, to discover the purpose of the Russian state.

Russian history and the Russian land itself united all the works of Russian literature into a single whole. In fact, all the monuments of Russian literature, thanks to their historical themes, were much more closely related to each other than in modern times. They could be arranged in chronological order, but as a whole they presented one story - Russian and at the same time world. The works were more closely related to each other as a result of the absence of a strong author's principle in ancient Russian literature. Literature was traditional, the new was created as a continuation of the already existing and on the basis of the same aesthetic principles. The works were rewritten and altered. They reflected reading tastes and reading demands more strongly than in the literature of modern times. Books and their readers were closer to each other, and in the works the collective principle is more strongly represented. Ancient literature by the nature of its existence and creation was closer to folklore than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by countless scribes, altered, in different environments acquired various ideological colors, supplemented, overgrown with new episodes.

"The role of literature is enormous, and the people who have great literature in their native language are happy ... To perceive cultural values in their entirety, it is necessary to know their origin, the process of their creation and historical change, the cultural memory inherent in them. To deeply and accurately to perceive a work of art, it is necessary to know by whom, how and under what circumstances it was created.Likewise, we will really understand literature as a whole when we know how it was created, formed and participated in the life of the people.

It is also difficult to imagine Russian history without Russian literature, as Russia without Russian nature or without its historical cities and villages. No matter how much the appearance of our cities and villages, monuments of architecture and Russian culture in general changes, their existence in history is eternal and indestructible "2.

Without ancient Russian literature, there is not and could not be the work of A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, the moral searches of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. Russian medieval literature is the initial stage in the development of Russian literature. She passed on to subsequent art the richest experience of observations and discoveries, literary language. Ideological and national characteristics were combined in it, enduring values were created: chronicles, works of oratory, "The Tale of Igor's Host", "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon", "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", "The Tale of Grief-Evil", "Works of Archpriest Avvakum" and many other monuments.

Russian literature is one of the most ancient literatures. Its historical roots date back to the second half of the 10th century. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, of this great millennium, more than seven hundred years belongs to the period that is commonly called Old Russian literature.

"Before us is a literature that rises above its seven centuries, as a single grandiose whole, as one colossal work, striking us with its subordination to one theme, a single struggle of ideas, contrasts entering into a unique combination. Old Russian writers are not architects of detached buildings. urban planners. They worked on one common grandiose ensemble. They had a wonderful "sense of the shoulder", created cycles, vaults and ensembles of works, which in turn formed into a single building of literature ...

This is a kind of medieval cathedral, in the construction of which thousands of free masons took part for several centuries ... "3.

Ancient literature is a collection of great historical monuments, created for the most part by nameless masters of the word. Information about the authors of ancient literature is very scanty. Here are the names of some of them: Nestor, Daniil Zatochnik, Safoniy Ryazanets, Ermolai Erasmus, etc.

The names of the characters in the works are mostly historical: Feodosiy Pechersky, Boris and Gleb, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Sergiy Radonezhsky ... These people played a significant role in the history of Russia.

The adoption of Christianity by pagan Rus' at the end of the 10th century was an act of the greatest progressive significance. Thanks to Christianity, Russia joined the advanced culture of Byzantium and entered the family of European nations as an equal Christian sovereign power, became "known and known" in all ends of the earth, as the first known to us ancient Russian rhetorician 4 and publicist 5 Metropolitan Hilarion said in his "Word about the Law. and Grace "(a monument of the mid-11th century).

The emerging and growing monasteries played an important role in the spread of Christian culture. The first schools were created in them, respect and love for books, "book learning and reverence" were brought up, book depositories and libraries were created, chronicles were kept, translated collections of moralizing and philosophical works were copied. Here the ideal of the Russian monk-ascetic was created and surrounded by the aura of a pious legend, who devoted himself to serving God, moral improvement, liberation from base vicious passions, serving the lofty idea of civic duty, goodness, justice, and public welfare.