Hello dear readers! This post will focus on the structure of the solar system. I believe that it is simply necessary to know where our planet is in the Universe, and also what else is in our solar system besides the planets ...
The structure of the solar system.
solar system- this is a system of cosmic bodies, which, in addition to the central luminary - the Sun, includes nine large planets, their satellites, many small planets, comets, cosmic dust and small meteoroids that move in the sphere of the predominant gravitational action of the Sun.
In the middle of the 16th century, the general structure of the structure of the solar system was revealed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. He refuted the idea that the Earth is the center of the universe and substantiated the idea of the movement of the planets around the Sun. This model of the solar system is called heliocentric.
In the 17th century, Kepler discovered the law of planetary motion, and Newton formulated the law of universal attraction. But only after Galileo invented the telescope in 1609, it became possible to study the physical characteristics that make up the solar system, cosmic bodies.
So Galileo, observing sunspots, first discovered the rotation of the Sun around its axis.
Planet Earth is one of nine celestial bodies (or planets) that move around the Sun in outer space.
Planets make up the bulk of the solar system, which rotate around the Sun at different speeds in the same direction and almost in the same plane along elliptical orbits and are located at different distances from it.
The planets are in the following order from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto. But Pluto sometimes moves away from the Sun by more than 7 billion km, but due to the enormous mass of the Sun, which is almost 750 times the mass of all other planets, it remains in its sphere of attraction.
The largest of the planets is Jupiter. Its diameter is 11 times the diameter of the Earth and is 142,800 km. The smallest of the planets is Pluto, whose diameter is only 2,284 km.
The planets that are closest to the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are very different from the next four. They are called terrestrial planets, since, like the Earth, they are composed of solid rocks.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, are called Jupiter type planets, as well as giant planets, and unlike them, they consist mainly of hydrogen.
There are also other differences between Jupiter and Earth type planets."Jupiterians" together with numerous satellites form their own "solar systems".
Saturn has at least 22 moons. And only three satellites, including the Moon, have terrestrial planets. And above all, Jupiter-type planets are surrounded by rings.
Planet debris.
Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter there is a large gap where one more planet could be placed. This space, in fact, is filled with many small celestial bodies, which are called asteroids, or minor planets.
Ceres is the name of the largest asteroid, with a diameter of about 1000 km. To date, 2500 asteroids have been discovered, which are much smaller than Ceres in size. These are blocks with diameters that do not exceed several kilometers in size.
Most asteroids revolve around the Sun in a wide "asteroid belt" that lies between Mars and Jupiter. The orbits of some asteroids go far beyond this belt, and sometimes come quite close to the Earth.
These asteroids cannot be seen with the naked eye because they are too small and very far away from us. But other debris, such as comets, can be seen in the night sky due to their bright glow.
Comets are celestial bodies that are made up of ice, solid particles, and dust. Most of the time, the comet moves in the far reaches of our solar system and is invisible to the human eye, but when it approaches the Sun, it begins to glow.
This happens under the influence of solar heat. The ice partially evaporates and turns into a gas, releasing dust particles. The comet becomes visible because the gas and dust cloud reflects sunlight. The cloud, under the pressure of the solar wind, turns into a fluttering long tail.
There are also such space objects that can be observed almost every evening. They burn up when they enter the Earth's atmosphere, leaving a narrow luminous trail in the sky - a meteor. These bodies are called meteoroids, and their size is no larger than a grain of sand.
Meteorites are large meteoroids that reach the earth's surface. Due to the collision of huge meteorites with the Earth, in the distant past, huge craters formed on its surface. Almost a million tons of meteorite dust falls on Earth every year.
Birth of the solar system.
Large gas and dust nebulae, or clouds, are scattered among the stars of our galaxy. In the same cloud, about 4600 million years ago, Our solar system was born.This birth occurred as a result of the collapse (compression) of this cloud under the action of I eat the forces of gravity.
Then this cloud began to rotate. And over time, it turned into a rotating disk, the bulk of the substance of which was concentrated in the center. The gravitational collapse continued, the central compaction was constantly decreasing and warming up.
The thermonuclear reaction began at a temperature of tens of millions of degrees, and then the central density of matter flared up as a new star - the Sun.
The planets formed from dust and gas in the disk. The collision of dust particles, as well as their transformation into large lumps, took place in the internal heated areas. This process is called accretion.
The mutual attraction and collision of all these blocks led to the formation of terrestrial-type planets.
These planets had a weak gravitational field and were too small to attract light gases (such as helium and hydrogen) that make up the accretion disk.
The birth of the solar system was a common occurrence - similar systems are born all the time and everywhere in the universe. And maybe in one of these systems there is a planet similar to Earth, on which there is intelligent life ...
So we examined the structure of the solar system, and now we can arm ourselves with knowledge for their further application in practice 😉
The boundless space that surrounds us is not just a huge airless space and emptiness. Here everything is subject to a single and strict order, everything has its own rules and obeys the laws of physics. Everything is in constant motion and is constantly interconnected with each other. This is a system in which each celestial body has its own specific place. The center of the universe is surrounded by galaxies, among which is our Milky Way. Our galaxy, in turn, is formed by stars, around which large and small planets revolve with their natural satellites. Wandering objects - comets and asteroids - complete the picture of the universal scale.
Our solar system is also located in this endless cluster of stars - a tiny astrophysical object by cosmic standards, which also includes our cosmic home - the planet Earth. For us earthlings, the size of the solar system is colossal and difficult to comprehend. In terms of the scale of the universe, these are tiny numbers - only 180 astronomical units or 2.693e + 10 km. Here, too, everything is subject to its own laws, has its own clearly defined place and sequence.
Brief description and description
The position of the Sun provides the interstellar medium and the stability of the solar system. Its location is an interstellar cloud that is part of the Orion Cygnus arm, which in turn is part of our galaxy. From a scientific point of view, our Sun is located on the periphery, 25 thousand light years from the center of the Milky Way, if we consider the galaxy in the diametrical plane. In turn, the movement of the solar system around the center of our galaxy is carried out in orbit. The full rotation of the Sun around the center of the Milky Way is carried out in different ways, within 225-250 million years and is one galactic year. The orbit of the solar system has an inclination of 600 to the galactic plane. Nearby, in the neighborhood of our system, other stars and other solar systems with their large and small planets run around the center of the galaxy.
The approximate age of the solar system is 4.5 billion years. Like most objects in the universe, our star was formed as a result of the Big Bang. The origin of the solar system is explained by the action of the same laws that have operated and continue to operate today in the field of nuclear physics, thermodynamics and mechanics. First, a star was formed, around which, due to ongoing centripetal and centrifugal processes, the formation of planets began. The sun was formed from a dense collection of gases - a molecular cloud, which was the product of a colossal explosion. As a result of centripetal processes, the molecules of hydrogen, helium, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and other elements were compressed into one continuous and dense mass.
The result of grandiose and such large-scale processes was the formation of a protostar, in the structure of which thermonuclear fusion began. This long process, which began much earlier, we observe today, looking at our Sun after 4.5 billion years from the moment of its formation. The scale of the processes occurring during the formation of a star can be represented by estimating the density, size and mass of our Sun:
- the density is 1.409 g/cm3;
- the volume of the Sun is almost the same figure - 1.40927x1027 m3;
- the mass of the star is 1.9885x1030kg.
Today, our Sun is an ordinary astrophysical object in the Universe, not the smallest star in our galaxy, but far from the largest. The sun is in its mature age, being not only the center of the solar system, but also the main factor in the emergence and existence of life on our planet.
The final structure of the solar system falls on the same period, with a difference of plus or minus half a billion years. The mass of the entire system, where the Sun interacts with other celestial bodies of the Solar System, is 1.0014 M☉. In other words, all the planets, satellites and asteroids, cosmic dust and particles of gases revolving around the Sun, in comparison with the mass of our star, are a drop in the ocean.
In the form in which we have an idea of our star and planets revolving around the Sun - this is a simplified version. For the first time, a mechanical heliocentric model of the solar system with a clockwork was presented to the scientific community in 1704. It should be borne in mind that the orbits of the planets of the solar system do not all lie in the same plane. They rotate around at a certain angle.
The model of the solar system was created on the basis of a simpler and more ancient mechanism - tellurium, with the help of which the position and movement of the Earth in relation to the Sun was modeled. With the help of tellurium, it was possible to explain the principle of the movement of our planet around the Sun, to calculate the duration of the earth's year.
The simplest model of the solar system is presented in school textbooks, where each of the planets and other celestial bodies occupy a certain place. In this case, it should be taken into account that the orbits of all objects revolving around the Sun are located at different angles to the diametrical plane of the Solar System. The planets of the solar system are located at different distances from the sun, rotate at different speeds and rotate around their own axis in different ways.
A map - a diagram of the solar system - is a drawing where all objects are located in the same plane. In this case, such an image gives an idea only of the size of celestial bodies and the distances between them. Thanks to this interpretation, it became possible to understand the location of our planet in a number of other planets, to assess the scale of celestial bodies and to give an idea of the vast distances that separate us from our celestial neighbors.
Planets and other objects of the solar system
Almost the entire universe is a myriad of stars, among which there are large and small solar systems. The presence of a star of its satellite planets is a common phenomenon in space. The laws of physics are the same everywhere, and our solar system is no exception.
If you ask yourself how many planets there were in the solar system and how many there are today, it is quite difficult to answer unambiguously. Currently, the exact location of 8 major planets is known. In addition, 5 small dwarf planets revolve around the Sun. The existence of a ninth planet is currently disputed in scientific circles.
The entire solar system is divided into groups of planets, which are arranged in the following order:
Terrestrial planets:
- Mercury;
- Venus;
- Mars.
Gas planets - giants:
- Jupiter;
- Saturn;
- Uranus;
- Neptune.
All the planets presented in the list differ in structure, have different astrophysical parameters. Which planet is larger or smaller than the others? The sizes of the planets of the solar system are different. The first four objects, similar in structure to the Earth, have a solid stone surface and are endowed with an atmosphere. Mercury, Venus and Earth are the inner planets. Mars closes this group. It is followed by the gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - dense, spherical gas formations.
The process of life of the planets of the solar system does not stop for a second. Those planets that we see today in the sky are the arrangement of celestial bodies that the planetary system of our star has at the current moment. The state that was at the dawn of the formation of the solar system is strikingly different from what is studied today.
The table shows the astrophysical parameters of modern planets, which also indicates the distance of the planets of the solar system to the sun.
The existing planets of the solar system are about the same age, but there are theories that there were more planets in the beginning. This is evidenced by numerous ancient myths and legends describing the presence of other astrophysical objects and catastrophes that led to the death of the planet. This is confirmed by the structure of our star system, where, along with the planets, there are objects that are products of violent cosmic cataclysms.
A striking example of such activity is the asteroid belt located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Here, objects of extraterrestrial origin are concentrated in a huge number, mainly represented by asteroids and small planets. It is these fragments of irregular shape in human culture that are considered the remains of the protoplanet Phaeton, which died billions of years ago as a result of a large-scale cataclysm.
In fact, there is an opinion in scientific circles that the asteroid belt was formed as a result of the destruction of a comet. Astronomers have discovered the presence of water on the large asteroid Themis and on the minor planets Ceres and Vesta, which are the largest objects in the asteroid belt. The ice found on the surface of asteroids may indicate the cometary nature of the formation of these cosmic bodies.
Previously, Pluto, belonging to the number of large planets, is not considered a full-fledged planet today.
Pluto, which was previously ranked among the large planets of the solar system, is now translated into the size of dwarf celestial bodies revolving around the sun. Pluto, along with Haumea and Makemake, the largest dwarf planets, is in the Kuiper belt.
These dwarf planets of the solar system are located in the Kuiper belt. The region between the Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud is the most distant from the Sun, but even there space is not empty. In 2005, the most distant celestial body in our solar system, the dwarf planet Eridu, was discovered there. The process of exploring the most distant regions of our solar system continues. The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud are hypothetically the boundary regions of our star system, the visible boundary. This cloud of gas is located at a distance of one light year from the Sun and is the area where comets, wandering satellites of our star, are born.
Characteristics of the planets of the solar system
The terrestrial group of planets is represented by the planets closest to the Sun - Mercury and Venus. These two cosmic bodies of the solar system, despite the similarity in physical structure with our planet, are a hostile environment for us. Mercury is the smallest planet in our star system and is closest to the Sun. The heat of our star literally incinerates the surface of the planet, practically destroying the atmosphere on it. The distance from the surface of the planet to the Sun is 57,910,000 km. In size, only 5 thousand km in diameter, Mercury is inferior to most of the large satellites that are dominated by Jupiter and Saturn.
Saturn's satellite Titan has a diameter of over 5,000 km, Jupiter's satellite Ganymede has a diameter of 5265 km. Both satellites are second only to Mars in size.
The very first planet rushes around our star at great speed, making a complete revolution around our star in 88 Earth days. It is almost impossible to notice this small and nimble planet in the starry sky due to the close presence of the solar disk. Among the terrestrial planets, it is on Mercury that the largest daily temperature drops are observed. While the surface of the planet, facing the Sun, is heated up to 700 degrees Celsius, the reverse side of the planet is immersed in universal cold with temperatures up to -200 degrees.
The main difference between Mercury and all the planets of the solar system is its internal structure. Mercury has the largest iron-nickel inner core, which accounts for 83% of the mass of the entire planet. However, even the uncharacteristic quality did not allow Mercury to have its own natural satellites.
Next to Mercury is the closest planet to us, Venus. The distance from Earth to Venus is 38 million km, and it is very similar to our Earth. The planet has almost the same diameter and mass, slightly inferior in these parameters to our planet. However, in all other respects, our neighbor is fundamentally different from our space home. The period of revolution of Venus around the Sun is 116 Earth days, and the planet rotates extremely slowly around its own axis. The average temperature of the surface of Venus rotating around its axis for 224 Earth days is 447 degrees Celsius.
Like its predecessor, Venus is devoid of the physical conditions conducive to the existence of known life forms. The planet is surrounded by a dense atmosphere, consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Both Mercury and Venus are the only planets in the solar system that do not have natural satellites.
The Earth is the last of the inner planets of the solar system, located at a distance of about 150 million km from the Sun. Our planet makes one revolution around the sun in 365 days. It rotates around its own axis in 23.94 hours. The Earth is the first of the celestial bodies, located on the way from the Sun to the periphery, which has a natural satellite.
Digression: The astrophysical parameters of our planet are well studied and known. Earth is the largest and densest planet of all the other inner planets in the solar system. It is here that natural physical conditions have been preserved under which the existence of water is possible. Our planet has a stable magnetic field that holds the atmosphere. Earth is the most well-studied planet. The subsequent study is mainly of not only theoretical interest, but also practical.
Closes the parade of planets of the terrestrial group Mars. The subsequent study of this planet is mainly not only of theoretical interest, but also of practical interest, connected with the development of extraterrestrial worlds by man. Astrophysicists are attracted not only by the relative proximity of this planet to the Earth (on average 225 million km), but also by the absence of difficult climatic conditions. The planet is surrounded by an atmosphere, although it is in an extremely rarefied state, it has its own magnetic field and temperature drops on the surface of Mars are not as critical as on Mercury and Venus.
Like the Earth, Mars has two satellites - Phobos and Deimos, the natural nature of which has recently been questioned. Mars is the last fourth planet with a solid surface in the solar system. Following the asteroid belt, which is a kind of inner boundary of the solar system, the realm of gas giants begins.
The largest cosmic celestial bodies in our solar system
The second group of planets that make up the system of our star has bright and large representatives. These are the largest objects in our solar system and are considered outer planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the most distant from our star, and their astrophysical parameters are enormous by earthly standards. These celestial bodies differ in their massiveness and composition, which is mainly of a gas nature.
The main beauties of the solar system are Jupiter and Saturn. The total mass of this pair of giants would be enough to fit in it the mass of all known celestial bodies in the solar system. So Jupiter - the largest planet in the solar system - weighs 1876.64328 1024 kg, and the mass of Saturn is 561.80376 1024 kg. These planets have the most natural satellites. Some of them, Titan, Ganymede, Callisto and Io, are the largest satellites in the solar system and are comparable in size to the terrestrial planets.
The largest planet in the solar system - Jupiter - has a diameter of 140 thousand km. In many respects, Jupiter is more like a failed star - a vivid example of the existence of a small solar system. This is evidenced by the size of the planet and astrophysical parameters - Jupiter is only 10 times smaller than our star. The planet rotates around its own axis quite quickly - only 10 Earth hours. The number of satellites, of which 67 pieces have been identified to date, is also striking. The behavior of Jupiter and its moons is very similar to the model of the solar system. Such a number of natural satellites for one planet raises a new question, how many planets of the solar system were at an early stage of its formation. It is assumed that Jupiter, having a powerful magnetic field, turned some of the planets into its natural satellites. Some of them - Titan, Ganymede, Callisto and Io - are the largest satellites of the solar system and are comparable in size to the terrestrial planets.
Slightly inferior in size to Jupiter is its smaller brother, the gas giant Saturn. This planet, like Jupiter, consists mainly of hydrogen and helium - gases that are the basis of our star. With its size, the diameter of the planet is 57 thousand km, Saturn also resembles a protostar that has stopped in its development. The number of satellites of Saturn is slightly inferior to the number of satellites of Jupiter - 62 versus 67. On the satellite of Saturn, Titan, as well as on Io, the satellite of Jupiter, there is an atmosphere.
In other words, the largest planets Jupiter and Saturn, with their systems of natural satellites, strongly resemble small solar systems, with their clearly defined center and system of movement of celestial bodies.
The two gas giants are followed by cold and dark worlds, the planets Uranus and Neptune. These celestial bodies are located at a distance of 2.8 billion km and 4.49 billion km. from the Sun, respectively. Due to their great distance from our planet, Uranus and Neptune were discovered relatively recently. Unlike the other two gas giants, Uranus and Neptune have a large amount of frozen gases - hydrogen, ammonia and methane. These two planets are also called ice giants. Uranus is smaller than Jupiter and Saturn and is the third largest planet in the solar system. The planet represents the cold pole of our star system. The average temperature on the surface of Uranus is -224 degrees Celsius. Uranus differs from other celestial bodies revolving around the Sun by a strong inclination of its own axis. The planet seems to be rolling, revolving around our star.
Like Saturn, Uranus is surrounded by a hydrogen-helium atmosphere. Neptune, unlike Uranus, has a different composition. The presence of methane in the atmosphere is indicated by the blue color of the spectrum of the planet.
Both planets slowly and majestically move around our star. Uranus orbits the Sun in 84 Earth years, and Neptune circles our star twice as long - 164 Earth years.
Finally
Our solar system is a huge mechanism in which each planet, all the satellites of the solar system, asteroids and other celestial bodies move along a clearly defined route. The laws of astrophysics operate here, which have not changed for 4.5 billion years. Dwarf planets move along the outer edges of our solar system in the Kuiper belt. Comets are frequent guests of our star system. These space objects with a frequency of 20-150 years visit the inner regions of the solar system, flying in the visibility zone from our planet.
If you have any questions - leave them in the comments below the article. We or our visitors will be happy to answer them.
Questions:
1. Structure and composition of the solar system.
2. The birth of the solar system.
3. Planets of the Earth group: Mercury, Venus, Mars.
4. Planets of the Jupiter group.
5. The moon is a satellite of the Earth.
1. Structure and composition of the solar system
The solar system is a particle in the Milky Way galaxy.
The solar system is a system of celestial bodies welded together by the forces of mutual attraction. The planets included in the system move in almost the same plane and in the same direction in an elliptical orbit.
The existence of the solar system was first announced in 1543 by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, refuting the idea that had prevailed for several centuries that the Earth was the center of the universe.
The center of the solar system is the ordinary star the Sun, in which the bulk of the system's matter is concentrated. Its mass is 750 times the mass of all the planets in the solar system and 330,000 times the mass of the Earth. Under the influence of the gravitational attraction of the Sun, the planets form a group, rotating around its axis (each with its own speed) and making a revolution around the Sun without deviating from its orbit. The elliptical orbits of the planets are at different distances from our star.
The order of the planets:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
According to physical characteristics, the large 8 planets are divided into two groups: the Earth and Mercury, Mars and Venus similar to it. The second group includes the giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The most distant planet Pluto, as well as 3 more planets discovered since 2006, are classified as minor planets of the solar system.
Planets of the 1st group (terrestrial type) consist of dense rocks, and the second - of gas, ice and other particles.
2. The birth of the solar system.
In the inner heated regions, dense blocks formed and coalesced with each other, forming terrestrial-type planets. Dust particles collided, broke up and stuck together again, forming lumps. They were too small, had a small gravitational field and could not attract the light gases hydrogen and helium. As a result, planets of the 1st type are small in volume, but very dense.
Farther from the center of the disk, the temperature was much lower. Volatile substances adhered to dust particles. The high content of hydrogen and helium served as the basis for the formation of giant planets. The planets formed there attracted gases to themselves. Currently, they also have extensive atmospheres.
Part of the gas and dust cloud turned into meteorites and comets. The constant bombardment of cosmic bodies by meteorites is a continuation of the process of formation of the Universe.
How did the solar system originate?
3. Planets of the Earth group: Mercury, Venus, Mars.
All terrestrial planets have a lithosphere - a solid shell of the planet, including the earth's crust and part of the mantle.
Venus, Mars, like the Earth, have an atmosphere that is similar in the presence of chemical elements to each other. The difference is only in the concentration of substances. On Earth, the atmosphere has changed due to the activity of living organisms. The basis of the atmosphere of Venus and Mars is carbon dioxide - 95%, and the Earth - nitrogen. The density of the Earth's atmosphere is 100 times less than Venus and 100 times greater than Mars. The clouds of Venus are concentrated sulfuric acid. A large amount of carbon dioxide can create a greenhouse effect, which is why there are such high temperatures.
planet X atmospheres | Venus | Land | Mars |
|||
The main constituents of the atmosphere | N 2 O 2 CO2 H2O | 3-5% 0,0 01 95 -97 0 , 01-0 , 1 0 , 01 | N 2 O2 CO2 H2O |
0,03 0,1-1 0,93 | N 2 O2 CO2 H2O | 2-3% 0,1-0,4 0,001-0,1 |
Surface pressure (atm.) | 0,006 |
|||||
Surface Temperature (Rf. Lat.) | +40 to -30 about C | 0 to - 70 about C |
||||
Comparison of the sizes of the terrestrial planets (from left to right - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars)
Mercury.
Distance to the Sun: 57.9 million km
Diameter: 4.860 km
Period of rotation around the axis (day): 176
Per. revolutions around the Sun (year): 88 days.
Temperature: + 350-426 O C on the sunny side and - 180 about C for the night.
There is almost no atmosphere, there is a very weak magnetic field.
The average speed of the planet in orbit is 48 km / s, constantly changing. The axis of rotation of the planet is at almost a right angle to the plane of the orbit. The surface of Mercury is similar to the Moon. The surface was formed by volcanic activity and meteorite impacts due to the absence of an atmosphere. Craters vary in size from a few meters to hundreds of kilometers across. The largest crater on Mercury is named after the great Dutch painter Rembrandt, its diameter is 716 km. The phases of the moon are observed through a telescope. There are lowlands - "seas" and uneven hills - "continents". Mountain ranges reach a height of several kilometers. The sky on Mercury is black due to the highly rarefied atmosphere, which is almost non-existent.
Mercury has a large iron core, a rocky mantle, and a crust.
Venus.
Distance to the Sun: 108 million km
Diameter 12104 km
243 days
225 days
Axis of rotation vertical
Temperature: average + 464 about S.
Atmosphere: CO 2 97%.
Rotates clockwise
There are vast plateaus on Venus, mountain ranges located on them rise to a height of 7-8 km. The highest mountains are 11 km. There are traces of tectonic and volcanic activity. About 1000 craters of meteorite origin. 85% of the planet's surface is occupied by volcanic plains.
The surface of Venus is hidden by a dense cloud layer of sulfuric acid. The sun is barely visible in the dark orange sky. At night, the stars are not visible at all. Clouds go around the planet in 4-5 days. The thickness of the atmosphere is 250 km.
Structure of Venus: solid metal core, silicate mantle and crust. The magnetic field is almost absent.
Mars.
Distance to the Sun: 228 million km
Diameter: 6794km
Period of rotation around the axis (day): 24 h 37 min
Per. revolution around the Sun (year): 687 days
Temperature:Average - 60 about C;at the equator 0 o C; at the poles - 140 o C
Atmosphere: CO 2, the pressure is 160 times less than Earth's.
Moons: Phobos, Deimos.
The axial tilt of Mars is 25 degrees.
On the surface of Mars, one can distinguish "seas" of 2000 km and elevated areas - "continents". In addition to meteorite craters, giant volcanic cones 15-20 km high and 500-600 km in diameter have been discovered - Mount Olympus. The Mariner Valley is a giant canyon visible from space. Mountain ranges and canyons have been discovered. Screes, dunes, and other formations of atmospheric erosion speak of dust storms. The red color of Martian dust is the presence of iron oxide (limonite substance). Valleys that look like dry riverbeds are evidence that Mars was once warmer and water existed. She is still in the polar ice. And oxygen is in oxides.
The largest meteorite crater in the solar system has been discovered in the northern hemisphere of Mars. Its length is 10.6 thousand km, and its width is 8.5 thousand km.
The change of seasons causes the melting of the Martian glaciers, accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide and an increase in pressure in the atmosphere. As a result, winds and hurricanes appear, the speed of which reaches 10-40, and sometimes 100 m/s.
The structure of Mars: there is an iron core, mantle and crust.
Mars has two moons that are irregularly shaped. They are composed of carbon-rich rock and are thought to be asteroids captured by the gravity of Mars. The diameter of Phobos is about 27 km. It is the largest and closest satellite to Mars. The diameter of Deimos is about 15 km.
4. Planets of the Jupiter group
Distance to the Sun: 778 million km
Diameter: 143thousand km
Period of rotation around the axis (day): 9 h 50 min
Per. revolutions around the Sun (year): » 12 years old
Temperature: -140 about C
Atmosphere: Hydrogen, methane, ammonia, helium.
A ring of dust and stones is barely noticeable
Satellites: 67 - Ganymede, Io, Europa, Callisto, etc.
The planet is rotating very fast. The axis is slightly tilted. Structure:
liquid hydrogen, liquid metallic hydrogen, iron core.
The atmosphere is gaseous: 87% consists of hydrogen, ammonia and helium are present. High pressure. Clouds of reddish ammonia, severe thunderstorms. The thickness of the cloud layer is 1000 km. Wind speed 100 m/s (650 km/h), cyclones (Great Red Spot 30 thousand km wide). The planet radiates heat, but thermonuclear reactions do not occur in the center, as in the Sun.
The rapid rotation of Jupiter and the heat emanating from within give rise to powerful atmospheric movements. Belts with different pressures (bands) appear in the atmosphere, hurricanes rage. The surface is liquid hydrogen with a temperature of –140 °C, seething. The density is 4 times less than the density of water - 1330 kg/m3. Inside the hydrogen ocean, the temperature is +11,000 °C. Liquefied hydrogen under high pressure becomes metallic (very dense), creates a strong magnetic field. The temperature of the core is 30 thousand ° C, it consists of iron.
Jupiter has a barely visible ring of dust and rocks. Reflecting from the ring, sunlight creates a halo - a glow. You cannot see the ring through a telescope - it is perpendicular.
As of January 2012, Jupiter has 67 known moons - the largest number among the planets of the solar system. The largest: 
And about- the closest, makes a revolution around Jupiter in 42.5 hours. The density is high, there is iron in the core. Similar in size to the moon. Io is volcanically active, observation. 12 active volcanoes. Sulfur compounds colored the surface yellow-orange. The surface temperature near the volcanoes is 300 °C. Black seas of molten sulfur sway on the orange shores. It always faces Jupiter on the same side. Forms 2 tidal humps due to the force of gravity, which move, which led to the heating of the bowels.
Europe smaller than Io. It has a smooth surface, consisting of frozen water ice, dotted with cracks and streaks. The core is silicate, there are few craters. Europe is young in age - about 100 million years.
Ganymede is the largest satellite in the solar system. Its radius is 2.631 km. 4% of the surface is ice crust covered with craters. Age like Io. It has a stone core and a mantle of water ice. On the surface lies stone-ice dust.
Callisto is the 2nd largest moon of Jupiter. The surface is icy, heavily cratered, similar to Ganymede.
All satellites face Jupiter on the same side.
Saturn
Distance to the Sun: 9.54 AU (1 AU = 150 million km - the distance from the Earth to the Sun, used for long distances)
Diameter: 120.660 km
Period of rotation around the axis (day): 10.2 h
Per. revolutions in the district of the Sun (year): » 29.46 years old
Temperature: -180 about C
Atmosphere: Hydrogen 93%, methane, ammonia, helium.
Surface made of liquid hydrogen and helium
Satellites: 62.
Saturn is a light yellow ball of gas, composed of hydrogen and helium (mostly liquid molecular hydrogen). Due to the rapid rotation, the ball is strongly flattened at the poles. Day - 10 h 16 min. The core is made of iron. Saturn has a strong magnetic field generated by metallic hydrogen in the mantle. The surface of Saturn is liquid hydrogen. Ammonia crystals are concentrated near the surface, which prevent from seeing the surface from space.
Structure: core, liquid metallic hydrogen, liquid hydrogen, atmosphere.
The structure of the atmosphere is almost like that of Jupiter. It consists of 94-93% hydrogen, helium, ammonia, methane, water, impurities of phosphorus and other elements. Bands parallel to the equator are observed - giant atmospheric currents, the speed of which is 500 m / s.
Saturn has rings - the remains of a huge circumplanetary cloud, consisting of dust particles, ice and stones. The rings are younger than the planet. It is believed that these are the remains of an exploded satellite or a comet captured by Saturn. Banding is determined by the composition of the rings. The rings sway and bend under the gravitational pressure of the satellites. Particle speed 10 km/s. Lumps constantly collide and crumble, sticking together again. Their structure is loose. The thickness of the rings is 10-20 m, and the width is 60 thousand km.
Saturn has 62 moons made up of light-colored water ice. The satellites always face Saturn on the same side. Mimas has a huge crater 130 km wide, Tethys has two of its satellites, and Dione has one. The largest moon of Saturn is Titan. (2nd after Ganymede). Its diameter is 5.150 km (greater than Mercury). In structure, it is similar to Jupiterian: a stone core and an icy mantle. It has a powerful atmosphere of nitrogen and methane. The surface is an ocean of methane -180 °C. Phoebe is a distant satellite of Saturn that rotates in the opposite direction.
Uranus
Diameter: 51.200 km
Period of rotation around the axis (day): » 17h
Per. converted ia around the sun (year): 84 years old
Temperature: -218 °C
Atmosphere: hydrogen and helium - the main components, methane, ammonia, etc.
liquid hydrogen surface methane
Rings - 9 (11) rows
Satellites: 27 - Miranda, Ariel, Titania, Oberon, Umbriel and etc.
The planet is blue and green. This is due to the presence of methane in the atmosphere. Methane absorbs red light and reflects blue and green light. The atmosphere is made up of hydrogen, helium and methane. Its thickness is 8 thousand km. The surface is hidden from observation due to methane haze. The speed of clouds in the atmosphere is 10 m/s. The mantle of Uranus is a frozen ocean of water, ammonia and methane. Pressure 200 thousand earth atmospheres. The temperature is about - 200 °C. The iron silicate core has a temperature of 7.000°C.
Uranus has a strong magnetic field. Axis tilt 98°. Uranus has 27 satellites moving perpendicular to the orbit of the ecliptic. The most distant Oberon and Titania have an icy surface.
Uranus has narrow black rings arranged in 9 rows. They are made of stone. Thickness - tens of meters, with a radius of 40-50 thousand km. Satellites: 14 - Triton, Nereid, etc.
Similar in structure and composition to Uranus: core, icy mantle and atmosphere. Has a strong magnetic field. The atmosphere contains a lot of hydrogen, helium, and also more methane than Uranus, which is why the planet is blue. Atmospheric cyclones are noticeable - the Great Dark Spot with white clouds at the edges. On Neptune, the strongest winds in the solar system are 2200 km/h.
Neptune has 14 moons. Triton moves in the opposite direction to Neptune. Its diameter is 4950 km. It has an atmosphere, the surface temperature is 235-238 °C. Volcanically active - geysers.
Neptune has 4 rarefied narrow rings, which are visible to us in the form of arcs, because. maybe the substance is unevenly distributed. The rings are composed of ice particles or reddish silicates.
Structure: iron core, ice mantle and atmosphere (hydrogen, helium, methane). Pluto is a stone ball, the surface of which is covered with frozen gases - grayish methane ice. Planet diameter 2290 km . The atmosphere of methane and nitrogen is highly rarefied. The only satellite of Pluto is very large compared to the planet (Charon). Consists of water ice and reddish rocks. Surface temperature - 228 - 206°C. At the poles are caps of frozen gases. The sun from the surface of Pluto and Charon is seen in1000 times smaller than from Earth.
5. The moon is a satellite of the Earth
The only satellite of the Earth - the Moon lags behind it by 385,000 km. Glows with reflected light. Half the size of Pluto and nearly the size of Mercury. The diameter of the Moon is 3474 km (more than ¼ of the Earth). The mass is 1/81 of the mass of the Earth (7.34x1022 kg), and the force of gravity is 1/6 of the earth's gravity. The age of the Moon is 4.36 billion years. There is no magnetic field.
The moon makes a full revolution around the Earth in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes. A day lasts 2 Earth weeks. There is no water and air on the Moon, therefore, on a lunar day, the temperature is + 120 ° C, and at night it drops to - 160 ° C.
The moon has a core and a thick crust about 60 km thick. Therefore, the Moon and the Earth have a similar origin. An analysis of the soil delivered by American astronauts on the Apollo spacecraft showed that it contains minerals similar to those of the earth. The soil is poorer in terms of the amount of minerals, because. there is no water that creates oxides.
Samples of lunar rock indicate that it was formed from a molten, cooled and crystallized mass. Lunar soil - regolith - is a finely divided substance formed as a result of constant bombardment of the surface by cosmic bodies. The surface of the moon is dotted with craters (there are 30 thousand of them). One of the large craters is located on the far side of the satellite, it reaches 80 km in diameter. The craters are named after famous scientists, figures from different eras: Plato, Aristotle, Copernicus, Galileo, Lomonosov, Gagarin, Pavlov and others.
The light areas of the Moon are called "land", and the dark areas - depressions - "seas" (Ocean of Storms, Sea of Rains, Sea of Tranquility, Gulf of Heat, Sea of Crises, etc.). There are mountains and even mountain ranges on the Moon. They are named as on Earth: the Alps, the Carpathians, the Caucasus, the Pyrenees.
On the Moon, surface cracking can be observed due to sudden temperature changes, moonquakes. In the cracks - frozen lava.
There are three hypotheses for the origin of the moon.
1. "Capture". A space body flying past was captured by the forces of gravity of the Earth and turned into a satellite.
2 sisters". The Earth and the Moon were formed from one clot of matter, but each developed on its own in close proximity to each other.
3. "Mother and daughter." Once upon a time, part of the matter separated from the Earth, leaving a deep depression (in the place of the Pacific Ocean). Space images of the Moon's surface and analysis of the soil show that it was formed under the influence of high temperatures as a result of the impact of cosmic bodies. This means that this separation occurred a very long time ago. According to this hypothesis, 4 billion years ago, a huge asteroid or a small planet crashed into the Earth. Broken off pieces of the earth's crust and the "wanderer" scattered into debris into space. Under the influence of gravitational forces, a satellite formed over time. The correctness of this hypothesis is proved by two facts: a small amount of iron on the Moon and the presence of two dust satellites rotating in a lunar orbit (observed in 1956).
Origin of the Moon
The moon also influences the earth. It affects our well-being, causes ebb and flow. This is due to the strengthening of the action of the Moon by the Sun when they are in the same plane.
The lunar face is constantly changing. This is due to the different position of the moon relative to the luminary.
A full cycle of the phase of the moon takes 29.5 days. Each phase lasts about a week.
1. New Moon - The moon is not visible.
2. First quarter - from a thin crescent on the right to a semicircle.
3. Full moon - round moon.
4. Last quarter - reduction from half to a narrow crescent.
Moon eclipse occurs when the Earth is in a straight line between the Sun and the Moon. The moon is in the shadow of the earth. The earth's atmosphere allows only red rays to reach the moon, so the moon appears red. This event lasts approximately one and a half hours.
solar eclipsehappens when The Moon covers the Sun with its disk. A total eclipse at one point on the globe is rare. You can see partial solar eclipses, which are more common. The shadow of the moon has length 250 km . Duration 7 min 40 sec.
Alpatov Alexey, Safronov Artem
presentation tells about the structure of the solar system
Download:
Preview:
To use the preview of presentations, create a Google account (account) and sign in: https://accounts.google.com
Slides captions:
Municipal educational institution "Krapivena secondary school No. 24 named after D. A. Zaitsev" The structure of the solar system Prepared by students of grade 11 Alpatov Alexey and Safronov Artem
The correct idea of the Earth and its form did not develop among different peoples immediately and not at the same time. However, it is difficult to establish exactly where, when, among which people it was most correct. Very few reliable ancient documents and material monuments have been preserved about this. The world in the view of the ancient Egyptians The world in the view of the Indians Like a flat, worn coin, The planet rested on three whales. And they burned smart scientists in bonfires - Those who kept saying: "It's not about the whales." N.Olev
Ancient astronomy The Greek philosopher Thales (6th century BC) imagined the Universe as a liquid mass, inside of which there is a large bubble shaped like a hemisphere. The concave surface of this bubble is the vault of heaven, and on the lower, flat surface, like a cork, the flat Earth floats. A contemporary of Thales, Anaximander represented the Earth as a segment of a column or cylinder, on one of the bases of which we live. Anaximander believed that the Earth is the center of the universe. He explained the sunrise and other luminaries on the eastern side of the sky and their sunset on the western side by the movement of the luminaries in a circle: the visible firmament, in his opinion, is half the ball, the other hemisphere is under his feet.
The famous ancient Greek scientist Aristotle (4th century BC) was the first to use observations of lunar eclipses to prove the sphericity of the Earth: the shadow from the Earth falling on the full Moon is always round. During eclipses, the Earth is turned to the Moon in different directions. But only the ball always casts a round shadow. The followers of another Greek scientist - Pythagoras (r. c. 580 - d. 500 BC) - have already recognized the Earth as a ball. They also considered other planets to be spherical. Aristotle and Plato
The achievements of ancient astronomy were summarized by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy. He developed the geocentric system of the world, created the theory of the apparent movement of the Moon and the five known planets. The geocentric system of the world is an idea of the structure of the universe, according to which the central position in the Universe is occupied by the motionless Earth, around which the Sun, Moon, planets and stars revolve.
Modern understanding of the structure of the solar system. COPERNICK Nicholas (19.II 1473 - 24.V 1543) Polish astronomer, creator of the heliocentric system of the world, reformer of astronomy. Reflecting on the Ptolemaic system of the world, Copernicus was amazed at its complexity and artificiality, and, studying the writings of ancient philosophers, especially Nikita of Syracuse and Philolaus, he came to the conclusion that not the Earth, but the Sun should be the motionless center of the Universe. Proceeding from this assumption, Copernicus very simply explained all the apparent intricacy of the movements of the planets Celestial spheres in the Copernican manuscript
Heliocentric system of the world.
Components of the solar system The solar system is a planetary system that includes the central star - the Sun - and all natural space objects revolving around. The system consists of nine large planets, as well as their satellites, of which more than sixty are currently known. In addition to the above cosmic bodies, the solar system includes numerous small bodies: asteroids, of which more than five thousand have already been discovered, hundreds of comets known to science and countless meteoroids.
It is currently believed that the solar system includes 8 large planets (Pluto, previously considered the ninth planet, was excluded from the list of planets due to its too small size). These planets, according to the distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest of the planets is Jupiter, but even it is much smaller than the Sun in size and mass. It is currently believed that the solar system includes 8 large planets (Pluto, previously considered the ninth planet, was excluded from the list of planets due to its too small size). These planets, according to the distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest of the planets is Jupiter, but even it is much smaller than the Sun in size and mass. It is currently believed that the solar system includes 8 large planets (Pluto, previously considered the ninth planet, was excluded from the list of planets due to its too small size). These planets, according to the distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest of the planets is Jupiter, but even it is much smaller than the Sun in size and mass. The major planets are divided into two groups - the planets of the terrestrial group and the planets of the Jupiter group. The first group includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, and the second - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The most distant planet from the Sun in the Solar System, Pluto, is not included in either of these two groups, since in its properties and size it is more similar to the satellites of the giant planets than to the planets themselves. The planets revolve around the Sun in almost circular orbits lying approximately in the same plane, in a counterclockwise direction, as viewed from the north pole of the Earth.
Planets of the solar system Mercury is a planet heated by the near Sun The surface of Venus is deserted, the mountains on it are very high Only on Earth there is an atmosphere in which you can breathe On Mars the atmosphere is very rarefied Jupiter is the largest planet, 317 times larger than Earth
Uranus and Neptune are similar in that their surface temperature is extremely low: after all, they are so far from the Sun Pluto is a double planet with its large satellite, Charon Saturn is surrounded by rings consisting of blocks and small particles of ice and dust
Planet Diameter, km Distance from the Sun, million km Mass Earth \u003d 1) Volume (Earth \u003d 1) Surface temperature (C) Time of revolution around the Sun Time of revolution around its axis Number of satellites Mercury 4 879 57.9 0.055 0.056 +350 87, 97 Days 58.65 days 0 Venus 12104 108.2 0.815 0.86 +480 224.7 day 243.16 Days 0 Earth 12756 149.6 1 1 +22 365.26 Days 23h 56min 4s 1 Mars 6 794 227.9 0.107 0.150 -23 686.9 24 h 37 min 2 s 2 Information about the planets of the solar system
Planet Diameter, km Distance from the Sun, million km Mass (Earth = 1) Volume (Earth = 1) Surface temperature, (С) Time of revolution around the Sun Time of revolution around its axis Number of satellites Jupiter 142884 778.3 318 1319 -150 11 ,86 years 9h 50min 30s 16 Saturn 120536 1427 95 744 -180 29.46 years 10h 39min 18 Uranus 51118 2869.6 15 67 -214 84.01 years 17h 14min 15 Neptune 50538 4496.7 17 5 16h 3min 8 Pluto 2 445 5900 0.002 0.01 -230 247.7 years 6 days 9h 1
Galileo Galilei - having designed a telescope, he made important astronomical discoveries (mountains on the Moon, sunspots, phases of Venus, satellites of Jupiter, etc.), which undermined the foundations of medieval ideas about space and affirmed the idea of the unity of celestial and terrestrial phenomena. Scientists who contributed to the development of modern theory of the structure of the solar system. Johannes Kepler - discovered three laws of planetary motion, which fully and with excellent accuracy explained the apparent unevenness of these movements. Kepler also derived the "Kepler equation" used in astronomy to determine the position of celestial bodies.
Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation. He continued the works of Galileo and Kepler. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov - May 26, 1761, observing the passage of Venus across the solar disk, discovered the presence of an atmosphere in it. Illustrations by M. V. Lomonosov for the manuscript “The Appearance of Venus on the Sun…”. 1761
List of references L.E. Gendenshtein "Textbook on physics Grade 11" www.wikipedia.ru I.B. Kibets "Physics"
Preview:
MOU "Krapivena secondary school No. 24 named. D. A. Zaitseva
Abstract on the topic:
"The structure of the solar system"
Work completed: 11th grade students
Alpatov Alexey and Safronov Artyom
2014
Introduction…………………………………………………………………..3
- Solar system……………………………………………………4
- Sun……………………………………………………………………6
- Mercury……………………………………………………………...7
- Venus……………………………………………………………………7
- Earth………………………………………………………………….8
- Mars………………………………………………………………….10
- Jupiter……………………………………………………………….10
- Saturn………………………………………………………………..12
- Uranus…………………………………………………………………..12
- Neptune……………………………………………………………….13
- Pluto……………………………………………………………….13
Conclusion……………………………………………………………...14
References………………………………………………………..15
Introduction
A comparative study of the planets and their satellites - "moons" - is of paramount importance for understanding the nature of the Earth. We are not yet clear about the conditions that led to the formation of various natural complexes, including those that favored the origin and development of life on Earth. This essay will focus on the solar system and its planets.
The solar system includes the Sun, 9 large planets along with their 34 satellites, more than 100 thousand small planets (asteroids), about 10 to 11 degrees of comets, as well as countless small, so-called meteoroids (diameter from 100 meters to negligible dust particles ). The central position in the solar system is occupied by the Sun. Its mass is approximately 750 times greater than the mass of all other bodies included in the system. The gravitational attraction of the sun is the main force that determines the movement of all the bodies of the solar system circulating around it. Moving in the Galaxy, the Solar system from time to time flies through interstellar gas and dust clouds. Due to the extreme rarefaction of the matter of these clouds, the immersion of the solar system into the cloud can manifest itself only with a small absorption and scattering of solar rays. Manifestations of this effect in the past history of the Earth have not yet been established. All the big planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto - revolve around the sun in one direction (in the direction of their rotation of the Sun itself), in almost circular orbits, slightly inclined to each other (and to solar equator). The plane of the earth's orbit - the ecliptic is taken as the main plane when counting the inclinations of the orbits of planets and other bodies revolving around the sun.
1. Solar system
The distances from the planets to the Sun form a natural sequence - the gaps between adjacent orbits increase with distance from the Sun. These patterns of planetary motion, combined with their division into two groups according to physical properties, indicate that the solar system is not a random collection of cosmic bodies, but arose in a single process. Due to the almost circular shape of the planetary orbits and the large gaps between them, the possibility of close encounters between the planets is excluded, in which they could significantly change their motion as a result of mutual attraction. This ensures the continued existence of the planetary system. The planets also rotate around their axis, and almost all planets, except for Venus and Uranus, rotate in the same direction as their revolution around the Sun. The extremely slow rotation of Venus occurs in the opposite direction, and Uranus rotates as if lying on its side. Most moons revolve around their planets in the same direction as the planet's axial rotation. The orbits of such satellites are usually circular and lie near the plane of the planet's equator, forming a reduced likeness of the planetary system. Such, for example, are the system of satellites of Uranus and the system of Galilean satellites of Jupiter. Reverse motions are possessed by satellites located far from the planet. Saturn, Jupiter and Uranus, in addition to individual satellites of noticeable size, have many small satellites, as if merging into continuous rings. These satellites move in orbits so close to the planet that its tidal force does not allow them to combine into a single body. The vast majority of the orbits of the currently known minor planets are located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. All minor planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction as the major planets. Being a rotating system of bodies, the solar system has a moment of momentum. The planets are divided into two groups, differing in mass, chemical composition (this is manifested in differences in their density), rotation speed and the number of satellites. The four planets closest to the Sun, the planets of the Terrestrial group, are small, composed of dense rocky matter and metals. The giant planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - are much more massive, consist mainly of light substances and therefore, despite the enormous pressure in their depths, have a low density. Jupiter and Saturn have hydrogen and helium as their main masses. They also contain up to 20% of stony substances and light compounds of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen, capable of concentrating into ice at low temperatures. The bowels of the planets and some satellites are in a red-hot state. In terrestrial planets and satellites, due to the low thermal conductivity of the outer layers, the internal heat seeps out very slowly and does not have a noticeable effect on the surface temperature. In giant planets, convection in their interiors leads to a noticeable heat flux from the interiors, exceeding the flux it receives from the Sun. Venus, Earth and Mars have atmospheres made up of gases released from their interiors. The giant planets have atmospheres that are a direct continuation of their interiors: these planets do not have a solid or liquid surface. When immersed inside, atmospheric gases gradually pass into a condensed state. The ninth planet - Pluto, apparently, cannot be attributed to either of the two groups. In terms of chemical composition, it is close to the group of giant planets, and in size to the terrestrial group. The nuclei of comets in their chemical composition are related to the giant planets: they consist of water ice and ice of various gases with an admixture of stony substances. Almost all minor planets in their modern composition belong to the rocky planets of the terrestrial group. The relatively recently discovered Chiron, moving mainly between the orbits of Saturn and Uranus, is probably similar to the icy nuclei of comets and small satellites of planets far from the Sun. Fragments of minor planets, formed during their collision with each other, sometimes fall to Earth in the form of meteorites. In small planets, precisely because of their small size, the interiors were heated much less than in the planets of the terrestrial group, and therefore their substance has often undergone only small changes since the time of their formation. Measurements of the age of meteorites (according to the content of radioactive elements and their decay products) showed that they, and therefore the entire solar system, have existed for about 5 billion years. This age of the solar system is in agreement with the measurements of the oldest terrestrial and lunar samples.
2. Sun
The closest star to Earth. Main sequence dwarf of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. The average distance from the Earth (astronomical unit or AU) is 149.6 million km. The central body of our planetary system. Appeared about 4.7 billion years ago, along with other planets. Weight 1.99 1030 kg, radius 696 thousand km, average density 1.41 kg/m 3 , luminosity 3.85*1026 W, effective temperature 5779K. The rotation period (synodic) varies from 27 days. at the equator up to 32 days. at the poles. Acceleration of free fall in the photosphere 274 m/s 2 .
General structure: energy-releasing core (from the center to a distance of a quarter of the radius), a region of radiant heat conduction (from 1/4 to 2/3 of the radius) and a convective zone (the last third of the radius). The physical conditions in these inner layers of the Sun are determined by theoretical calculations and verified by methods of helioseismology and neutrino astronomy. Above the convective zone, the directly observable outer layers of the solar atmosphere begin, consisting (by number of atoms) mainly of hydrogen, 10% helium, 1/1000 carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and 1/10,000 metals, along with all other chemical elements. The atmosphere of the Sun is conditionally divided into three shells: almost neutral hydrogen and singly ionized metals (photosphere, thickness 200–300 km), an inhomogeneous layer in which hydrogen, helium, and other chemical elements are successively ionized as we move upwards (chromosphere, extent 10– 20 thousand km) and a rarefied isothermal corona, in which all atoms are ionized down to the deepest electron shells. The solar corona gradually transitions into a dynamic formation of an ever-expanding stream of ionized atoms (mainly protons, alpha particles and free electrons), forming a solar wind that extends beyond the orbits of the Earth and Mars.
3. Mercury
The closest planet to the Sun, similar in size to the Moon (radius 2439 km), and in terms of average density (5.42 g / cm 3 ) to the ground. Acceleration of free fall on the surface 372 cm/s 2 , 2.6 times smaller than the Earth. The period of revolution around the Sun is about 88 Earth days. The surface is very reminiscent of the moon: many craters of various sizes. There are also very high (several kilometers) ledges thousands of kilometers long. The surface temperature at noon at the equator reaches 700 K, and on the night side it drops to 100 K. The surface layer of soil is finely crushed rock with low density. The atmosphere of Mercury has an extremely low density. The composition of the atmosphere is poorly known; helium and sodium are possible. Mercury has its own magnetic field 300 times weaker than Earth's, which indicates the possible existence of a liquid core. Mercury is one of the five "wandering stars" that have been known since antiquity.
4. Venus
The second planet of the solar system, distant from the Sun, at an average distance of 0.723 AU. (108 million km); the radius of the solid surface is 6052 km (0.95 Earth's), the brightest morning or evening "star" in the earth's sky. Rotation with a period of 243 days is reverse and synchronous with respect to the Earth. The orbital period is 224.7 days and in one revolution around the Sun on Venus there are two sunrises and two sunsets, and the duration of the day is 117 Earth days. The presence of a powerful atmosphere was established in 1761 by M.V. Lomonosov. At altitudes of 50-70 km, Venus is enveloped in a three-tiered dense layer of clouds with a temperature of about 230 K, in which there are droplets of sulfuric acid. Clouds form a powerful continuous layer that completely hides the rocky and mountainous surface of the planet, which is covered with craters and has a temperature of 730-740 K due to the greenhouse effect from the atmosphere; the highest mountains of Maxwell, 11 km. Venus is distinguished by a high level of geological activity and many volcanic basalts and tectonic formations specific only to Venus (crowns, domed hills, cobwebs of lava flows and tectonic cracks, as well as about 1000 impact craters; it is assumed that Venus is similar to Earth in internal structure The atmosphere is dominated by carbon dioxide CO2 (96-97%) and nitrogen N2 (3-4%). HP). The content of H2O in the deep layers of the atmosphere is only about 0.002%, which is very small compared to the amount of water on Earth. Therefore, there are no oceans on Venus. At altitudes of 50-70 km, winds constantly blow with an average speed of about 100 km / s Like the Earth, Venus has an ionosphere.Venus's own magnetic field is practically absent.
5. Earth
The third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, at an average distance of 1 AU from the Sun, with an orbital period of 1 year. Weight 5.98*10 24 kg, polar radius 6356.9 km, equatorial radius 6378.17 km, (compression about 1/300); average density 5.5 g/cm 3 ; the period of axial rotation relative to the stars is 23 hours 56 minutes 04.1 seconds; The Earth differs from all other planets of the solar system by the presence of a hydrosphere and biosphere, and such a large dynamic activity of the crust and atmosphere. The structure of the hard part: the crust is the outermost and thinnest (10-100 km) hard shell with a density of 2.8 g/cm 3 ; the mantle, which is divided into upper (thickness 850-900 km) and lower, in which the temperature is close to the melting point of its substance (to a depth of about 3000 km); the core, which is divided into external (liquid) and internal (solid core - density in the center 12.5 g/cm3, temperature 4000-5000K); the Earth's atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen with small admixtures of other gases; average temperature at the base 288K; the heat balance maintains the temperature of the Earth in the middle and equatorial latitudes at a level optimal for the existence of warm-blooded organisms. The thickness of the troposphere is about 10 km. At an altitude of about 50 km there is a wide temperature maximum (mesosphere). The increase in temperature begins at altitudes of 20-25 km. Due to the photochemical reaction of ozone decomposition. Ozone, located in the upper atmosphere, serves as a kind of shield that protects the biosphere from the action of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Above the mesosphere there is a temperature minimum - the mesopause. Above, the temperature again begins to rise due to the energy of the absorbed solar ultraviolet radiation at altitudes of 150-300 km, due to the ionization of atomic oxygen. The ionized layers of the atmosphere, starting from heights of 100-120 km, form the ionosphere, in which the concentration of ions and electrons is the same and the plasma is generally neutral; at an altitude of 300 km during the day it is about 106 ions per cm3. A plasma of this density reflects radio waves longer than 20 m and transmits shorter ones. The Earth's magnetic field reverses direction at intervals of 500,000 to 50 million years. At large distances from the Earth, the shape of its magnetic field is distorted by the action of the solar wind. The Earth's magnetic field holds a huge amount of charged particles that form the Earth's radiation belts. The Earth has one satellite, the Moon.
6. Mars
The fourth planet of the solar system, distant from the Sun at an average distance of 228 million km, about half the size of the Earth (equatorial radius 3394 km) and nine times less in mass (6.421 * 10 23 kg). The rotation period is 24 hours 37 minutes 22.6 seconds. The equator is inclined to the plane of the orbit by 24° 56′, (almost like that of the Earth). Therefore, on Mars there is a change of seasons, similar to the earth. The Martian year is 687 Earth days long. A lot of stable details are observed on the surface: bright areas of orange-reddish color (continents, with an area of about 2/3 of the disk); polar caps - white spots that form around the poles in autumn and disappear in early summer; dark areas ("seas") occupying 1/3 of the disk; pools and craters are traces of meteorite bombardment; many mountains of volcanic origin (up to 25-28 km high); many manifestations of erosion, areas with a chaotic relief, channels, etc. The ground is crushed and strewn with many stone blocks. The composition of the rocks is similar to that of the Earth, but with a predominance of iron oxides. The magnetic field is a thousand times weaker than the earth's. The average surface temperature of Mars is about 200 K, during the day at the equator it reaches 290 K, and at night it drops to 170 K and to 145 K in the polar caps; the atmosphere is made up of CO2 and N 2 . There are small impurities H 2 O, CO, etc. There is an ionosphere with a main maximum at an altitude of about 150 km and an electron density of 105-104 particles per cm 3 . There are two satellites that have an irregular shape. The size of Phobos is 22-25 km, Deimos is about 13 km.
7. Jupiter
The largest, fifth from the Sun, the largest planet in the solar system; weight 1.9*10 27 kg (318 times more than the earth and about 1/1050 solar). There is a large red spot observed as early as the 17th century. With the help of spacecraft, several more stable red spots of a smaller size were found; the most noticeable are dark and light reddish stripes parallel to the equator - a consequence of the zonal wind. The period of axial rotation increases with latitude: from 9 hours 50 minutes 30 seconds at equatorial regions to 9 hours 55 minutes 40 seconds at middle latitudes. The main components of the atmosphere are molecular hydrogen H 2 and He with small impurities of methane, ammonia, and other elements. In general, the chemical composition of the atmosphere and the entire planet does not differ significantly from that of the sun. The cloud layer has a complex structure. The upper tier consists of NH3 ammonia crystals, below there should be clouds of ice crystals and water droplets. At the level of 0.15 atm. there is a deep minimum, the higher the temperature rises; the temperature measured according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law (effective) is 130 K, which indicates a large flux of internal heat and some similarity of Jupiter with stars (brown dwarfs). The hydrogen-helium atmosphere at a depth of about 1000 km smoothly passes into a denser gas-liquid shell (both gases are in a supercritical state), and even deeper is the zone of metallic hydrogen. Currents in the liquid interior of Jupiter generate a powerful magnetic field - about 10 Oe near the visible surface of the planet. There is a magnetosphere several hundred times larger than the planet itself. Electrons and high-energy protons trapped in Jupiter's magnetic field form radiation belts similar to those on Earth, but much larger than them. Jupiter has the largest number of satellites - 48 satellites, of which the most famous are the Galilean satellites. The four largest satellites (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto), discovered by Galileo in 1610 and named by S. Marius. The proper rotation of these satellites is synchronous with their revolution around Jupiter due to tidal effects, as in the case of the Earth-Moon system.
8. Saturn
The sixth largest planet in the solar system. Located about twice as far from the Sun as Jupiter, and revolves around it in 29.5 years. The period of rotation at the equator is 10 hours 14 minutes and increases towards the poles. Stripes, zones and other finer formations can be distinguished on the disk. Spectral lines of hydrogen H2, methane CH4, acetylene C 2 H 2 , ethane С2Н6. The elemental composition, apparently, does not differ from the solar one; The planet is made up of 99% hydrogen and helium. In terms of internal structure, Saturn is similar to Jupiter. Just like Jupiter, about half of the radiated energy is due to the flow of internal heat. Saturn has a magnetic field and radiation belts. It has a very beautiful ring system and 22 satellites, the largest of which, Titan, has its own atmosphere, almost entirely composed of nitrogen. Currently, astronomers suggest that the age of the rings is only about a hundred million years.
9. Uranus
The seventh largest planet in our solar system. The first six planets are visible in the sky with the naked eye and are among the brightest objects. Uranus is only visible through a telescope and looks like a small greenish disk. The period of revolution around the Sun is 84 years. The mass of Uranus is 14.6 times that of the earth, the radius is 25560 km. Uranium has a noticeable compression, apparently there are more heavy elements in its bowels. Details on the disk of Uranus are not clearly distinguished, but periodic brightness fluctuations are observed. Based on these oscillations and the Doppler effect, the period of rotation around the axis was determined to be 10 hours 49 minutes. The inclination of the plane of the equator to the plane of the ecliptic is very large - 98 °, so the direction of rotation is reversed. Hydrogen H 2 (major component, probably along with helium), methane CH 4, and acetylene C 2 H 2 . Methane has absorption bands in the red region of the spectrum and is much larger above the cloud tops than on Jupiter and Saturn. This explains the greenish color of the planet. The clouds of Uranus apparently consist of particles of frozen methane, the temperature near their upper boundary is about 55 K, and the gas pressure is several atmospheres. Uranus has 21 moons and a ring system. The largest of its satellites is Titania. The names of all the moons of Uranus were borrowed from Shakespeare's characters.
10. Neptune
The eighth planet of the solar system, mass 17.2 Earth masses, average density 1.7 g/cm 3 , the period of revolution around the Sun is almost 165 years. The period of rotation (direct) around the axis is 15.8 hours ± 1 hour. According to the characteristics of the atmosphere and internal structure, Neptune is very similar to Uranus. Eight satellites and a ring system are known. Of these, Triton is among the largest in the solar system (radius 2000 km); it has reverse circulation around the planet. Neptune's atmosphere is mostly made up of invisible hydrogen and helium. Neptune's blue color is due to a small amount of methane in the atmosphere, which absorbs mostly red light. On Neptune, the fastest winds in the solar system blow, their gusts reach speeds of 2000 km / h. There are suggestions that in a dense, hot environment under the clouds of Uranus and Neptune, diamonds can form.
11. Pluto
Pluto and Charon form a binary system. It is the smallest of the major planets in the solar system. The average density is close to 2 g/cm 3 . Has a satellite. Charon's orbital period around Pluto is 6.4 days, at a distance of 17,000 km, orbital inclination 55°. The average surface temperature of Pluto is 37 K. Pluto's surface is covered with ice made of methane and nitrogen with an admixture of hydrocarbons. It has a rarefied atmosphere of the same gases.
Conclusion
For two centuries now, the problem of the origin of the solar system has been worrying the outstanding thinkers of our planet. This problem was dealt with, starting from the philosopher Kant and the mathematician Laplace, a galaxy of astronomers and physicists of the 19th and 20th centuries.
And yet we are still quite far from solving this problem. But over the past three decades, the question of the ways of the evolution of stars has become clearer. And although the details of the birth of a star from a gas-dust nebula are still far from clear, we now clearly understand what happens to it over billions of years of further evolution.
Bibliography
1. Concepts of modern natural science. Komarova A., Olekhnovich L. - M .: Phoenix, 2004.
2. Poteev M.I. Concepts of modern natural science. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 1999
3. Torosyan VG Concepts of modern science. - M .: Higher School, 2003
Our Earth is one of the 8 major planets revolving around the Sun. It is in the Sun that the main part of the matter of the solar system is concentrated. The mass of the Sun is 750 times the mass of all the planets and 330,000 times the mass of the Earth. Under the influence of the force of its attraction, the planets and all other bodies of the solar system move around the sun.
The distances between the Sun and the planets are many times greater than their size, and it is almost impossible to draw such a diagram that would observe a single scale for the Sun, planets and the distances between them. The diameter of the Sun is 109 times larger than the Earth, and the distance between them is about the same number of times the diameter of the Sun. In addition, the distance from the Sun to the last planet of the solar system (Neptune) is 30 times greater than the distance to the Earth. If we depict our planet as a circle with a diameter of 1 mm, then the Sun will be at a distance of about 11 m from the Earth, and its diameter will be approximately 11 cm. The orbit of Neptune will be shown as a circle with a radius of 330 m. Therefore, they usually do not give a modern diagram of the solar system, but drawing from the book of Copernicus "On the circulation of the celestial circles" with other, very approximate proportions.
According to physical characteristics, large planets are divided into two groups. One of them - terrestrial planets- make up the Earth and similar Mercury, Venus and Mars. The second includes giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune (Table 1).
Table 1
Location and physical characteristics of the major planets
Until 2006, Pluto was considered the largest planet farthest from the Sun. Now, together with other objects of similar size - large asteroids known for a long time (see § 4) and objects discovered on the outskirts of the solar system - are among the dwarf planets.
The division of the planets into groups can be traced according to three characteristics (mass, pressure, rotation), but most clearly - in terms of density. Planets belonging to the same group differ insignificantly in density, while the average density of terrestrial planets is about 5 times greater than the average density of giant planets (see Table 1).
Most of the mass terrestrial planets belongs to the solids. The Earth and other planets of the terrestrial group consist of oxides and other compounds of heavy chemical elements: iron, magnesium, aluminum and other metals, as well as silicon and other non-metals. The four most abundant elements in the solid shell of our planet (lithosphere) - iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium - account for over 90% of its mass.
low density giant planets(in Saturn it is less than the density of water) is explained by the fact that they consist mainly of hydrogen and helium, which are predominantly in gaseous and liquid states. The atmospheres of these planets also contain hydrogen compounds - methane and ammonia. Differences between the planets of the two groups arose already at the stage of their formation (see § 5).
Of the giant planets, Jupiter is best studied, on which, even in a small school telescope, numerous dark and light stripes are visible, stretching parallel to the planet's equator. This is what cloud formations look like in its atmosphere, the temperature of which is only -140 ° C, and the pressure is about the same as at the surface of the Earth. The reddish-brown color of the bands is apparently due to the fact that, in addition to the ammonia crystals that form the basis of the clouds, they contain various impurities. The images taken by spacecraft show traces of intense and sometimes persistent atmospheric processes. So, for over 350 years, an atmospheric vortex, called the Great Red Spot, has been observed on Jupiter. In the earth's atmosphere, cyclones and anticyclones exist on average for about a week. Atmospheric currents and clouds have been recorded by spacecraft on other giant planets, although they are less developed than on Jupiter.
Structure. It is assumed that as it approaches the center of the giant planets, due to an increase in pressure, hydrogen should pass from a gaseous to a gaseous state, in which its gaseous and liquid phases coexist. At the center of Jupiter, the pressure is millions of times higher than the atmospheric pressure that exists on Earth, and hydrogen acquires the properties characteristic of metals. In the bowels of Jupiter, metallic hydrogen, together with silicates and metals, forms a core, which is approximately 1.5 times in size and 10-15 times larger than the Earth in mass.
Weight. Any of the giant planets exceeds in mass all the terrestrial planets combined. The largest planet in the solar system - Jupiter is larger than the largest planet of the terrestrial group - the Earth by 11 times in diameter and more than 300 times in mass.
Rotation. The differences between the planets of the two groups are also manifested in the fact that the giant planets rotate faster around the axis, and in the number of satellites: there are only 3 satellites for 4 terrestrial planets, more than 120 for 4 giant planets. All these satellites consist of the same substances, like the planets of the terrestrial group - silicates, oxides and sulfides of metals, etc., as well as water (or water-ammonia) ice. In addition to numerous craters of meteorite origin, tectonic faults and cracks in their crust or ice cover have been found on the surface of many satellites. The discovery of about a dozen active volcanoes on the closest moon to Jupiter, Io, turned out to be the most surprising. This is the first reliable observation of terrestrial-type volcanic activity outside our planet.
In addition to satellites, giant planets also have rings, which are clusters of small bodies. They are so small that they cannot be seen individually. Due to their circulation around the planet, the rings appear to be continuous, although both the surface of the planet and the stars shine through the rings of Saturn, for example. The rings are located in close proximity to the planet, where large satellites cannot exist.
| |
1. Earth is a planet in the solar system§ 2. Planets of the terrestrial group. earth-moon system
