Remember:
what is religion? When did the first religions appear? What are the characteristics of world religions?
Religion has a special place in the sphere of spiritual culture. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of all things into the earthly and heavenly worlds, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion implies the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between man and God (or other supernatural forces), the worship of these forces, the possibility of human interaction with them.
Why do people believe in the supernatural? Researchers of the past explained this, for example, by fear of the unpredictability and power of nature or the deep ignorance of most people, the mythological nature of mass consciousness. Do these characteristics apply to modern society? Philosophers, culturologists, sociologists, psychologists give different answers to this question. But it is obvious that religion retains its positions even at the post-industrial stage of development of society, since it performs socially significant functions, which we will consider below.
RELIGION AS A FORM OF CULTURE
Religion is one of the universal cultural mechanisms for regulating human activity: through a system of cult actions, it organizes everyday life, in the process of mastering the dogma, it forms a worldview, encourages a person to think about the meaning of his own existence.
The following elements are usually distinguished in the structure of religion: religious consciousness, religious cult and religions oznye organizations.
Several levels of religious consciousness can be identified: massive religious consciousness, in which the emotional component usually predominates, and rationally formalized consciousness, implying an understanding of the content of the doctrine. An even higher level of religious consciousness - theology (theology), within the framework of which the dogma is not only mastered, but also broadcast, interpreted in relation to the requirements of the time, protected from heresies.
Modern religious scholars identify a number of essential characteristics of religious consciousness.
The first of them - conviction in existence object Comrade 9 possessing supernatural properties. From the course of history, you remember that such properties were endowed, for example, with the forces of nature (sun, wind, rain, thunder, etc.), individual fetish objects, the souls of ancestors. In developed religious systems, especially in world religions, the main object of religious worship is God, who revealed his existence to man. The important thing is that the world of the sacred for the believer is real, it does not belong to the realm of fantasy.
Next characteristic - conviction in real ti contact With objects religious worship. This contact, as a rule, appears to the believer as two-way. The deity in one way or another affects the fate of individuals and entire nations, but the believer also has certain channels of communication with the world of the supernatural - iconic actions (prayer, sacrifice, etc.).
Another one important trait religious consciousness - refuge day in dependencies human fate from will God stva, presenting certain requirements to behavior nyu human and able attract to responsibility per committed. A person's experience of his dependence can take diametrically opposite forms: from animal fear, forcing to obedience, to enlightened humility as a result of a person's awareness of his own imperfection, the limitations of his capabilities. Religion also involves the establishment of good relations between a person and objects of worship, which make it possible to propitiate the deity, and in case of violation of divine will, compensate for disobedience by repentance or sacrifice.
Main organizational forms religions are church and sects. The church is, as a rule, a hierarchical religious organization of the clergy and believers, based on the commonality of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that disagree with the dominant church.
THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY
The place and significance of religion in society are determined by the functions it performs, which include regulatory, educational, worldview, compensatory, communicative, integration, cultural.
Undoubtedly, the most important function of religion is re gyrating behavior individuals, social groups. Reg-
The lative function of religion is based on the accumulated moral experience of many generations of people, expressed in a concise form, for example, in the commandments, moral canons of various religions. Religion not only establishes a certain framework for human freedom, but also encourages him to assimilate certain positive moral values, worthy behavior, and this manifests the connection between the regulatory and educational functions.
ideological function religion realizes due to the presence in it of a system of views that reflect the picture of the world, the essence of man and his place in the world.
Compensatory function It manifests itself in the fact that religion relieves the social and mental stress of a person, compensates for the shortcomings or deficiency of secular communication with religious communication. This function is especially clearly realized in prayer and repentance, during which a person passes from depression, spiritual discomfort to a state of relief, calm, and a surge of strength. At the same time, some scholars consider religious compensation an imaginary removal of contradictions, since the true causes of a person's mental and social discomfort are not eliminated.
Religion does the same communicative function, as a means of communication for believers. This communication unfolds on two levels: in the plane of dialogue with God and the "celestials", as well as in contact with other believers. Communication is carried out primarily through cult actions.
From the course of domestic and foreign history, you know many examples of how religion can act factor integration societies, - it is enough to recall the role of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, for example, St. Sergius of Radonezh, in the unification of Russian lands, the fight against invaders. By directing and uniting the efforts of individuals and social groups, religion contributes to social stability or the establishment of something new - let us recall, for example, the role of Protestantism in the development of bourgeois society. However, religious integration has a dual character: on the one hand, religion brings together, on the other hand, it separates, as exemplified by numerous religious wars and conflicts.
cultural function is that religion preserves and transmits the social experience of mankind, being an integral part of the culture of human society.
WORLD RELIGIONS
World religions cover a huge number of believers. According to sociologists, about half of the world's population are adherents of any of the three world religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. It should be noted that representatives of all world religions live in the Russian Federation.
Buddhism - the oldest world religion, the most common in China, Thailand, Burma, Japan, Korea and other countries of Southeast Asia. Russian centers of Buddhism are located in Buryatia, Kalmykia and the Republic of Tuva.
Buddhism is based on the doctrine of four noble truths: everything in human life is suffering - birth, life, old age, death, any attachment, etc.; the cause of suffering lies in the presence of desires in a person, including the desire to live; the cessation of suffering is associated with liberation from desires; to achieve this goal, it is necessary to adhere to the eightfold path of salvation, including the assimilation of the four noble truths, accepting them as a life program, refraining from words that are not related to the moral goal, not harming the living, turning true actions into a way of life, constant self-control, renunciation of the world, spiritual self-immersion. Following this path leads a person to nirvana - a state of absence, overcoming suffering.
The strictness of Buddhist morality and the complexity of the technique by which one can reach nirvana led to the identification of two paths of salvation - Hinayana ("narrow vehicle"), accessible only to monks, and Mahayana ("wide vehicle"), following which ordinary lay people can act, saving other people and yourself. It should also be noted that Buddhism is easily combined with national religions, such as Confucianism and Taoism in China or Shintoism in Japan.
Christianity is the second largest religion in the world. From the course of history, you know that there are three main currents of Christianity: Catholicism, orthodoxy and Protestantism.
The Bible is the main source of the Christian faith. It includes the Old Testament, common to the Jews (the religion of the Jewish people, in which Christ is recognized as only one of the messiahs) and Christians, and the New Testament, which consists of four Gospels (from ancient Greek euangelion - good news), as well as the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (Apocalypse).
Christianity is a religion of redemption and salvation. Christians believe in the merciful love of the triune God for sinful humanity, for the sake of whose salvation the Son of God Jesus Christ was sent into the world, who became man and died on the cross. The idea of the God-Man-Savior is central to Christianity. The believer must follow the teachings of Christ in order to partake of salvation.
The political development of the Roman Empire in the III-IV centuries. n. e., its division into Western and Eastern led to a gradual isolation Western and Eastern hri Stian churches with centers in Rome and Constantinople, whose disagreements accumulated over the centuries, which led to a break between them in 1054. What are the fundamental dogmatic differences between the churches? The Catholic Church claims that the Holy Spirit comes from both God the Father and God the Son. The Eastern Church recognizes the procession of the Holy Spirit only from God the Father. The Roman Catholic Church proclaims the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, her God's choice for the role of the Mother of Jesus Christ and the ascension to heaven after death, hence the cult of the Madonna in Catholicism. The Orthodox Church does not accept the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith, and the Roman Catholic Church considers the Pope the vicar of God on earth, through whom God Himself speaks in relation to matters of religion. The Roman Catholic Church, along with heaven and hell, recognizes the existence of purgatory and the possibility of expiation of sins already on earth by acquiring a particle of the excess stock of good deeds performed by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, which the church "disposes" of.
In the countries of Western Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. The Reformation movement unfolded, leading to the separation of a significant part of Christians from the Catholic Church. A number of Christian Protestant churches sprang up, emerging from the authority of the Pope. The largest of them are Lutheran in (Germany and Baltic countries), Calvinism (Switzerland and the Netherlands), Anglican church (England). Protestants recognize the Holy Scripture (Bible) as the only source of faith and believe that each person will be rewarded according to his faith, regardless of the means of its external expression. Protestantism shifted the center of religious life from the church to the individual. Catholicism remained a strictly centralized religion. Of the European countries, Catholicism is most common in Italy, Spain, France, Poland, and Portugal. A significant number of Catholics live in Latin America. But in none of these countries is Catholicism the only religion.
Despite the division of Christianity into separate churches, they all have a common ideological basis. The world is gaining strength ecumenical traffic, striving for dialogue and rapprochement of all Christian churches.
In the religious life of modern Russia, all three directions of Christianity are active. The overwhelming majority of believers in our country are Orthodox. Orthodoxy is represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, various directions old believers, as well as religious sects. Catholicism also has a certain number of followers. Protestantism among the citizens of Russia is represented both by official churches, such as Lutheranism, and by sectarian organizations.
Islam - the latest world religion in terms of time, distributed mainly in the Arab states (Middle East and North Africa), in South and Southeast Asia (Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc.). A significant number of Muslims live in the Russian Federation. It is the second religion in terms of the number of adherents after Orthodoxy.
Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century BC. n. e., when the religious center of the Arab tribes was formed in Mecca and a movement arose for the veneration of the one supreme God-Allah. Here began the activity of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed).
Muslims believe that the one and all-powerful God - Allah - transmitted to people through the mouth of the Prophet Muhammad, through the mediation of the angel Jabrail, the holy book - the Koran, which is an indisputable authority in spiritual life, law, politics and economic activity. There are five most important instructions of the Koran that every Muslim is obliged to fulfill: knowledge of the creed; five times prayer (prayer); observance of fasting W times the entire month of Ramadan; distribution of alms; making a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Since the Koran contains prescriptions relating to all aspects of Muslim life, the criminal and civil law of Islamic states was based, and in a number of countries is still based on religious law - Sharia.
The formation of Islam took place under the noticeable influence of more ancient religions of Middle Eastern origin - Judaism and Christianity. Therefore, a number of biblical personalities are found in the Koran (the archangels Gabriel, Michael, etc., the prophets Abraham, David, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus), the sacred book for the Jews - the Torah, as well as the Gospel are mentioned.
The expansion of Islam was facilitated by the conquest of the Arabs, the Turks, who marched under the banner of religion. In the XX century. in Tour-
Egypt, and a number of other states, reforms were carried out to limit the scope of religious laws, to separate church from state, and to introduce secular education. But in some Muslim countries (for example, Iran, Afghanistan) Islamic fundamentalism is extremely strong, which requires the organization of all spheres of life on the principles of the Koran and Sharia.
In modern Russia, Islam is widespread among the inhabitants of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, the republics of the North Caucasus, with the exception of the population of North Ossetia-Alania, whose inhabitants predominantly profess Orthodoxy. Among the Muslims are representatives of the numerous Azerbaijani diaspora. Organizationally, the Muslims of Russia are headed by the Central Spiritual Board of Muslims of Russia and European CIS countries and the Council of Muftis of Russia.
PRINCIPLE OF FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE
AT Currently, a civil society is being formed in Russia, therefore the problem of interaction and dialogue between representatives of various religious denominations is extremely relevant. (interfaith dialog) with each other and with states.
The legal basis for resolving all emerging contradictions and problems can be compliance with principle freedom conscience. You know that conscience is the most important ethical category, reflecting a person's ability to exercise moral self-control, to formulate and present moral requirements to his behavior, and to achieve their fulfillment. In our time, freedom of conscience is understood as the right of a person to independently form his own worldview and openly express it in social interactions, without prejudice to the freedom of other people and society as a whole. In essence, freedom of conscience is now understood as the right of a person to the autonomy of spiritual Life. But this principle was not always interpreted so broadly - in societies with a predominantly religious worldview, freedom of conscience could be expressed only in freedom of religion, the struggle for which went on for many centuries.
The legislation of the Russian Federation, in accordance with international legal acts, guarantees the implementation of the principle of freedom of conscience. Let's consider some of its aspects.
Principle branches religious organizations from state donations provides, on the one hand, non-interference of the state in the person of its bodies and individual officials
persons in the internal life of religious organizations, the lack of state funding and propaganda of individual organizations, on the other hand, the non-interference of religious organizations in matters of public administration.
All religions on the territory of the country are equal, there is no state, official religion - the state neutral in issues religious her ry.
Secular character state education implies, firstly, equal access for representatives of all religious denominations and atheists to receive state-guaranteed education, secondly, the prohibition of any form of religious or atheistic propaganda in educational institutions, especially at mandatory lessons, and thirdly, the upbringing of the younger generation in the spirit of tolerance for manifestations of dissent.
The state also guarantees all believers possible ness free send mine cult (if the activity of a religious organization is not recognized by the court as socially dangerous and is not prohibited), and if military service is contrary to their religious beliefs, believers liable for military service are given the opportunity to undergo alternative civilian service.
Si! Main concepts: religion, religious consciousness, world religions, the principle of freedom of conscience.
ill Terms: religious cult, religious organizations, interfaith dialogue.
Test yourself
1) What is religion? 2) What elements of religion do scientists single out? 3) What are the characteristics of religious consciousness? 4) What is the significance of religion in the life of society? 5) What are the main ideas of each of the world religions? 6) What is the essence of the principle of freedom of conscience? How is it implemented in the legislation of the Russian Federation?
Think, Discuss, Do
1. The famous sociologist P. A. Sorokin, based on the analysis of hundreds of thousands of paintings and sculptures created from the beginning of the Middle Ages to the 30s. 20th century and exhibited in the museums of Western Europe, concluded that there was a steady significant reduction in the number of works based on the religious perception of the world. Based on the knowledge of the humanities, explain the reasons for this phenomenon. Confirm the correctness of the sociologist's conclusion with concrete examples.
Since ancient times, scientists have traced this direction
leniye of social protest as theomachism. Speak out
several hypotheses about the causes of such
foot movement.
Gather information about the activities of religious organizations
organizations in your area.
Read an excerpt from an article by an American sociologist of the 20th century. Robert Bell's Sociology of Religion.
So we inevitably come to the conclusion that religion is not just a means of coping with melancholy and despair. Rather, it is a symbolic model that shapes human experience, both cognitive and emotional. Religion knows how not only to moderate melancholy and despair, but also to cause them.
Man is a problem-solving animal. What to do and what to think when other ways of solving problems fail is the realm of religion. Religion deals not so much with specific problems as with the general problems of human nature, and among specific problems, those that are most directly adjacent to this general problem, such as the mystery of death. Religion deals not so much with the experience of specific limits as with the limit in general ... But even for the most primitive savage, the field of religion is something different, although very close, something that can be heard, but cannot be seen, and if one can see , then briefly. Transmitted religious symbols also tell us meanings when we are not asking, help us hear when we are not listening, help us see when we are not looking. It is this ability of religious symbols to form meaning and feeling at a relatively high level of generalization beyond the concrete contexts of experience that gives them such power in human life, both private and public.
Bell R. American sociology. Perspectives. Problems. Methods. -
M.. 1972. - S. 266 - 278.
IV Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What, according to the author, are the possible origins of religious faith? 2) How does the author characterize religion? 3) Give some examples illustrating the symbolic nature of religion. 4) Using a fragment of R. Bell's article, your knowledge and life experience, give some explanations for the power of religion in human life.
§ 34. Place of art in spiritual culture
Remember:
what is culture? What are the ways of its development? What are the causes, directions and consequences of the dialogue of cultures?
Despite the fact that art has existed for many millennia and has been actively studied by researchers - philosophers, culturologists, art historians, art historians, even the question of its origin is not clear. Thus, a number of scientists derive art, firstly, from the need of all living beings to attract the attention of the opposite sex with the help of any jewelry in order to procreate, and secondly, from the need to use the energy of subconscious drives for other purposes. There is an opinion that the origins of art lie in the presence of energy not wasted in labor activity, as well as the need for some “training” in order to assimilate standard social roles. Art is also sometimes associated with various types of magic woven into the daily activities of primitive man. In addition, it is considered by a number of scientists as a "child of labor" - the practically useful qualities of objects become the object of artistic display and aesthetic pleasure. Many modern researchers associate art with the mythological assimilation of reality, which contains cognitive, magical, playful, subject-activity aspects.
WHAT IS ART
You know that within the framework of culture, a person forms a versatile picture of the surrounding world: science cognizes the world through the achievement of truth, morality reflects it in the categories of good and evil, and art represents objects in an artistic and figurative form. It allows you to see the world through a prism imagery, where reality is bizarrely combined with fiction, giving a person the opportunity to create these images and clothe them in a rational form. Art does not set itself the goal of revealing the patterns of development of nature and society or solving material and practical problems. Like science, art seeks to reveal the significant properties of objects and phenomena, but, unlike science, it presents these characteristics in the form concrete sensually- visual images.
The term "art" has many meanings. Firstly, art as skill, ability, dexterity, for example, in art lessons
Torii, you have spoken more than once about the art, that is, the craftsmanship, of the artisans of Ancient Russia. Secondly, art understood as specific view spiritually- practical master eniya reality and aesthetic relations to her. It is in the second meaning that it is one of the components of the spiritual culture of society.
What are your poems about? - I don't know, brother. |
You read them when the hunt comes. !
Poems are alive - they themselves speak, \
And they are not talking about something, but something. I
S. Ya. Marshak ")
DISPUTES ABOUT THE ESSENCE OF ART
For many centuries, cultural theorists have been trying to develop an understanding of the essence of art.
From Antiquity to the present day, there is an understanding of art as an imitation, a reflection of nature. Its supporters consider art in connection with cognition, often presenting aesthetic activity as the lowest link in human cognitive activity. So, for the philosopher Plato, art is an imitation of the world of sensual objects, each of which is a copy of an idea, that is, the artist, in fact, creates a copy of a copy - “shadows of shadows”. Aristotle also based art on imitative ability, believed that imitation is a cognitive ability. Aristotle introduced the concept of catharsis - the purification of the human soul from base passions through contemplation. Art, according to ancient authors, certainly has an element of pleasure. Its main task is to educate the mind: "As a teacher instructs children on the mind, so people are already adults - poets."
The attitude to art as an imitation of nature is also characteristic of the Renaissance. The reflection of nature and its greatest creation - man - is the main task of art. Achieving an ideal external likelihood was ensured by accurate knowledge of anatomy and mathematics. On the other hand, renaissance humanism is a statement of the boundlessness of the creative potential of man.
In the era of classicism, it is not the naturalistic reproduction of nature and man that comes to the fore, but the reflection of human types. The educational component of art becomes especially relevant. In the Age of Enlightenment and later, supporters of the concept of reflection consider art as a kind of "school of morality." The artist has a more subtle than usual
ny man, perception of reality, so he is able to see and accurately display reality. An impartial reflection of life carries a huge educational potential, it can also act as a sentence to certain social realities.
Thus, even within the framework of the concept of reflection (imitation) of reality, the assessment of the social significance of art has changed significantly over time - from secondary education, blindly copying individual objects of the surrounding world, to a kind of conscience of society.
According to the supporters of the theory of self-expression, art is a boundless sphere of manifestation of the creative potential of the individual. It seems to be a kind of cipher of the emotional experiences of the artist, who splashes out his emotions, desires, complexes, admires them, justifies and compensates for them in the world of illusions he created. We can say that art from this point of view is a kind of artist's confession, based on the unity of people's spiritual experience. It is not surprising that the reader, the viewer is "infected" with the emotions of the author. With such an understanding of the essence of art, non-aesthetic, often everyday experiences of a person, creator or viewer are brought to the fore, and artistic images are only a means of expressing them.
The sign-symbolic concept of art considers it not as an open system of human interaction with the outside world, but as a closed or autonomous sphere of activity, and also as a way of connecting a person with another, otherworldly world. According to the supporters of this point of view, a work of art is a kind of cipher that carries information “encoded” by the creator. For example, only in a sign-symbolic context can iconography be understood - a system of symbols with which the creators tried to reflect the object of their religious veneration. "Reading" the icon requires liberation from stereotypes of perception - in its space there is no direct perspective, the depth familiar to us, the proportions are changed, the temporal relationships of events are violated.
ART FUNCTIONS
The variety of forms of aesthetic assimilation of reality gives rise to a variety of functions of art, which include cognitive, informational, communicative, valuable- orienting, brought up body, compensatory, aesthetic etc. Problem
correlation of the functions of art with each other has not been fully resolved so far. If we talk about the modeling of a special artistic reality by the creator as the basis of art, then the aesthetic function becomes fundamental. There is also a point of view according to which art, inasmuch as it reflects reality, equally performs all these functions. Art is an integral element of cognitive activity, offering unexpected turns of events, combining the incompatible, stimulating the imagination.
Let us dwell in more detail on the content of some of the functions of art. Cognitive function art is closely related to informational. Art is very informative. The creations reflect the cultural, historical, national, religious and other features of the era, the people, as well as the peculiarities of the worldview of the creator himself. Communicative function art cannot be reduced only to the communication of people about a particular work or to the contact of the author and the viewer through an artistic image. A work of art is always ambiguous, it carries redundant information, the meaning of which requires a phased interpretation. Paradoxically, art to some extent complicates the daily process of communication between people, forcing them to think about universal values. But in this way it helps to Feel the enduring value of human interaction, communication in the broadest sense.
value- orientation function manifests itself in two ways: on the one hand, works of art are cultural values, that is, they acquire a special social and personal significance; on the other hand, the content of specific works orients people in the existing system of social norms and values, and contributes to the choice of life guidelines. Close in content to the value-orienting function is the educational function. Art always involves the impact on the worldview and activities of people. The participation of a person in the process of artistic creation, contact with works of art also allows, to some extent, as a rule, illusory compensation for social and spiritual problems, negative experiences of a person.
Aesthetic function of art even ancient thinkers attached paramount importance. Art cleanses our soul, enlightens, influences our emotions, expanding their subject. It stimulates the search for activities corresponding to these emotions, turns us to self-knowledge.
THE STRUCTURE OF ART
Kinds art can be distinguished on environment, material, in which artistic images are realized. These are sound in music, lines and color palette in graphics and painting, stone (metal) and form in sculpture and architecture, movement in dance. Each environment, material requires specific expressive and technological means, its own "language". This is evidenced, for example, by the fact that the content of works of one type of art cannot be adequately conveyed by means of another type.
The famous German philosopher F. Schelling at the beginning of the 19th century. proposed a classification of the main types of art, which remains important today. He divided the arts into real and ideal. Real - music, painting, plastic (architecture and sculpture). Ideal - literature and poetry, and these types, using the word as the freest and richest means of expressing artistic ideas, he put ahead of the real arts, and generally recognized poetry as the highest form of artistic creativity, expressing the very essence of art.
There are other classifications of art forms, for example, there are spatial, or plastic, kinds, which include architecture, all types of fine arts, artistic photography. For these types of art, the spatial construction of objects is essential in revealing the artistic concept. The second group includes temporary or dynamos cal kinds - Literature and music, the basis of which is a composition unfolding in time. The third group consists spatially- dynamic her dy, which are also called synthetic or spectacles nym, - theater, cinema, choreography, circus, etc.
It is obvious that the creation of a universal classification of art forms is impossible, not only because of a significant number of reasons, but also because art is developing dynamically - more and more new types appear. However, each historical epoch brings to the fore those types of art that are most capable of expressing the spirit of the time.
Art can also be classified according to the sociological principle, highlighting the elite, folk and mass. We will look at them in the next paragraph.
Each art form has historically developed its own system genres. The concept of "genre" generalizes the specific properties of the artistic form and content of a significant group of works of art of any historical
which era, people or the world as a whole. Foundations for There are many genres, so we will only mention a few of them. So, from the course of literature, you know that according to the way of reflecting reality, epos, lyrics and drama stand out. In the visual arts, the selection of genres can be based on the specific features of the subject of the image: portrait, still life, landscape, battle or historical picture. Sometimes genres are determined by the nature of the image: caricature or caricature. In music, genres differ, firstly, by the way of performance - vocal and instrumental; secondly, in terms of content - lyrical, epic and dramatic; thirdly, according to the place and conditions of performance - theatrical, concert, chamber, etc.
The system of genres of art is dynamically developing - new genres appear, the proportion of traditional ones changes. Undoubtedly, there is a modern trend towards erasing boundaries, synthesis of various types and genres of art.
MODERN ART
As you know, contemporary art is very diverse, it lacks any strict canons and rules. Works of contemporary art are often created within the framework of a sign-symbolic concept. According to the Spanish thinker and publicist X. Ortega y Gaset (1883 -1955), the development of art follows the path of "dehumanization", i.e., overcoming the creator's desire for unlimited self-expression, splashing out their emotional states. Obviously, the artist cannot depict nature or man in all their inconsistency and diversity - only individual, individually limited prints of this inexhaustible wealth are available to him. The creator does not have to confess or preach, but by constructing his illusory world, he can become truly free and omnipotent - by means of art he changes his own and ours, the viewer's, vision of the world, directs aesthetic and non-aesthetic experiences in the perception of works of art. The artist has the necessary tool in his hands - a metaphor (an artistic technique associated with transferring the properties of one object to another on the basis of a common attribute for them) - a kind of synthesis of thought and image that allows you to capture and express the various aspects of life, bringing us closer to understanding the infinity of the world of human possibilities .
AT 1959 in New York, the first happy- \
ning - an action played out by the artist in public
ke without a specific scenario. A man beating a live chicken on the strings of a piano, students licking a car body - the artistic meaning, value and outcome of the action were determined by random passers-by.
Thus, contemporary art is a kind of moving Ferris wheel with a constantly changing viewpoint. In fact, in contemporary art, the sign component (language, a set of expressive means) turns from a means into the essence of an artistic image. Artistic images refer the viewer, the reader, not to reality itself, but to each other, building a complex hierarchy of hidden meanings. The very process of perceiving a work of art turns into a "decoding" of sign-symbolic combinations. At the same time, the sign-symbolic nature of contemporary art makes it truly international, overcoming the limitations of the communicative possibilities of national cultures.
YASH Main concepts: art. SHSHTerms: types of art, genres of art, sign, symbol.
Test yourself
1) What is art? What are its distinguishing features? 2) What assumptions do researchers make about the causes of the emergence of art? 3) How did the thinkers of different historical eras understand the essence of art? 4) Name and briefly describe the main functions of art. 5) List the main types and genres of art.
Think, Discuss, Do
The famous saying figure franc
tsuz culture of the XX century. J. Cocteau: “I know that art
absolutely necessary, but I don't know why." Lead
several explanations of why art is needed.
A scientist who studied the circle of the most active and
competent connoisseurs and connoisseurs of art, made you
waters that art is especially fond of those “who do not
good life." Guess what function of art
as the main one was singled out by the scientist. Justify your answer.
Confirm or refute on several examples of right
here is his output.
A number of art historians noted the appearance at the turn
XX-XXI centuries mid-cult - a kind of synthesis of high
mass culture, which absorbed the best features of both
types. Guess what features they might have.
works of art of midcult.
Prepare short messages: a) about modern
directions of Western art; b) about outstanding
purveyors of contemporary domestic art.
The most important trend in the development of modern art
property is a synthesis of types and styles. Bring a few
specific examples of such a synthesis. Express your guess
information about the causes of this trend.
Read a fragment of the thoughts of the famous Russian writer of the Silver Age Vyacheslav Ivanov about the mythology of art.
In the circle of symbolic art, the symbol naturally reveals itself as the potency and germ of myth. The organic course of development turns symbolism into myth-making. The inner necessary path of symbolism is predestined and already foreshadowed. But a myth is not a free fiction: a true myth is a postulate of collective self-determination, and therefore not fiction at all, and by no means an allegory or personification, but a hypostasis of some essence or energy. [...] For the symbol is also super-individual in nature, which is why it has the power to turn the most intimate silence of the individual mystical soul into an organ of universal unanimity and unanimity, like a word, and more powerful than an ordinary word. Thus, art, in its inclination towards myth-making, gravitates toward the type of great, popular art. [...]
The true content of an artistic image is always wider than its subject matter. The creation of a genius tells us something different, deeper, more beautiful, more tragic, more divine than what it directly expresses. In this sense it is always symbolic; but the fact that it is the volume of years by its symbol remains immense for the mind and inexpressible for the human word. In order for a work of art to have a complete aesthetic effect, this incomprehensibility and immeasurability of its final meaning must be felt. [...]
Ivanov AT. And. Forebodings and premonitions / / By the stars. - St. Petersburg, 1909. - S. 196-197, 200, 201.
Questions and assignments to the source. 1) How do you understand the connection between the symbol and the myth indicated by the author? 2) Explain why "a myth is not free fiction: a true myth is a postulate of collective self-determination, and therefore not fiction at all, and by no means an allegory or personification." 3) What, according to V. Ivanov, is the symbolism of art manifested in? 4) Using several examples, show the connection between mythology, as V. Ivanov understands it, and art. 5) Manifestations of what functions of art are indicated in the text?
12-L N Bogolyubov, 11 cells shLl
RELIGION AS A FORM OF CULTURE
The role of religion in society
Remember:
what is religion? When did the first religions appear? What are the characteristics of world religions?
Religion has a special place in the sphere of spiritual culture. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of everything that exists into the earthly and heavenly worlds, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion implies the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between man and God (or other supernatural forces), the worship of these forces, the possibility of human interaction with them.
Why do people believe in the supernatural? Researchers of the past explained this, for example, by fear of the unpredictability and power of nature or the deep ignorance of most people, the mythological nature of mass consciousness. Do these characteristics apply to modern society? Philosophers, culturologists, sociologists, psychologists give different answers to this question. But it is obvious that religion retains its positions even at the post-industrial stage of development of society, since it performs socially significant functions, which we will consider below.
Religion is one of the universal cultural mechanisms for regulating human activity: through a system of cult actions, it organizes everyday life, in the process of mastering the dogma, it forms a worldview, encourages a person to think about the meaning of his own existence.
The following elements are usually distinguished in the structure of religion: religious consciousness, religious cult and religious organizations.
Several levels of religious consciousness can be identified: mass religious consciousness, in which the emotional component usually predominates, and rationally formed consciousness, implying an understanding of the content of the doctrine. An even higher level of religious consciousness - theology (theology), within the framework of which the dogma is not only mastered, but also broadcast, interpreted in relation to the requirements of the time, protected from heresies.
Modern religious scholars identify a number of essential characteristics of religious consciousness.
The first of them - belief in the existence of objects 9 with supernatural properties. From the course of history, you remember that, for example, the forces of nature (sun, wind, rain, thunder, etc.), individual fetish objects, and the souls of ancestors were endowed with similar properties. In developed religious systems, especially in world religions, the main object of religious worship is God, who revealed his existence to man. The important thing is that the world of the sacred for the believer is real, it does not belong to the realm of fantasy.
Next characteristic - conviction in the reality of contact with the objects of religious worship. This contact, as a rule, appears to the believer as two-way. The deity in one way or another affects the fate of individuals and entire nations, but the believer also has certain channels of communication with the world of the supernatural - cult activities(prayer, sacrifice, etc.).
Another important feature of religious consciousness is the conviction that human destiny depends on the will of the deity, who makes certain demands on human behavior and is able to hold accountable for what he has done. A person's experience of his dependence can take diametrically opposite forms: from animal fear, forcing to obedience, to enlightened humility as a result of a person's awareness of his own imperfection, the limitations of his capabilities. Religion also involves the establishment of good relations between a person and objects of worship, which make it possible to propitiate the deity, and in case of violation of divine will, compensate for disobedience by repentance or sacrifice.
Main organizational forms religions are church and sects. The church is, as a rule, a hierarchical religious organization of the clergy and believers, based on the commonality of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that disagree with the dominant church.
§ 33. The role of religion in the life of societyRemember:
what is religion? When did the first religions appear? What are the characteristics of world religions?
Religion has a special place in the sphere of spiritual culture. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of all things into the earthly and heavenly worlds, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion implies the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between man and God (or other supernatural forces), the worship of these forces, the possibility of human interaction with them.
Why do people believe in the supernatural? Researchers of the past explained this, for example, by fear of the unpredictability and power of nature or the deep ignorance of most people, the mythological nature of mass consciousness. Do these characteristics apply to modern society? Philosophers, culturologists, sociologists, psychologists give different answers to this question. But it is obvious that religion retains its positions even at the post-industrial stage of development of society, since it performs socially significant functions, which we will consider below.
RELIGION AS A FORM OF CULTURE
Religion is one of the universal cultural mechanisms for regulating human activity: through a system of cult actions, it organizes everyday life, in the process of mastering the dogma, it forms a worldview, encourages a person to think about the meaning of his own existence.
The following elements are usually distinguished in the structure of religion: religious consciousness, religious cult and religionsoznye organizations.
Several levels of religious consciousness can be identified: mass religious consciousness, in which the emotional component usually predominates, and rationallyformed consciousness, implying an understanding of the content of the doctrine. An even higher level of religious consciousness - theology (theology), within the framework of which the dogma is not only mastered, but also broadcast, interpreted in relation to the requirements of the time, protected from heresies.
Modern religious scholars identify a number of essential characteristics of religious consciousness.
The first of them - belief in the existence of objectsComrade 9 with supernatural properties. From the course of history, you remember that such properties were endowed, for example, with the forces of nature (sun, wind, rain, thunder, etc.), individual fetish objects, the souls of ancestors. In developed religious systems, especially in world religions, the main object of religious worship is God, who revealed his existence to man. The important thing is that the world of the sacred for the believer is real, it does not belong to the realm of fantasy.
Next characteristic - belief in realityti contact with objects of religious worship. This contact, as a rule, appears to the believer as two-way. The deity in one way or another affects the fate of individuals and entire nations, but the believer also has certain channels of communication with the world of the supernatural - cult activities(prayer, sacrifice, etc.).
Another one an important feature of religious consciousness is belief reality depending on human fate on the will of a deity that makes certain requirements for behavior niya person and able to hold accountable fordeed. A person's experience of his dependence can take diametrically opposite forms: from animal fear, forcing to obedience, to enlightened humility as a result of a person's awareness of his own imperfection, the limitations of his capabilities. Religion also involves the establishment of good relations between a person and objects of worship, which make it possible to propitiate the deity, and in case of violation of divine will, compensate for disobedience by repentance or sacrifice.
Main organizational forms religions are church and sects. The church is, as a rule, a hierarchical religious organization of the clergy and believers, based on the commonality of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that disagree with the dominant church.
THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY
The place and significance of religion in society are determined by the functions it performs, which include regulatory, educational, worldview, compensatory, communicative, integration, cultural.
Undoubtedly, the most important function of religion is reregulation of behavior individuals, social groups. Reg-
The lative function of religion is based on the accumulated moral experience of many generations of people, expressed in a concise form, for example, in the commandments, moral canons of various religions. Religion not only establishes a certain framework for human freedom, but also encourages him to assimilate certain positive moral values, worthy behavior, and this manifests the connection between the regulatory and educational functions.
worldview function religion realizes due to the presence in it of a system of views that reflect the picture of the world, the essence of man and his place in the world.
Compensatory function It manifests itself in the fact that religion relieves the social and mental stress of a person, compensates for the shortcomings or deficiency of secular communication with religious communication. This function is especially clearly realized in prayer and repentance, during which a person passes from depression, spiritual discomfort to a state of relief, calm, and a surge of strength. At the same time, some scholars consider religious compensation an imaginary removal of contradictions, since the true causes of a person's mental and social discomfort are not eliminated.
Religion does the same communication function, as a means of communication for believers. This communication unfolds on two levels: in the plane of dialogue with God and the "celestials", as well as in contact with other believers. Communication is carried out primarily through cult actions.
From the course of domestic and foreign history, you know many examples of how religion can act social integration factor,- it is enough to recall the role of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, for example, St. Sergius of Radonezh, in the unification of Russian lands, the fight against invaders. By directing and uniting the efforts of individuals and social groups, religion contributes to social stability or the establishment of something new - let us recall, for example, the role of Protestantism in the development of bourgeois society. However, religious integration has a dual character: on the one hand, religion brings together, on the other hand, it separates, as exemplified by numerous religious wars and conflicts.
cultural function is that religion preserves and transmits the social experience of mankind, being an integral part of the culture of human society.
WORLD RELIGIONS
World religions cover a huge number of believers. According to sociologists, about half of the world's population are adherents of any of the three world religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. It should be noted that representatives of all world religions live in the Russian Federation.
Buddhism- the oldest world religion, the most common in China, Thailand, Burma, Japan, Korea and other countries of Southeast Asia. Russian centers of Buddhism are located in Buryatia, Kalmykia and the Republic of Tuva.
Buddhism is based on the doctrine of four noble truths: everything in human life is suffering - birth, life, old age, death, any attachment, etc.; the cause of suffering lies in the presence of desires in a person, including the desire to live; the cessation of suffering is associated with liberation from desires; to achieve this goal, it is necessary to adhere to the eightfold path of salvation, including the assimilation of the four noble truths, accepting them as a life program, refraining from words that are not related to the moral goal, not harming the living, turning true actions into a way of life, constant self-control, renunciation of the world, spiritual self-immersion. Following this path leads a person to nirvana - a state of absence, overcoming suffering.
The strictness of Buddhist morality and the complexity of the technique by which one can reach nirvana led to the identification of two paths of salvation - Hinayana ("narrow vehicle"), accessible only to monks, and Mahayana ("wide vehicle"), following which ordinary lay people can act, saving other people and yourself. It should also be noted that Buddhism is easily combined with national religions, such as Confucianism and Taoism in China or Shintoism in Japan.
Christianity is the second largest religion in the world. From the course of history, you know that there are three main currents of Christianity: Catholicism,orthodoxy and Protestantism.
The Bible is the main source of the Christian faith. It includes the Old Testament, common to the Jews (the religion of the Jewish people, in which Christ is recognized as only one of the messiahs) and Christians, and the New Testament, which consists of four Gospels (from ancient Greek euangelion - good news), as well as the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (Apocalypse).
Christianity is a religion of redemption and salvation. Christians believe in the merciful love of the triune God for sinful humanity, for the sake of whose salvation the Son of God Jesus Christ was sent into the world, who became man and died on the cross. The idea of the God-Man-Savior is central to Christianity. The believer must follow the teachings of Christ in order to partake of salvation.
The political development of the Roman Empire in the III-IV centuries. n. e., its division into Western and Eastern led to a gradual isolation Western and Eastern hriStian churches with centers in Rome and Constantinople, whose disagreements accumulated over the centuries, which led to a break between them in 1054. What are the fundamental dogmatic differences between the churches? The Catholic Church claims that the Holy Spirit comes from both God the Father and God the Son. The Eastern Church recognizes the procession of the Holy Spirit only from God the Father. The Roman Catholic Church proclaims the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, her God's choice for the role of the Mother of Jesus Christ and the ascension to heaven after death, hence the cult of the Madonna in Catholicism. The Orthodox Church does not accept the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith, and the Roman Catholic Church considers the Pope the vicar of God on earth, through whom God Himself speaks in relation to matters of religion. The Roman Catholic Church, along with heaven and hell, recognizes the existence of purgatory and the possibility of expiation of sins already on earth by acquiring a particle of the excess stock of good deeds performed by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, which the church "disposes" of.
In the countries of Western Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. The Reformation movement unfolded, leading to the separation of a significant part of Christians from the Catholic Church. A number of Christian Protestant churches sprang up, emerging from the authority of the Pope. The largest of them are Lutheranin(Germany and Baltic countries), Calvinism(Switzerland and the Netherlands), Anglican Church(England). Protestants recognize the Holy Scripture (Bible) as the only source of faith and believe that each person will be rewarded according to his faith, regardless of the means of its external expression. Protestantism shifted the center of religious life from the church to the individual. Catholicism remained a strictly centralized religion. Of the European countries, Catholicism is most common in Italy, Spain, France, Poland, and Portugal. A significant number of Catholics live in Latin America. But in none of these countries is Catholicism the only religion.
Despite the division of Christianity into separate churches, they all have a common ideological basis. The world is gaining strength ecumenical movement, striving for dialogue and rapprochement of all Christian churches.
In the religious life of modern Russia, all three directions of Christianity are active. The overwhelming majority of believers in our country are Orthodox. Orthodoxy is represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, various directions old believers, as well as religious sects. Catholicism also has a certain number of followers. Protestantism among the citizens of Russia is represented both by official churches, such as Lutheranism, and by sectarian organizations.
Islam- the latest world religion in terms of time, distributed mainly in the Arab states (Middle East and North Africa), in South and Southeast Asia (Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc.). A significant number of Muslims live in the Russian Federation. It is the second religion in terms of the number of adherents after Orthodoxy.
Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century BC. n. e., when the religious center of the Arab tribes was formed in Mecca and a movement arose for the veneration of the one supreme God-Allah. Here began the activity of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed).
Muslims believe that the one and all-powerful God - Allah - transmitted to people through the mouth of the Prophet Muhammad, through the mediation of the angel Jabrail, the holy book - the Koran, which is an indisputable authority in spiritual life, law, politics and economic activity. There are five most important instructions of the Koran that every Muslim is obliged to fulfill: knowledge of the creed; five times prayer (prayer); observance of fasting W times the entire month of Ramadan; distribution of alms; making a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Since the Koran contains prescriptions relating to all aspects of Muslim life, the criminal and civil law of Islamic states was based, and in a number of countries is still based on religious law - Sharia.
The formation of Islam took place under the noticeable influence of more ancient religions of Middle Eastern origin - Judaism and Christianity. Therefore, a number of biblical personalities are found in the Koran (the archangels Gabriel, Michael, etc., the prophets Abraham, David, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus), the sacred book for the Jews - the Torah, as well as the Gospel are mentioned.
The expansion of Islam was facilitated by the conquest of the Arabs, the Turks, who marched under the banner of religion. In the XX century. in Tour-
Egypt, and a number of other states, reforms were carried out to limit the scope of religious laws, to separate church from state, and to introduce secular education. But in some Muslim countries (for example, Iran, Afghanistan) Islamic fundamentalism is extremely strong, which requires the organization of all spheres of life on the principles of the Koran and Sharia.
In modern Russia, Islam is widespread among the inhabitants of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, the republics of the North Caucasus, with the exception of the population of North Ossetia-Alania, whose inhabitants predominantly profess Orthodoxy. Among the Muslims are representatives of the numerous Azerbaijani diaspora. Organizationally, the Muslims of Russia are headed by the Central Spiritual Board of Muslims of Russia and European CIS countries and the Council of Muftis of Russia.
PRINCIPLE OF FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE
AT Currently, a civil society is being formed in Russia, therefore the problem of interaction and dialogue between representatives of various religious denominations is extremely relevant. (interfaithdialog) with each other and with states.
The legal basis for resolving all emerging contradictions and problems can be compliance with principlefreedom of conscience. You know that conscience is the most important ethical category, reflecting a person's ability to exercise moral self-control, to formulate and present moral requirements to his behavior, and to achieve their fulfillment. In our time, freedom of conscience is understood as the right of a person to independently form his own worldview and openly express it in social interactions, without prejudice to the freedom of other people and society as a whole. In essence, freedom of conscience is now understood as the right of a person to the autonomy of spiritual Life. But this principle was not always interpreted so broadly - in societies with a predominantly religious worldview, freedom of conscience could be expressed only in freedom of religion, the struggle for which went on for many centuries.
The legislation of the Russian Federation, in accordance with international legal acts, guarantees the implementation of the principle of freedom of conscience. Let's consider some of its aspects.
The principle of separation of religious organizations from the statedonations provides, on the one hand, non-interference of the state in the person of its bodies and individual officials
persons in the internal life of religious organizations, the lack of state funding and propaganda of individual organizations, on the other hand, the non-interference of religious organizations in matters of public administration.
All religions on the territory of the country are equal, there is no state, official religion - the state neutral in matters of religiousry.
The secular nature of public education implies, firstly, equal access for representatives of all religious denominations and atheists to receive state-guaranteed education, secondly, the prohibition of any form of religious or atheistic propaganda in educational institutions, especially at mandatory lessons, and thirdly, the upbringing of the younger generation in the spirit of tolerance for manifestations of dissent.
The state also guarantees all believers possiblefreedom to practice your worship(if the activity of a religious organization is not recognized by the court as socially dangerous and is not prohibited), and if military service is contrary to their religious beliefs, believers liable for military service are given the opportunity to undergo alternative civilian service.
Si! Basic concepts: religion, religious consciousness, world religions, the principle of freedom of conscience.
ill Terms: religious cult, religious organizations, interfaith dialogue.
Test yourself
1) What is religion? 2) What elements of religion do scientists single out? 3) What are the characteristics of religious consciousness? 4) What is the significance of religion in the life of society? 5) What are the main ideas of each of the world religions? 6) What is the essence of the principle of freedom of conscience? How is it implemented in the legislation of the Russian Federation?
Think, Discuss, Do
1. The famous sociologist P. A. Sorokin, based on the analysis of hundreds of thousands of paintings and sculptures created from the beginning of the Middle Ages to the 30s. 20th century and exhibited in the museums of Western Europe, concluded that there was a steady significant reduction in the number of works based on the religious perception of the world. Based on the knowledge of the humanities, explain the reasons for this phenomenon. Confirm the correctness of the sociologist's conclusion with concrete examples.
Work with the source
Read an excerpt from an article by an American sociologist of the 20th century. Robert Bell's Sociology of Religion.
So we inevitably come to the conclusion that religion is not just a means of coping with melancholy and despair. Rather, it is a symbolic model that shapes human experience, both cognitive and emotional. Religion knows how not only to moderate melancholy and despair, but also to cause them.
Man is a problem-solving animal. What to do and what to think when other ways of solving problems fail is the realm of religion. Religion deals not so much with specific problems as with the general problems of human nature, and among specific problems, those that are most directly adjacent to this general problem, such as the mystery of death. Religion deals not so much with the experience of specific limits, but with the limit in general... But even for the most primitive savage, the realm of religion is something different, although very close, something that can be heard, but cannot be seen, and if one can see , then briefly. Transmitted religious symbols also tell us meanings when we are not asking, help us hear when we are not listening, help us see when we are not looking. It is this ability of religious symbols to form meaning and feeling at a relatively high level of generalization beyond the concrete contexts of experience that gives them such power in human life, both private and public.
Bell R. American sociology. Perspectives. Problems. Methods. -
M.. 1972. - S. 266 - 278.
IV Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What, according to the author, are the possible origins of religious faith? 2) How does the author characterize religion? 3) Give some examples illustrating the symbolic nature of religion. 4) Using a fragment of R. Bell's article, your knowledge and life experience, give some explanations for the power of religion in human life.
Goals and objectives: to introduce the essencereligion, show signs of religious
consciousness, the role of religion in the life of society,
the main ideas of each of the world religions,
explain the essence of the principle of freedom
conscience Religion is a worldview and attitude, as well as
appropriate behavior based on belief in
the existence of God or gods, the supernatural.
beliefs
Hallmarks of Religion
rituals
ethos (moral view of
position)
world
system
symbols
Basic approaches to the study of religion
confessional (religious, atheistic)
phenomenological (the study of religion as a phenomenon)
The attribute of religious consciousness is specifically
cultivated moral-emotional act - an act of faith.
Religious faith is:
1) from conviction (faith) in the truth of the foundations of religious
teachings;
2) knowledge of religious dogmas;
3) recognition and adherence to religious norms
morality;
4) obligatory observance of religious rites and
prescriptions. Religion structure:
religious consciousness;
religious cult;
religious organization.
There are two levels of religious consciousness:
religious ideology (a systematic presentation
religious dogmas);
religious psychology (religious ideas and
feelings of believers). A religious cult is a system of symbolic actions,
by which believers seek to influence
to the supernatural. To unite believers
there are religious organizations and a special group
people, the clergy, which leads the cult
actions.
The main organizational forms of religion
are the church and sects.
Church - hierarchical religious organization
clergy and faithful, based on commonality
religious dogma and cult system.
Sects are relatively small in number,
closed religious communities that do not share views
dominant church. The functions of religion are the various modes of its activity,
the nature and direction of the influence of religion on
individuals and society.
Functions of Religion
1. Worldview (religious worldview,
explanation of the world, nature, man, its meaning
existence, worldview, worldview,
attitude).
2. Compensatory (social inequality
compensated by equality in sinfulness, suffering;
human disunity is replaced by brotherhood in Christ, in
community, the impotence of man is compensated by the omnipotence
God.
3. Communicative (“communion with God” is the highest form of communication,
it occurs in cult activity, communication
believers
together). 4. Regulatory (regulator of people's behavior,
organizes the thoughts, aspirations and actions of people,
groups, communities through certain ideas, values,
attitudes, traditions).
5. Integrating (the direction of bringing people together, their
behavior, activity, thoughts, feelings, aspirations,
efforts of social groups and institutions in order to preserve
the stability of society, the stability of the individual, the general
religion).
6. Culture-transmitting (introducing a person to
cultural values and traditions of religious culture,
the development of writing, typography, art,
transmission of accumulated heritage from generation to
generation).
7. Legitimizing (legitimizing some
social orders, institutions, relations of norms,
samples from the point of view of the highest requirement - maxims, on
based on an assessment of certain phenomena and
a certain attitude is formed towards them). Initially, the object of worship was real
the existing item is a fetish. Then appears the totem plant or animal that the person considered his own.
ancestor and protector. Totemism is replaced by animism, a belief in the universal animation of nature.
Thus, in its development, religion
goes through four stages:
1) belief in spirits;
2) polytheism (polytheism) - belief in gods, higher
creatures similar to humans, but different from
him with power and immortality,
personifying all the forces of nature and
top management
various types of activities;
3) the transition from polytheism to monotheism
(monotheism);
4) the exit of a religious cult beyond one
people.
Religions of the world
World1. Christianity
-
orthodoxy
Catholicism
Protestantism
2. Islam
-
sunnism
Shiism
3. Buddhism
National
Hinduism
Sikhism
Shintoism
Judaism
Confucianism
tribal
Fetishism
totemism
ancestor cult
shamanism
Magic Signs of world religions:
1) a huge number of followers
(Christianity - about 1.4 billion, Islam - about
1 billion, Buddhism - about 350 million);
2) cosmopolitan character: these religions
go beyond individual
nationalities and states;
3) egalitarianism, preaching the national and
social equality;
4) propaganda activity. world religions
Buddhism
Christianity
Islam
- Hinayana
- Tantrism
- Lamaism
- mahayana
- orthodoxy
- Catholicism
- Protestantism
- Sunnism
- Shiism
- Kharijism Buddhism is the oldest of the world religions. It arose at the turn of VI-V
centuries BC e. in India, and then spread to the countries of Southeast Asia and
Far East.
Fundamentals of Buddhist doctrine:
suffering rules the world;
the cause of suffering is life itself with its passions and desires;
you can get away from suffering only by plunging into nirvana;
there is a way, a method by which he who knows the truth can
get rid of suffering and reach nirvana. Two paths of salvation: Hinayana ("narrow
chariot") and mahayama ("wide chariot").
The legendary founder of this religion Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha
(Enlightened One), developed the eight-step path to attain the truth and
approaching nirvana:
1) righteous faith;
2) true determination;
3) righteous speech;
4) righteous deeds;
5) a righteous life;
6) righteous thought;
7) righteous thoughts;
8) true contemplation.
The goal of Buddhism is not to gain immortality, but to get rid of the rebirth of one's
soul (from karma).
Lhasa. Potala Palace (Buddha Mountain)
For a long time, the palace was the residence of the Dalai Lamas.The complex includes more than 1000 rooms, sheltered
10,000 shrines and 20,000 statues.
Statue of Buddha Sakyamuni. Jkong in Lhasa.
The statue depicts the Buddha at the age of 16. A statuethe size of a person. Cast from 5 metals (gold, silver,
zinc, iron and copper), adorned with diamonds, rubies,
lapis lazuli, emerald. Buddhist symbol of worship. Jerusalem. Church of the Holy Sepulcher.
The construction of the temple began under the emperor
Constantine in 326. The temple was built over a cave
burial of Christ. 4 churches have rights to the temple: Roman Catholic, Jerusalem, Armenian and Coptic. Christianity appears in the I-II centuries. in a developed society with acute
social contradictions. Due to the availability of their dogmas
Christianity is the most widespread in the world.
The main provisions of the creed:
the original sinfulness of the human race (the original sin of Adam and Eve);
divine trinity: God the Father (creator), God the Son (Jesus Christ, Savior) and
God the Holy Spirit (personal experience of the confirmation and existence of God),
existing "inseparably, inseparably, but not merged";
the divine-human nature of Jesus Christ (the son of a mortal woman and God);
the suffering of Jesus and his death on the cross as atonement for human sins;
the resurrection of Jesus as a guarantee of the salvation of the immortal souls of the righteous;
belief in the existence of heaven for the righteous and hell for sinners;
faith in the second coming" of Jesus Christ for the judgment of the living and the dead,
the encouragement of the righteous and the punishment of sinners, the establishment of the Kingdom of God on
Earth;
the cult of suffering as a repetition of the Passion of the Lord;
commandment of love for all mankind, complete spiritual humility and
self-abasement.
The main branches of Christianity are:
1) Orthodoxy;
2) Catholicism;
3) Protestantism.
Entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher
In the courtyard of the templeleads low
gate. Rhinestone
when in the course of the yard
visible stone
anointing, on
which lay
body of christ
after removal from
cross. In the center of the hall stands
chapel (Edicule),
having two limits:
angel limit and
Life-Giving Coffin
Lord's cave (length
- 2 m, width-1.5 m).
In it is
embedded in the wall
marble headstone. Already
long centuries in the Great
Saturday at the Tomb
the Lord arises
miraculous phenomenon
Blessed Fire.
Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra (Sergiev Posad)
Was founded in 1345year Sergius
Radonezh.
Trinity Monastery
played a prominent role in
political,
spiritual and
cultural life
states. Alexander Nevsky Lavra (St. Petersburg).
Founded by Peter the Great.
The relics of Alexander Nevsky are located.
Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1164)
Cathedral of Christ the Savior (1829 -1883) Church of the IntercessionSaint
Mother of God
on the moat
(The cathedral
Vasily
Blessed
Pokrovsky
The cathedral)
Kazan Cathedral
Vatican. The cathedralPeter and
Paul
Square in front of the Cathedral of Peter and Paul.
Notre Dame de Paris (Notre Dame Cathedral)
was laid in1163
Louis VII.
Built over
100 years.
Holds up to
10000 people. Cologne Cathedral
(1248 to the present
time).
Started building for
storage of remains
Holy Magi
(Three kings) Islam is the youngest of the world religions, originated in the 7th century.
The founder is Muhammad, a historical person. Main
religion positions:
there is no God but Allah, monotheism;
a person is not able to influence the course of events, everything is in the hands of Allah
(the idea of predestination), faith in the justice of Allah;
the prophetic mission of Muhammad;
prayer (prayer) five times a day;
obligatory post;
hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca;
obligatory alms to the poor;
jihad - the fight against the infidels, the prophet himself understood jihad as
spiritual struggle, not war with weapons;
faith in the resurrection, the Last Judgment, the existence of heaven and hell;
establishing not only moral but also legal norms. (sharia
- Muslim law based on the Quran
and Sunna).
- What unites all these world religions?
What differences did you see between them?
Mecca. Temple of the Kaaba ("House of God")
In the Kaaba there is a stone on which there were printsAdam's legs. Built into the northeast corner of the Kaaba
The Black Stone (Eswad), from which the
ritual walk around the Kaaba.
Hajj in Mecca
1. Unquestioning faithin Allah and Muhammad
2. Prayer five times
3. Compliance
annual fast
4. Payment of tax from
harvest
5. Hajj to Mecca
Mosque "Dome of the Rock" in Jerusalem
At this point, Abraham was preparing to sacrifice hisson of Isaac. Later, the Temple was built by King Solomon.
where the Ark of the Covenant was kept. The "Dome of the Rock" marked that
the place where Muhammad ascended to heaven. Stored in the temple
the footprint of the Prophet and three hairs from his beard. The main aspects of the principle of freedom of conscience:
1. The principle of separation of religious organizations from
state provides for non-intervention
states in the inner life of religious
organizations.
2. The secular nature of public education
suggests:
equal access for representatives of all religious
confessions and atheists to receive a guaranteed
state of education;
prohibition of any form of religious and
atheistic propaganda in educational
institutions;
educating the next generation in the spirit
tolerance for manifestations of dissent.
3. The ability to freely send your cult. Summary of lessons
- What do you see as the reasons for the special popularity of early forms
religions today? Why are people turning to
magicians, palmists, astrologers?
- There is an opinion that an increase in the percentage of believers among
youth in our country is connected not so much with faith in God,
how much with the attractiveness of wedding ceremonies, baptisms,
sacraments, etc. What do you think?
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Remember:
What is religion? When did the first religions appear? What are the characteristics of world religions?
Religion has a special place in the sphere of spiritual culture. The religious worldview is characterized by the division of all things into the earthly and heavenly worlds, as well as the recognition of the immortality of the soul. Religion implies the presence of a mysterious (mystical) connection between man and God (or other supernatural forces), the worship of these forces, the possibility of human interaction with them.
Why do people believe in the supernatural? Researchers of the past explained this, for example, by fear of the unpredictability and power of nature or the deep ignorance of most people, the mythological nature of mass consciousness. Do these characteristics apply to modern society? Philosophers, culturologists, sociologists, psychologists give different answers to this question. But it is obvious that religion retains its positions even at the post-industrial stage of development of society, since it performs socially significant functions, which we will consider below.
RELIGION AS A FORM OF CULTURE
Religion is one of the universal cultural mechanisms for regulating human activity: through a system of cult actions, it organizes everyday life, in the process of mastering the dogma, it forms a worldview, encourages a person to think about the meaning of his own existence.
The following elements are usually distinguished in the structure of religion: religious consciousness, religious cult and religious organizations.
Several levels of religious consciousness can be identified: mass religious consciousness, in which the emotional component usually predominates, and rationally formed consciousness, implying an understanding of the content of the doctrine. An even higher level of religious consciousness - theology (theology), within the framework of which the dogma is not only mastered, but also broadcast, interpreted in relation to the requirements of the time, protected from heresies.
Modern religious scholars identify a number of essential characteristics of religious consciousness.
The first of them - belief in the existence of objects 9 with supernatural properties. From the course of history, you remember that such properties were endowed, for example, with the forces of nature (sun, wind, rain, thunder, etc.), individual fetish objects, the souls of ancestors. In developed religious systems, especially in world religions, the main object of religious worship is God, who revealed his existence to man. The important thing is that the world of the sacred for the believer is real, it does not belong to the realm of fantasy.
Next characteristic - conviction in the reality of contact with the objects of religious worship. This contact, as a rule, appears to the believer as two-way. The deity in one way or another affects the fate of individuals and entire nations, but the believer also has certain channels of communication with the world of the supernatural - cult activities(prayer, sacrifice, etc.).
Another important feature of religious consciousness is the conviction that human destiny depends on the will of the deity, which imposes certain requirements on human behavior and is able to hold accountable for what they have done. A person's experience of his dependence can take diametrically opposite forms: from animal fear, forcing to obedience, to enlightened humility as a result of a person's awareness of his own imperfection, the limitations of his capabilities. Religion also involves the establishment of good relations between a person and objects of worship, which make it possible to propitiate the deity, and in case of violation of divine will, compensate for disobedience by repentance or sacrifice.
Main organizational forms religions are church and sects. The church is, as a rule, a hierarchical religious organization of the clergy and believers, based on the commonality of religious dogmas and a cult system. Sects are relatively small in number, closed religious communities that disagree with the dominant church.
THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY
The place and significance of religion in society are determined by the functions it performs, which include regulatory, educational, worldview, compensatory, communicative, integration, cultural.
Undoubtedly, the most important function of religion is regulation of behavior individuals, social groups. Reg-
The lative function of religion is based on the accumulated moral experience of many generations of people, expressed in a concise form, for example, in the commandments, moral canons of various religions. Religion not only establishes a certain framework for human freedom, but also encourages him to assimilate certain positive moral values, worthy behavior, and this manifests the connection between the regulatory and educational functions.
worldview function religion realizes due to the presence in it of a system of views that reflect the picture of the world, the essence of man and his place in the world.
Compensatory function It manifests itself in the fact that religion relieves the social and mental stress of a person, compensates for the shortcomings or deficiency of secular communication with religious communication. This function is especially clearly realized in prayer and repentance, during which a person passes from depression, spiritual discomfort to a state of relief, calm, and a surge of strength. At the same time, some scholars consider religious compensation an imaginary removal of contradictions, since the true causes of a person's mental and social discomfort are not eliminated.
Religion does the same communication function, as a means of communication for believers. This communication unfolds on two levels: in the plane of dialogue with God and the "celestials", as well as in contact with other believers. Communication is carried out primarily through cult actions.
From the course of domestic and foreign history, you know many examples of how religion can act social integration factor,- it is enough to recall the role of the hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, for example, St. Sergius of Radonezh, in the unification of Russian lands, the fight against invaders. By directing and uniting the efforts of individuals and social groups, religion contributes to social stability or the establishment of something new - let us recall, for example, the role of Protestantism in the development of bourgeois society. However, religious integration has a dual character: on the one hand, religion brings together, on the other hand, it separates, as exemplified by numerous religious wars and conflicts.
cultural function is that religion preserves and transmits the social experience of mankind, being an integral part of the culture of human society.
WORLD RELIGIONS
World religions cover a huge number of believers. According to sociologists, about half of the world's population are adherents of any of the three world religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. It should be noted that representatives of all world religions live in the Russian Federation.
Buddhism- the oldest world religion, the most common in China, Thailand, Burma, Japan, Korea and other countries of Southeast Asia. Russian centers of Buddhism are located in Buryatia, Kalmykia and the Republic of Tuva.
Buddhism is based on the doctrine of four noble truths: everything in human life is suffering - birth, life, old age, death, any attachment, etc.; the cause of suffering lies in the presence of desires in a person, including the desire to live; the cessation of suffering is associated with liberation from desires; to achieve this goal, it is necessary to adhere to the eightfold path of salvation, including the assimilation of the four noble truths, accepting them as a life program, refraining from words that are not related to the moral goal, not harming the living, turning true actions into a way of life, constant self-control, renunciation of the world, spiritual self-immersion. Following this path leads a person to nirvana - a state of absence, overcoming suffering.
The strictness of Buddhist morality and the complexity of the technique by which one can reach nirvana led to the identification of two paths of salvation - Hinayana ("narrow vehicle"), accessible only to monks, and Mahayana ("wide vehicle"), following which ordinary lay people can act, saving other people and yourself. It should also be noted that Buddhism is easily combined with national religions, such as Confucianism and Taoism in China or Shintoism in Japan.
Christianity is the second largest religion in the world. From the course of history, you know that there are three main currents of Christianity: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism.
The Bible is the main source of the Christian faith. It includes the Old Testament, common to the Jews (the religion of the Jewish people, in which Christ is recognized as only one of the messiahs) and Christians, and the New Testament, which consists of four Gospels (from ancient Greek euangelion - good news), as well as the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (Apocalypse).
Christianity is a religion of redemption and salvation. Christians believe in the merciful love of the triune God for sinful humanity, for the sake of whose salvation the Son of God Jesus Christ was sent into the world, who became man and died on the cross. The idea of the God-Man-Savior is central to Christianity. The believer must follow the teachings of Christ in order to partake of salvation.
The political development of the Roman Empire in the III-IV centuries. n. e., its division into Western and Eastern led to a gradual isolation Western and Eastern Christian Churches with centers in Rome and Constantinople, whose disagreements accumulated over the centuries, which led to a break between them in 1054. What are the fundamental dogmatic differences between the churches? The Catholic Church claims that the Holy Spirit comes from both God the Father and God the Son. The Eastern Church recognizes the procession of the Holy Spirit only from God the Father. The Roman Catholic Church proclaims the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, her God's choice for the role of the Mother of Jesus Christ and the ascension to heaven after death, hence the cult of the Madonna in Catholicism. The Orthodox Church does not accept the dogma of the infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith, and the Roman Catholic Church considers the Pope the vicar of God on earth, through whom God Himself speaks in relation to matters of religion. The Roman Catholic Church, along with heaven and hell, recognizes the existence of purgatory and the possibility of expiation of sins already on earth by acquiring a particle of the excess stock of good deeds performed by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, which the church "disposes" of.
In the countries of Western Europe in the XV-XVI centuries. The Reformation movement unfolded, leading to the separation of a significant part of Christians from the Catholic Church. A number of Christian Protestant churches sprang up, emerging from the authority of the Pope. The largest of them are Lutheranism(Germany and Baltic countries), Calvinism(Switzerland and the Netherlands), Anglican Church(England). Protestants recognize the Holy Scripture (Bible) as the only source of faith and believe that each person will be rewarded according to his faith, regardless of the means of its external expression. Protestantism shifted the center of religious life from the church to the individual. Catholicism remained a strictly centralized religion. Of the European countries, Catholicism is most common in Italy, Spain, France, Poland, and Portugal. A significant number of Catholics live in Latin America. But in none of these countries is Catholicism the only religion.
Despite the division of Christianity into separate churches, they all have a common ideological basis. The world is gaining strength ecumenical movement, striving for dialogue and rapprochement of all Christian churches.
In the religious life of modern Russia, all three directions of Christianity are active. The overwhelming majority of believers in our country are Orthodox. Orthodoxy is represented by the Russian Orthodox Church, various directions old believers, as well as religious sects. Catholicism also has a certain number of followers. Protestantism among the citizens of Russia is represented both by official churches, such as Lutheranism, and by sectarian organizations.
Islam- the latest world religion in terms of time, distributed mainly in the Arab states (Middle East and North Africa), in South and Southeast Asia (Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Indonesia, etc.). A significant number of Muslims live in the Russian Federation. It is the second religion in terms of the number of adherents after Orthodoxy.
Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century BC. n. e., when the religious center of the Arab tribes was formed in Mecca and a movement arose for the veneration of the one supreme God-Allah. Here began the activity of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed).
Muslims believe that the one and all-powerful God - Allah - transmitted to people through the mouth of the Prophet Muhammad, through the mediation of the angel Jabrail, the holy book - the Koran, which is an indisputable authority in spiritual life, law, politics and economic activity. There are five most important instructions of the Koran that every Muslim is obliged to fulfill: knowledge of the creed; five times prayer (prayer); observance of fasting W times the entire month of Ramadan; distribution of alms; making a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). Since the Koran contains prescriptions relating to all aspects of Muslim life, the criminal and civil law of Islamic states was based, and in a number of countries is still based on religious law - Sharia.
The formation of Islam took place under the noticeable influence of more ancient religions of Middle Eastern origin - Judaism and Christianity. Therefore, a number of biblical personalities are found in the Koran (the archangels Gabriel, Michael, etc., the prophets Abraham, David, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus), the sacred book for the Jews - the Torah, as well as the Gospel are mentioned.
The expansion of Islam was facilitated by the conquest of the Arabs, the Turks, who marched under the banner of religion. In the XX century. in Tour-
Egypt, and a number of other states, reforms were carried out to limit the scope of religious laws, to separate church from state, and to introduce secular education. But in some Muslim countries (for example, Iran, Afghanistan) Islamic fundamentalism is extremely strong, which requires the organization of all spheres of life on the principles of the Koran and Sharia.
In modern Russia, Islam is widespread among the inhabitants of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, the republics of the North Caucasus, with the exception of the population of North Ossetia-Alania, whose inhabitants predominantly profess Orthodoxy. Among the Muslims are representatives of the numerous Azerbaijani diaspora. Organizationally, the Muslims of Russia are headed by the Central Spiritual Board of Muslims of Russia and European CIS countries and the Council of Muftis of Russia.
PRINCIPLE OF FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE
AT Currently, a civil society is being formed in Russia, therefore the problem of interaction and dialogue between representatives of various religious denominations is extremely relevant. (interfaith dialogue) with each other and with states.
The legal basis for resolving all emerging contradictions and problems can be compliance with principle of freedom of conscience. You know that conscience is the most important ethical category, reflecting a person's ability to exercise moral self-control, to formulate and present moral requirements to his behavior, and to achieve their fulfillment. In our time, freedom of conscience is understood as the right of a person to independently form his own worldview and openly express it in social interactions, without prejudice to the freedom of other people and society as a whole. In essence, freedom of conscience is now understood as the right of a person to the autonomy of spiritual Life. But this principle was not always interpreted so broadly - in societies with a predominantly religious worldview, freedom of conscience could be expressed only in freedom of religion, the struggle for which went on for many centuries.
The legislation of the Russian Federation, in accordance with international legal acts, guarantees the implementation of the principle of freedom of conscience. Let's consider some of its aspects.
The principle of separation of religious organizations from the state provides, on the one hand, non-interference of the state in the person of its bodies and individual officials
persons in the internal life of religious organizations, the lack of state funding and propaganda of individual organizations, on the other hand, the non-interference of religious organizations in matters of public administration.
All religions on the territory of the country are equal, there is no state, official religion - the state neutral in matters of her religious ry.
The secular nature of public education implies, firstly, equal access for representatives of all religious denominations and atheists to receive state-guaranteed education, secondly, the prohibition of any form of religious or atheistic propaganda in educational institutions, especially at mandatory lessons, and thirdly, the upbringing of the younger generation in the spirit of tolerance for manifestations of dissent.
The state also guarantees all believers the opportunity to practice one's worship freely(if the activity of a religious organization is not recognized by the court as socially dangerous and is not prohibited), and if military service is contrary to their religious beliefs, believers liable for military service are given the opportunity to undergo alternative civilian service.
Si! Basic concepts: religion, religious consciousness, world religions, the principle of freedom of conscience.
Ill Terms: religious cult, religious organizations, interfaith dialogue.
Test yourself
1) What is religion? 2) What elements of religion do scientists single out? 3) What are the characteristics of religious consciousness? 4) What is the significance of religion in the life of society? 5) What are the main ideas of each of the world religions? 6) What is the essence of the principle of freedom of conscience? How is it implemented in the legislation of the Russian Federation?
Think, Discuss, Do
1. The famous sociologist P. A. Sorokin, based on the analysis of hundreds of thousands of paintings and sculptures created from the beginning of the Middle Ages to the 30s. 20th century and exhibited in the museums of Western Europe, concluded that there was a steady significant reduction in the number of works based on the religious perception of the world. Based on the knowledge of the humanities, explain the reasons for this phenomenon. Confirm the correctness of the sociologist's conclusion with concrete examples.
Work with the source
Read an excerpt from an article by an American sociologist of the 20th century. Robert Bell's Sociology of Religion.
So we inevitably come to the conclusion that religion is not just a means of coping with melancholy and despair. Rather, it is a symbolic model that shapes human experience, both cognitive and emotional. Religion knows how not only to moderate melancholy and despair, but also to cause them.
Man is a problem-solving animal. What to do and what to think when other ways of solving problems fail is the realm of religion. Religion deals not so much with specific problems as with the general problems of human nature, and among specific problems, those that are most directly adjacent to this general problem, such as the mystery of death. Religion deals not so much with the experience of specific limits, but with the limit in general... But even for the most primitive savage, the realm of religion is something different, although very close, something that can be heard, but cannot be seen, and if one can see , then briefly. Transmitted religious symbols also tell us meanings when we are not asking, help us hear when we are not listening, help us see when we are not looking. It is this ability of religious symbols to form meaning and feeling at a relatively high level of generalization beyond the concrete contexts of experience that gives them such power in human life, both private and public.
Bell R. American sociology. Perspectives. Problems. Methods. -
M.. 1972. - S. 266 - 278.
IV Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What, according to the author, are the possible origins of religious faith? 2) How does the author characterize religion? 3) Give some examples illustrating the symbolic nature of religion. 4) Using a fragment of R. Bell's article, your knowledge and life experience, give some explanations for the power of religion in human life.
