Home Berries Indicate the time of the appearance of the Russian language. How did the Russian language develop? Formation of the Russian language. The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language

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Indicate the time of the appearance of the Russian language. How did the Russian language develop? Formation of the Russian language. The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language

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Secondary school No. 2

abstract

on the topic of:Origin of the Russian language

9th grade student

Umerova F.A.

Simferopol, 2014

Introduction

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

2. Formation of the literary Russian language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian East Slavic language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the limits of Ancient Russia.

All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries. Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves.

In 1949, about s. Gnezdovo (near Smolensk), excavations were carried out at mound No. 13, dating from the first quarter of the 10th century, which give us valuable information about the history of culture and writing of the peoples of Ancient Russia. Among the many items of everyday life and life of the villagers discovered there, shards of a korchaga were found - an amphora, on which scientists were able to read the inscription in Cyrillic - gorushna (gorushna).

In the XIV-XV centuries. As a result of the collapse of Kievan Rus, on the basis of a single language of the Old Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of separate nations, took shape in national languages. They are the closest and most similar to each other and form the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The Slavic branch originates from the Indo-European language family, which also includes Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Greek, Italian, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic language groups, as well as Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages are closest to Slavic: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the III - the beginning of the II millennium BC. Apparently, at the same time, processes took place that led to the emergence of the Proto-Slavic language, to its separation from the Indo-European.

Proto-Slavic is the ancestral language of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not fixed in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing the Slavic languages among themselves, as well as by comparing them with other related Indo-European languages.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - makes all Slavic languages related, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds ... The Tale of Bygone Years, an Old Russian chronicle of the beginning of the 12th century, says: "But the Slovenian language and Russian are one ... ". The word language is used here not only in the ancient meaning of "people", but also in the meaning of "speech".

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they developed as a people with their own language and where they lived until their separation and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined due to the lack of reliable data. However, with relative certainty it can be argued that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border - along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs settled the Ukrainian Polesie to the Dnieper.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into three groups:

South Slavic - Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian;

West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Lusatian languages and the dead Polabian language, which completely disappeared by the end of the 18th century;

East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages was Old Russian (or East Slavic) language. Two main eras can be distinguished in its history: pre-literate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the end of the 10th century) and written.

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence of the Russian language, which differs from Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the XIV century, although already in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Old Russian language, phenomena were outlined that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The modern Russian language is based on the northern and northeastern dialects of Kievan Rus.

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century.

After the baptism of Russia in 988, book writing arose. In Kievan Rus, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being written off from Old Slavonic, Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language, and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version of the Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature.

In parallel to this style of language, secular and business literature also existed. If the Psalter, the Gospel, and so on serve as examples of the Church Slavonic language, then the Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Tale of Bygone Years, and Russkaya Pravda are considered an example of the secular and business language of Kievan Rus.

Secular and business literature reflects the linguistic norms of the living spoken language of the Slavs, their oral folk art. Based on the fact that Kievan Rus had such a complex dual language system, it is difficult for scientists to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Their opinions differ, but the most common is the theory of Academician V.V. Vinogradov, according to which two varieties of the literary language functioned in Kievan Rus:

1) book-Slavonic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used mainly in church literature;

2) folk-literary language, based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.

According to V.V. Vinogradova, these are two types of language, and not two special languages, i.e. there was no bilingualism in Kievan Rus. These two types of language interacted with each other for a long time. Gradually they became closer, and on their basis in the XVIII century. a unified literary Russian language was formed.

2. Formation of the literaryRussianlanguage

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Russia (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (south of this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

The language of writing remains motley. Religion and the rudiments of scientific knowledge were mainly served by book-Slavonic, by origin Old Bulgarian, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, cut off from the popular colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. Speech cliches developed in it, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, in contrast to the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialect features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Written fiction was diverse in terms of linguistic means. Since ancient times, the oral language of folklore played an important role, serving until the 16th-17th centuries. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about the Belogorod jelly, about Olga's revenge, etc. in The Tale of Bygone Years, folklore motifs in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, vivid phraseology in Daniil Zatochnik's Prayer, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art.

During the period of the Muscovite state of the XIV-XVI centuries. the main styles of the Russian literary language were clearly defined:

1. Literary and artistic (ascending to the "Tale of Igor's Campaign);

2. Documentary and business style (these include ancient treaties, letters, "Russian Truth");

3. Journalistic style (correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Kurbsky).

4. Industrial-professional style (various manuals and management manuals).

5. The style is epistolary.

Second half of the 16th century in the Muscovite state was marked by such a great event, which had a valuable cultural and historical significance, as the appearance of the first printed books. Typography was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed.

Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing. In petitions, in various kinds of private letters and letters, words and expressions of an everyday nature that have not previously been encountered in book speech are increasingly being used. For example, in the "Life of the Prototope Avvakum" the colloquial elements of Russian colloquial and everyday speech are presented very fully. Non-colloquial words and expressions are used here ( lying on his belly, they suddenly shout, fools, there are a lot of fleas and lice etc.), but also colloquial meanings of well-known words.

In the XVIII and early XIX centuries. secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the second half of the XVIII century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. The language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of "Russian Grammar" - the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means, depending on the purpose of literary works, into high, medium and low "calms".

The development of grammatical science in the second half of the XVIII century. and in the first decades of the nineteenth century. led to the emergence of two main points of view on grammatical phenomena: structural-grammatical and logical-semantic. In the XVIII century. The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers paved the way for the great reform of A.S. Pushkin.

19th century can be considered the first period of development of the modern literary Russian language. The beginning of the stage of development of the modern Russian literary language is considered to be the time of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized various speech elements into a single system: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and the Russian folk language, especially its Moscow variety, became the cementing basis. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, rich and diverse linguistic styles (artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.) are closely related to each other. All-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, obligatory for all those who speak the literary language, are determined, the lexical system is developed and enriched. slav cyrillic colloquial literary

In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today. A.S. Pushkin streamlined the artistic means of the Russian literary language and significantly enriched it. Based on various manifestations of the folk language, he managed to create in his works a language that was perceived by society as a literary one. “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns,” wrote N.V. Gogol. “He, as if in a lexicon, contained all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone, he further pushed his boundaries and more showed all its space.

Of course, since the time of A.S. Pushkin, a lot of time has passed and a lot has changed, including the Russian language: something has gone out of it, a lot of new words have appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us a grammar, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical, journalistic works, he clearly distinguished between the author's speech and characters, i.e. practically laid the foundations for the modern functional and stylistic classification of the literary Russian language.

End of the 19th century and up to the present time - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established linguistic norms, but these norms are being improved to this day. In the development and formation of the modern Russian literary language, such Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries also played a big role. like A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov and others.

Since the second half of the XX century. the development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles - scientific, journalistic and others - are also beginning to be influenced by public figures, representatives of science and culture.

The development of phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language is governed by two related trends: established traditions, which are considered exemplary, and the constantly changing speech of native speakers. The established traditions are the use of speech means in the language of writers, publicists, theater artists, masters of cinema, radio, television and other means of mass communication. For example, the exemplary "Moscow pronunciation", which became common Russian, developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. at the Moscow Art and Maly theatres. It changes, but its foundations are still considered unshakable.

Conclusion

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialectal and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and the main vocabulary, constitute a single national Russian language, the main link of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the very system of the literary language, the constant impact on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variance.

List of literaturecheers

1. Old Russian language: textbook. allowance for ist. fak. un-tov / N.G. Samsonov. - M.: "High School", 1973. - 295 p. : ill.

2. History of Russian linguistics: textbook. allowance for philol. specialties / F.M. Berezin. - M.: Higher. school, 1979. - 223 p.

3. History of the Russian literary language: textbook. allowance for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and literature in the national school." / L.V. Sudavichen, N.Ya. Serdobintsev, Yu.G. Kadkalov; ed. I.F. Protchenko. - 2nd ed. finalized - L.: Enlightenment; Leningrad. Department, 1990. - 319 p.

4. History of the Russian literary language / A.N. Gorshkov. - M.: Higher. school, 1969. - 366 p.

5. Historical grammar of the Russian language: textbook. for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and lit." / V.V. Ivanov. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M. : Enlightenment, 1990. - 400 p. : ill.

6. History of the Russian literary language: a course of lectures / A.I. Efimov. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1954. - 431 p.

7. History of the Russian literary language / A.I. Efimov. - 3rd ed., corrected. - M.: Publishing House "Higher School", 1971. - 295.

8. P.Ya. Chernykh. On the issue of the Gnezdovskaya inscription / P.Ya. Chernykh // Izv. Dep. Liter. and language. - 1950. - Vol. 9, issue. 5. - S. 401.

9. Legends about the beginning of Slavic writing / rev. ed. V.D. Korolyuk. - M.: Publishing house "Nauka", 1981. - 197 p. - Monuments of the medieval history of the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.

10. Reader on the history of grammatical teachings in Russia / comp. V.V. Shcheulin, V.I. Medvedev. - M.: Publishing house "Higher school", 1965. - 355 p.

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First steps

The history of the emergence of the Russian language began before our era. In the II - I millennium BC, the Proto-Slavic dialect appeared from the Indo-European language family, and in the I millennium AD. e. it became a Proto-Slavic language. Proto-Slavic language in the VI-VII centuries. n. e. split into three branches: western, eastern and southern. The East Slavic branch includes the Old Russian language, which was spoken in Kievan Rus. During the formation of Kievan Rus, the Russian language was the main means of communication for many principalities.

Since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, wars with the Lithuanian principality, there have been changes in the language. In the XIV-XV centuries. Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages appeared. The Old Russian language disappeared, a more modern northeastern dialect began to form, which can be considered the forefather of modern Russian.

Where did the Russian language come from? The correct answer is Kievan Rus, after the collapse of which a more modern Russian language began to form. From the beginning of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century, the Russian language was formed quite quickly. The center of development is Moscow, where the modern dialect was born. There were many dialects outside the city, but the Moscow dialect became the main one. Clear word endings appear, cases are formed, spelling develops, words change by gender, case and number.

dawn

At the end of the 17th century, the history of the development of the Russian language is undergoing a period of complete formation. Writing develops, new words, rules, modern church language appear, in which religious literature is written. In the 19th century, the ecclesiastical language was clearly distinguished from the literary one, which was used by all the inhabitants of Muscovite Russia. The language is becoming even more modern, similar to today. A lot of literature written in the new Russian language is being published.

With the development of military, technical, scientific and political spheres of activity in the Russian language, modern terminology appears, words that are taken from foreign languages (French, German). The vocabulary changes a little, it becomes saturated with French words. Since the language began to be “clogged” with foreign words and speech patterns, the question arose of giving the Russian language the status of a national language. Until Peter I decided to give the status of the Russian state to Moscow Russia, there were disputes over the national status of the Russian language. The emperor assigned a new name to the state, issued a decree on the adoption of the Russian language as a national language.

At the beginning of the 20th century, when the scientific field of activity was actively developing, English words began to be used, which were tightly intertwined with the Russian language, becoming inseparable from it. The church, as well as many politicians in the period of the 18th-20th centuries, fought for the preservation of the pure Russian-Slovenian language as a national one. But the study of foreign speech has made its mark: a fashion has developed for words of foreign origin.

Modern Russian

Since the appearance of the Russian language, it has undergone many metamorphoses from the basics to a modern rich and rich language with complex rules and a huge vocabulary. History shows that the Russian language was formed gradually, but purposefully. In the mid-twenties, the peak of popularity and development of the Russian language began in many countries of the world. In the seventies, almost all the main educational institutions of the world were engaged in the study of Russian. The number of countries that mastered the Russian language exceeded 90. The language is undergoing its ascent, acquiring new rules, and being brought to perfection. Learning the language, drawing up rules, exceptions, finding new examples to this day continues to take shape. The Slavic language with an admixture of foreign words became modern Russian and the national language of all Russia. It is also one of the main ones in some countries of the former Soviet Union.

Russian is one of the East Slavic languages, along with Ukrainian and Belarusian. It is the most widely spoken Slavic language and one of the most widely spoken languages in the world in terms of the number of people who speak it and consider it their mother tongue.

In turn, the Slavic languages belong to the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Thus, in order to answer the question: where did the Russian language come from, you need to make an excursion into ancient times.

Origin of the Indo-European languages

About 6 thousand years ago there lived a people who are considered to be the carriers of the Proto-Indo-European language. Where he lived exactly is today the subject of fierce debate among historians and linguists. The steppes of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, and the territory on the border between Europe and Asia, and the Armenian Highlands are called the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans. In the early 80s of the last century, linguists Gamkrelidze and Ivanov formulated the idea of two ancestral homes: first there was the Armenian Highlands, and then the Indo-Europeans moved to the Black Sea steppes. Archaeologically, the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language are correlated with representatives of the “pit culture”, who lived in the east of Ukraine and on the territory of modern Russia in the 3rd millennium BC.

Isolation of the Balto-Slavic branch

Subsequently, the Proto-Indo-Europeans settled throughout Asia and Europe, mixed with the local peoples and gave them their own language. In Europe, the languages of the Indo-European family are spoken by almost all peoples, except for the Basques; in Asia, various languages of this family are spoken in India and Iran. Tajikistan, Pamir, etc. About 2 thousand years ago, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language emerged from the common Proto-Indo-European language. According to a number of linguists (including Ler-Splavinsky), the Proto-Baltoslavs existed as a single people speaking the same language for about 500-600 years, and the archaeological culture of Corded Ware corresponds to this period in the history of our peoples. Then the language branch divided again: into the Baltic group, which henceforth began to live an independent life, and the Proto-Slavic, which became the common root from which all modern Slavic languages originated.

Old Russian language

All-Slavic unity persisted until the 6th-7th century AD. When carriers of East Slavic dialects stood out from the common Slavic array, the Old Russian language began to form, which became the ancestor of modern Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. The Old Russian language is known to us thanks to numerous monuments written in the Church Slavonic language, which can be considered as a written, literary form of the Old Russian language. In addition, written monuments have survived - birch bark letters, graffiti on the walls of temples - written in everyday, colloquial Old Russian.

Old Russian period

The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time from the 14th to the 17th centuries. At this time, the Russian language finally stands out from the group of East Slavic languages, phonetic and grammatical systems close to modern ones are formed in it, other changes take place, including dialects. The leading among them is the “aking” dialect of the upper and middle Oka, and, first of all, the Moscow dialect.

Modern Russian

The Russian language we speak today began to take shape in the 17th century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. The literary works of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov played a decisive role in the formation of the modern Russian language. Lomonosov also wrote the first grammar, fixing the norms of the literary Russian language. All the richness of the Russian language, which has developed from the synthesis of Russian colloquial, Church Slavonic elements, borrowings from other languages, is reflected in the works of Pushkin, who is considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

Borrowings from other languages

Over the centuries of its existence, the Russian language, like any other living and developing system, has been repeatedly enriched by borrowings from other languages. The earliest borrowings include "Baltisms" - borrowings from the Baltic languages. However, in this case, we are probably not talking about borrowings, but about vocabulary that has been preserved from the time when the Slavic-Baltic community existed. The “Balticisms” include such words as “ladle”, “tow”, “stack”, “amber”, “village”, etc. During the period of Christianization, "Grecisms" - "sugar", "bench" entered our language. "lantern", "notebook", etc. Through contacts with European peoples, “Latinisms” entered the Russian language - “doctor”, “medicine”, “rose” and “Arabisms” - “admiral”, “coffee”, “lacquer”, “mattress”, etc. . A large group of words entered our language from the Turkic languages. These are words such as “hearth”, “tent”, “hero”, “cart”, etc. And, finally, since the time of Peter I, the Russian language has absorbed words from European languages. At first, this is a large layer of words from German, English and Dutch related to science, technology, maritime and military affairs: “ammunition”, “globe”, “assembly”, “optics”, “pilot”, “sailor”, “deserter ". Later, French, Italian and Spanish words related to household items, the field of art settled in Russian - “stained-glass window”, “veil”, “couch”, “boudoir”, “ballet”, “actor”, “poster”, “pasta” ”, “Serenade”, etc. And finally, these days we are experiencing a new influx of borrowings, this time from English, in the main language.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language

A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Russian is one of the official and working languages of the UN. The number of Russian speakers is about 180 million people. It belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The history of the origin and formation of the Russian language

The history of the origin of the Russian language go back to ancient times. Approximately in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. from the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - approximately in the 1-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14-16 centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in the Principality of Moldavia.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (13-15 centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the 13-14 centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language also gradually disintegrated. 3 centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the 14-15 centuries. on the basis of these associations, closely related, but independent East Slavic languages are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

The history of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Russia

The Russian language of the era of Moscow Russia (14-17 centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod, and South Great Russian in the south from this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in live speech, the final restructuring of the categories of time takes place (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with "-l"), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six bases is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 17th century national ties arise, the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the civil and Church Slavonic alphabets were separated. In the 18th and early 19th centuries secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the 2nd half of the 18th century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language.

In modern Russian, there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language, in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, however, the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.

Language is the most important factor in the national identification of a person, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate ...

By Masterweb

09.05.2018 05:00

Language is the most important factor in the national identification of a person, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate the world around. The history of the Russian language is rooted in the events of 1.5-2 thousand years ago, which favored its creation. Today it is recognized as the richest language in the world and the fifth largest population that speaks it.

How did the Russian language appear

In prehistoric times, Slavic tribes spoke completely different dialects. The ancestors of the Slavs lived on the lands washed by the rivers Dnieper, Vistula and Pripyat. By the middle of the 1st century A.D. e. tribes occupied all territories from the Adriatic to the lake. Ilmen in the northeastern part of the European continent.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language dates back to about 2-1 thousand years BC. e., when the Proto-Slavic dialect was separated from the group of Indo-European languages.

Scientists conventionally divide the Old Russian language into 3 groups according to the ethnic linguistic component:

South Russian (Bulgarians, Slovenes, Serbo-Croats);
Western Russian (Poles, Czechs, Pomors, Slovaks);
Central Russian (Eastern).

Modern norms of vocabulary and grammar in the Russian language were formed as a result of the interaction of many East Slavic dialects that were common in the territory of Ancient Russia and the Church Slavonic language. Greek culture also had a great influence on the written form.

Theories of the origin of the Russian language

There are several theories, the main of which connect the beginning of the history of the Russian language with the ancient Indian Sanskrit and the Old Norse language.

In accordance with the first, experts consider the ancient Sanskrit language closest to Russian, which was spoken only by Indian priests and scientists, which indicates that it was introduced from outside. According to a Hindu legend, which is even studied in the theosophical universities of India, in ancient times 7 white-skinned teachers came to the Himalayas from the North, who presented Sanskrit.

With his help, the foundations of the Brahmin religion were laid, which is still one of the mass religions, and Buddhism was created through it. Until now, the Brahmins call the Russian North the ancestral home of mankind and even make a pilgrimage there.

As linguists note, 60% of Sanskrit words completely coincide with Russian in their pronunciation. Many scientific works were devoted to this issue, including the ethnographer N. R. Guseva. She has been studying the phenomenon of similarity between the Russian language and Sanskrit for many years, calling the latter a simplified version frozen for 4-5 millennia. The only difference between them is the writing method: Sanskrit is written in hieroglyphs, which scientists call the Slavic-Aryan runes.

Another theory of the history of the origin of the Russian language puts forward the hypothesis that the word "Rus" itself and the language have Old Norse roots. According to historians, the Greeks called the Norman tribes "dews" until the 9th-10th centuries, and only in the 10th-11th centuries. this name passed to the Varangian squads, who came to the territory of Russia. It was from them that the future great princes of Ancient Russia originated. For example, in old birch bark letters of the 11th-13th centuries. Novgorodians consider the territory of the Eastern Slavs near Kiev and Chernigov to be Rus. And only from the 14th century. when fighting with enemy troops in the annals, they determine their belonging to the Russians.

Cyril and Methodius: the creation of the alphabet

The history of the Russian language, which was formed in writing, originates in the 9th century, in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus. The alphabet that existed then in Greece could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, therefore, in 860-866. Emperor of Byzantium Michael the 3rd ordered the creation of a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language. In this way, he wanted to simplify the translation of Greek religious manuscripts into Slavonic.

Scientists attribute the success of creating its literary form to the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius, who went to preach in Moravia and, observing fasting and prayers, acquired the Glagolitic alphabet after 40 days. According to legend, it was faith that helped the brothers preach Christianity to the uneducated peoples of Russia.

At that time, the Slavic alphabet consisted of 38 letters. Later, the Cyrillic alphabet was finalized by their followers, using the Greek uncial script and charter. Both alphabets almost coincide in the sound of the letters, the difference lies in the form of writing.

It was the swiftness with which the spread of Russian writing in Russia that subsequently contributed to the fact that this language became one of the leading ones in its era. This also contributed to the unification of the Slavic peoples, which took place during the 9th-11th centuries.

Period 12-17 centuries

One of the well-known monuments of literature of the period of Ancient Russia was the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", which tells about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsian army. Its authorship is still unknown. The events described in the poem took place in the 12th century. in the era of feudal fragmentation, when the Mongol-Tatars and the Polish-Lithuanian conquerors raged in their raids.

This period includes the next stage in the history of the development of the Russian language, when it was divided into 3 ethno-linguistic groups, the dialectical features of which have already been formed:

Great Russian;
Ukrainian;
Belarusian.

In the 15th century on the European territory of Russia, there were 2 main groups of dialects: the southern and northern dialects, each of which had its own characteristics: akanye or okanye, etc. During this period, several intermediate Central Russian dialects were born, among which Moscow was considered classic. Periodicals and literature began to appear on it.

The formation of Muscovite Russia served as an impetus for the reform of the language: sentences became shorter, everyday vocabulary and folk proverbs and sayings were widely used. In the history of the development of the Russian language, the era of the beginning of book printing played a big role. An illustrative example was the work "Domostroy", published in the middle of the 16th century.

In the 17th century, in connection with the flourishing of the Polish state, a lot of terms came from the field of technology and jurisprudence, with the help of which the Russian language passed the stage of modernization. By the beginning of the 18th century in Europe, the French influence was strongly felt, which gave impetus to the Europeanization of the high society of the Russian state.

Proceedings of M. Lomonosov

The common people did not learn Russian writing, and the nobles studied foreign languages more: German, French, etc. Primers and grammar until the 18th century. were made only in the Church Slavonic dialect.

The history of the Russian literary language originates from the reform of the alphabet, during which Tsar Peter the Great reviewed the 1st edition of the new alphabet. It happened in 1710.

The leading role was played by the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who wrote the first "Russian Grammar" (1755). He gave the literary language its final form by merging Russian and Slavic elements.

Lomonosov established a coherent system of styles and combined all of its varieties, using oral speech, orders and some regional variations, introduced a new system of versification, which still remains the main force and part of Russian poetry.

He also wrote a work on rhetoric and an article in which the scientist successfully used the lexical and grammatical richness of the Church Slavonic language. Lomonosov also wrote about the three main styles of poetic language, in which high was considered a work with the greatest use of Slavicisms.

During this period, the democratization of the language takes place, its composition and vocabulary are enriched by literate peasants, the oral speech of representatives of the merchant class and the lower strata of the clergy. The first most detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published by the writer N. Grech in the 1820s.

In noble families, the native language was studied mainly by boys who were trained to serve in the army, because they were to command soldiers from the common people. The girls, on the other hand, studied French, and spoke Russian only to communicate with the servants. So, the poet A. S. Pushkin grew up in a French-speaking family, and spoke his native language only with his nanny and grandmother. Later, he studied Russian with the priest A. Belikov and the local clerk. Education at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was also conducted in the native language.

In the 1820s, in the high society of Moscow and St. Petersburg, an opinion was formed that it was indecent to speak Russian, especially in front of ladies. However, the situation soon changed.

Century XIX - the century of Russian literature

The beginning of the heyday and fashion for the Russian language was a costume ball, which in 1830 was held in the Anichkov Palace. On it, the maid of honor of the Empress read the poem "Cyclops", specially written for the celebration by A. S. Pushkin.

In defense of the native language, Tsar Nicholas 1st spoke out, who ordered from now on to conduct all correspondence and office work in it. All foreigners, upon entering the service, were obliged to take an exam for knowledge of Russian, and it was also prescribed to speak it at court. Emperor Alexander III put forward the same demands, but at the end of the 19th century. English came into fashion, which was taught to noble and royal children.

A great influence on the history of the development of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries. Russian writers who became popular then: D. I. Fonvizin, N. M. Karamzin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, in poetry - A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov. With their works, they showed all the beauty of their native speech, using it freely and freeing them from stylistic restrictions. In 1863 V. I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language was published.

Borrowings

In the history of the Russian language, there are many facts about its growth and enrichment when borrowing a large number of words of foreign origin in the vocabulary. Some of the words came from Church Slavonic. At different times in history, the degree of influence of the neighboring language community was different, but this always helped the introduction of new words and phrases.

In contact with European languages for a long time, many words came into Russian speech from them:

from Greek: beet, crocodile, bench, as well as most names;
from the Scythians and the Iranian group: dog, paradise;
some names came from Scandinavians: Olga, Igor, etc.;
from Turkic: diamond, trousers, fog;
from Polish: jar, duel;
French: beach, conductor;
from Dutch: orange, yacht;
from the Romano-Germanic languages: algebra, tie, dance, powder, cement;
from Hungarian: hussar, saber;
musical and culinary terms were borrowed from Italian: pasta, balance, opera, etc.;
from English: jeans, sweater, tuxedo, shorts, jam, etc.

The borrowing of technical and other terms gained mass importance in the late 19th and 20th century as new techniques and technologies developed, especially from the English language.

For its part, the Russian language gave the world many words that are now considered international: matryoshka, vodka, samovar, satellite, tsar, dacha, steppe, pogrom, etc.

XX century and the development of the Russian language

In 1918, a reform of the Russian language was carried out, in which the following changes were introduced to the alphabet:

the letters "yat", "fita", "decimal" were removed and replaced with "E", "F" and "I";
canceled hard sign at the ends of words;
it is indicated in prefixes to use the letters "s" before deaf consonants and "z" - before voiced ones;
adopted changes in the endings and cases of some words;
"Izhitsa" itself disappeared from the alphabet even before the reform.

The modern Russian language was approved in 1942, in the alphabet of which 2 letters "E" and "Y" were added, since then it has already consisted of 33 letters.

By the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, due to universal compulsory education, the widespread use of the press, mass media, cinema and television, the majority of the Russian population began to speak the standard Russian literary language. The influence of dialects is occasionally felt only in the speech of older people who live in remote rural areas.

Many linguists and scientists believe that the Russian language is unique in its richness and expressiveness, and that its existence arouses interest all over the world. This is evidenced by statistics that recognize him as the 8th most common language on the planet, because it is spoken by 250 million people.

The most interesting facts from the history of the development of the Russian language briefly:

it is included in 6 working languages in the United Nations (UN);
ranks 4th in the world in the list of the most translated into other languages;
large Russian-speaking communities live not only in the countries of the former USSR, but also in Turkey, Israel, the USA, etc.;
when studying Russian by foreigners, it is considered one of the most difficult, along with Chinese and Japanese;
the oldest books written in Old Russian: the Novgorod Codex (beginning of the 11th century) and the Ostrovir Gospel (1057) - in Church Slavonic;
has a unique alphabet, extraordinary types and cases, many rules and even more exceptions to them;
in the Old Slavonic alphabet, the first letter was "I";
the youngest letter "E", which appeared only in 1873;
in the Russian alphabet, some letters are similar to Latin ones, and 2 of them cannot be pronounced "b" and "b" at all;
in Russian there are words that begin with "Y", but these are geographical names;
in 1993, the longest word in the world out of 33 letters “X-ray electrocardiographic” got into the Guinness Book of Records, and already in 2003 - out of 39 letters “highly contemplating”;
in Russia, 99.4% of the population is fluent in their native language.

A Brief History of the Russian Language: Facts and Dates

Summing up all the data, you can create a chronological sequence of facts that happened from ancient times to the present day in the formation of the modern language:

The given brief history of the Russian language reflects the course of events rather conditionally. After all, the development and improvement of oral and written forms of speech, the publication of printed publications and literary masterpieces took place at different times, gradually gaining more and more popularity among various segments of the Russian population.

As the history and general characteristics of the Russian language testify, its development has been carried out over thousands of years, and enrichment through new words and expressions occurs under the influence of socio-political life, especially in the last 100 years. In the 21st century, its replenishment is actively influenced by the media and the Internet.

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