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Diseases and pests

Different approaches to psychological counseling. Psychological counseling. Basic approaches in psychological counseling

Objective

adj., uptr. cf. often

Morphology: objective, objective, objectively, objective; more objective; bunk bed objectively

1. In philosophy objective they call what exists outside a person, regardless of his consciousness, will, desire.

A person learns not the objective world, but his own ideas about the objective world. | Nature obeys objective laws. | The cause of the conflict is often not objective reality, but what is happening in the heads of people. |

bunk bed

I am sure that the spirit world exists objectively.

2. Objective truth they call the correct reflection in the consciousness of a person, in science, etc., of reality, of the real world around us.

3. Talking about objective reasons, circumstances, etc., you mean really existing reasons, circumstances, etc., which you cannot change.

For a number of objective reasons, we have to refuse you. | I was absent from the meeting due to objective circumstances. | We must act on the basis of an objective state of affairs.

4. Objective you name opinions, assessments, etc., which are not influenced by your personal feelings, your attitude to the subject under discussion.

I do not want your words to somehow influence my final and objective conclusion. | Criticism must always remain objective. | The commission's conclusion was quite objective. | The author of the book adheres to objective views of what is happening. |

bunk bed

To judge something objectively.

5. Objective you name what is fully consistent with reality, reflects what really happened at some time or is happening at the moment.

This book is an objective diary of revolutionary events. | The article is based on objective facts. | The study does not contain objective data. |

bunk bed

He reflected events objectively.

6. If you objective, which means that in your assessments, judgments, etc., you are not guided by your personal feelings and opinions, but proceed from the true essence, the cause of something.

You are not objective! | The judge must be objective in his judgments.

objectivity noun, f.

Objectivity of judgments.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Dmitriev... D. V. Dmitriev. 2003.

Synonyms:

Antonyms:

See what "objective" is in other dictionaries:

OBJECTIVE. Many abstract words that have entered general literary speech from the language of philosophy were introduced by Kant. Kant's teaching made a profound revolution in philosophical terminology. No wonder, according to a review in the "Monthly Rewiew" (1799), Kant's system ... ... History of words

- (new lat.objectivus). 1) subject. 2) related to the subject of our observation. 3) dispassionate, alien to personal sympathies and views. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov AN, 1910. OBJECTIVE impartial; ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

See fair ... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M .: Russian dictionaries, 1999. objective, real, valid; impartial, impartial, unbiased, unbiased; equitable;… … Synonym dictionary

OBJECTIVE, objective, objective; objective, objective, objective (book). 1. Corresponding to the object, existing outside of us and independently of us; real. “... A revolution cannot be made, ... revolutions grow out of an objective (regardless of ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Objective- Objective ♦ Objectif Anything that relates more to the object than to the subject; everything that exists independently of any subject, or, with the intervention of the subject (for example, in the narration or assessment), everything that serves ... ... Sponville's Philosophical Dictionary

OBJECTIVE, oh, oh; veins, vna. 1. Existing outside of us as an object (in 1 meaning). Objective reality. Objective reality. 2. Associated with external conditions, not depending on whose n. will, opportunities. Objective circumstances. ... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from Lat. objecivus. subject) relating to the object; objective, material, real, factual, which is not only thinkable, independent and abstracted from the subject, from subjective opinion, from the nature and interests of the subject; having ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

1. LENS see Lens. 2. OBJECTIVE, oh, oh; veins, vna, vno. 1. Existing outside consciousness and independently of it (opposites: subjective). O. world. Oh, oh, reality. About the laws of the development of nature, society. Nature obeys ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

objective- 1. Existing outside and independently of consciousness; inherent in the object itself or corresponding to it. 2. Corresponding to reality; unbiased, impartial. Dictionary of the Practical Psychologist. M .: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 ... Big psychological encyclopedia

objective- ▲ correct display, valid subjective objectivity. objective correctly, not distortedly reflecting reality. impartiality. unbiased (# observer). impartiality. impartiality. impartiality ... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

Books

Settlement and credit relations in foreign economic activity: Textbook, Veshkin Y. G. The objective process of globalization of the modern world economy requires the use of new instruments of settlement and credit relations, therefore, the study of various aspects and forms of them ...

objective; cr. f... -ven, -vna

1. OBJECTS VNYE see Objects in.

2. OBJECTS VNYE, th, th; -ven, -vna, -vno. 1. Existing outside consciousness and independently of it (opposed: subjective). O. world. Oh-oh reality. O-th patterns of development of nature, society. Nature obeys objective laws. Oh-oh truth(correct reflection in human consciousness, in science, etc., reality, the real world). O. idealism (philosophy .; a philosophical concept that recognizes the basis of all existing spirit, world mind, super-individual consciousness). 2. External, independent of smb. will, smb. opportunities. Oth reasons prevented me from arriving on time. Absent due to objective circumstances. For a number of objective reasons, we have to refuse you. 3. Free from bias; candid. O-th estimate. Oth conclusions. O-th conclusion. You are not objective! You must be objective in your judgments. Objects clearly adverb (1, 3 characters). To judge smth. O. Take smb. O. The connection between the phenomena of the world exists about. You're not really talking about. Objectivity,-and; f. About the existence of the outside world. O. estimates. O. judgments. I mentioned this for the sake of objectivity. This is only a semblance of objectivity!

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Synonyms: quick reference

OBJECTIVITY - SUBJECTIVITY
Objectivity of views - subjectivity of views. Objectivity in evaluation - subjectivity in evaluation.
OBJECTIVITY - NON OBJECTIVITY
Objective - biased
objectively - biased
“In a word,” Rubin brushed aside, “the concept of objectivity for you both here and nowhere does not exist. - Yes! I am biased and proud of it! I am proud of bias! Solzhenitsyn. In the first circle.

OBJECTIVE - SUBJECTIVE
An objective assessment is a subjective assessment. Objective position - subjective position. Ο Poetic activity consists of two elements: objective, represented by the external world, and subjective, vigilance of the poet. Fet. About F. Tyutchev's poems. Memory often leaves us with a subjective image of time, while we think that it is objective and accurate. Paustovsky. A time of great expectations. The dispute about a given work, whether it is poetry or not poetry, can be resolved on the basis of objective signs, and not subjective judgments. Bryusov. Synthetics of poetry. Music is also a subjective spirit, an internal state of mind. Plastic is already an embodied, objective spirit. J. Berdyaev. The fate of Russia.

The goals and objectives of psychological counseling. Psychological Counseling Approaches
in Russian psychology

In order to consciously advance in any kind of activity, you must first determine your goal, and then plan this activity, outlining tasks, the consistent implementation of which will lead to the desired goal. The same is true for psychological counseling.

The goals and objectives of psychological counseling can be defined in different ways - depending on the approach to psychological counseling in which we prefer to work.

Aleshina Yulia Evgenievna (1994) main purpose psychological counseling determines how psychological assistance, that is, a conversation with a psychologist should help a person in solving his problems and establishing relationships with others. With regard to this goal, the following are put forward tasks:

· one. Listening to the client, as a result of which his understanding of himself and his own situation should expand, food for thought should arise.

· 2. Easing the client's emotional state, that is, thanks to the work of a counselor psychologist, the client should feel better.

· 3. The client accepts responsibility for what is happening to him... It means that during the consultation the focus of the client's complaint should be shifted to himself, the person should feel responsible and guilty for what is happening, only in this case he will really try to change and change the situation, otherwise he will only wait for help and changes from others. The minimum program here is to show the client that he himself, at least in part, contributes to the fact that his problems and relationships with people are so complex and negative.

· 4. Help of a psychologist in determining what exactly and how can be changed in a situation.

Looking at the above list of tasks, it is easy to see that the second and third tasks are opposite to each other. If we want to alleviate the emotional state of the client, then we will involuntarily begin to say that he is not to blame for what happened, that we cannot ascribe to ourselves so much responsibility for what is happening - not everything depends on us, all people tend to make mistakes. And, conversely, if we want to encourage the client to take responsibility for everything that happens to him, then we will note that this inevitably leads at the same time to a deterioration in his emotional state. The consulting psychologist is forced to balance between the two poles posed by these tasks. In each specific case, he must independently decide which of these tasks is more relevant. There are situations when the topic of responsibility and guilt with the client should not be discussed at all, for example, if the client has suffered a serious loss. Here it is necessary to correct inadequate ideas, remove the burden of guilt and responsibility.

Let us consider how the question of the goals and objectives of psychological counseling is resolved in other approaches to psychological counseling, developed within the framework of the domestic psychological tradition.

Abramova Galina Sergeevna (2001, p. 186) defines the goal of psychological counseling as the culturally productive personality of the client, so that a person has a sense of perspective, acts consciously, is able to develop various strategies of behavior and analyze the situation from different points of view. In this regard, the main task of the consultant psychologist G.S. Abramova sees in creating conditions for a normal, mentally healthy client in which he would begin to create conscious unconventional methods of action that would allow him to act in accordance with the possibilities of culture.

Kochyunas Rimantas-Antanas Bronevich (1999) is in close positions. The goal of psychological counseling, from his point of view, is the appearance of a mature personality in the client. The primary task here is the appearance of mature personality traits in the consultant psychologist himself. These are the features of R.-A. Kochyunas. B. describes in detail (1999, pp. 25-32). In many ways, the appearance of these traits in the consultant R.-A. Kochyunas. B. associates with a variety of personal and professional life styles of a counselor psychologist.

Obozov N.N. (1993), as we have already said, saw the goal of the psychologist in counseling to clarify to the client the causes and effects of life situations. The task here will be to bring to the client psychological information relevant to his problems. This task gives rise to another one - the study of the individual psychological characteristics of the client, in order, based on them, to correctly convey this information, to take into account what and in what form a person is ready to accept. In this regard, Obozov N.N. laid the foundations of the client typology, outlined the adequate ways of behavior in relation to different types of clients of psychologists-consultants.

Florenskaya Tamara Aleksandrovna (1994) named her approach to psychological counseling spiritually oriented approach... As the main task facing the psychologist-consultant, she calls the task of helping the client to realize the reality of his "Spiritual Self". In the structure of personality T.A. Florenskaya distinguishes two formations:

· 1. “The empirical everyday self” is the focus of the qualities acquired by the personality during his lifetime.

From the point of view of T.A. Florenskaya, the highest manifestations of love, readiness for self-sacrifice, the ability to overcome the instinct of self-preservation for the sake of a higher meaning - the manifestation of the “spiritual I” of a person.

The “Spiritual Self” may not be realized or vaguely realized, but, even being unconscious, it can guide a person if his attitudes do not contradict the voice of his “Spiritual Self”. The form of coexistence of the “Spiritual I” and the “Empirical everyday I” is an internal dialogue. "Spiritual I" and "Empirical everyday I" often come into conflict, the result of which may be the ousting of the "Spiritual I" from consciousness, refusal of the desire to listen to his voice. Symptoms of such repression are dissatisfaction, the meaninglessness of existence, and unwillingness to live, tormenting a person.

Florenskaya T.A. described the conditions under which a person can return to awareness of the reality of his "Spiritual Self", begin to live in accordance with his requirements. First, as a result of sympathetic listening to the client, he himself can return to the position of his “Spiritual Self”. If this does not happen, then the psychologist, secondly, can act as follows. Having heard an internal dialogue in the client's story, the counselor psychologist stands in this dialogue on the supposed position of the client's "Spiritual Self", thus awakening and confirming his own spiritual knowledge. An important condition for work here is the "position of being outside" - the psychologist should not stoop to the arguments of the "Empirical everyday I" of the client, take the position they offer.

Andrey Feliksovich Kopyev (1992, 1991) called his approach to consulting dialogical... The purpose of working with a client within the framework of this approach, as can be seen from the works of A.F. Kopyev, is the achievement of the highest degrees of dialogical communication, when it is possible to fix the moment of self-discovery of a person in the most sincere discussion of significant personal problems. At the same time, discussion becomes a research field that allows one to touch the most deep and intimate laws of inner life and interpersonal communication.

The first task on the way to this is to achieve a "dialogical breakthrough", that is, the moment when the painful self-isolation of the individual is overcome in relation to the essential aspects of being. Signs of self-isolation are the fear of self-disclosure, discomfort from the feeling that you have to move to communication, deeper, more personal, it is possible to change in the process of this communication. A person is afraid of the dynamics inside his personality and outside it; he has almost lost his plasticity. He holds on to his acquired rigidity in the process of life and is afraid of losing it. The psychologist, being ready for a dialogue, encourages the client to it. The client's state of self-isolation should be replaced by a state of dialogical intention - a willingness to seriously and with full dedication to discuss and solve their problems here and now, with this consultant. The states of closeness and self-isolation are states of blockade of dialogic intention. An example of such a blockade can be increased talkativeness.

Kopyev A.F. described several typical forms of blockade of dialogic intention that are not always recognized by novice psychologists:

· one. Psychological intoxication. Looks like a completely unproductive, reasoning interest in psychology and psychotherapy. Awareness and presentation of oneself in terms of certain psychological concepts becomes an effective means of avoiding responsibility for one's life, taking one's behavior out of the zone of action of moral categories. Akin to the common explanation of "Wednesday stuck." The true circumstances of life, actions, thoughts, feelings turn out to be more or less noisy with a psychological diagnosis. The man gave up his will. Turning to a psychologist performs a protective function - it allows the client not to change anything, relieving him of responsibility for the absurdities and disorder of his life, but at the same time reflects the latent dissatisfaction and anxiety of a person for what is happening in his life.

· 2. Aesthetization of personal problems. A person perceives his problems, hardships and "complexes" as an aesthetic value, as something that imparts significance and depth to his personality. This is due to the widespread distribution of film and television - "dream factory". As a result, a person possessed by another, double cannot live for himself. Clients talk about "stages of a long journey," report that "this is material for a novel." A person becomes, as it were, insane, aloof from himself.

· 3. Manipulation-addiction. The client is fixed on manipulating other people, his life is an active search for ways to achieve his goals in relation to certain people from his environment. The desired goal captures the client so much that it puts him, as it were, outside of ethics. In a psychologist, such a client is looking for an instructor who would teach him the perfect manipulation techniques. This behavior is usually based on deep disappointment and despair. The client does not believe that people are able to accept and love him for who he really is, so he resorts to manipulation.

As one of the ways of working with situations of blockade of dialogical intention, A.F. Kopyev suggests using silence. The consultant must maintain "mental autonomy" and not be involved in the client's proposed game. The fundamental deficit of significant reactions of the psychologist in relation to the statements and reactions of the client, which are artificial, playful in nature, creates a kind of "free space" between them, prompting the client to self-disclosure and self-determination.

Kapustin Sergey Alexandrovich (1993) sees the main goal of psychological counseling in collapse of the polarity of the evaluative position... An evaluative position is a person's biased attitude to his life, which sets its target orientation, the subjective significance of the realization for the person himself of certain life goals. The polarity of the evaluative position means that a person recognizes for himself the realization of only some one life requirement and devalues the realization of the opposite. The polarity of the evaluative position is most often imposed on a person by his social environment; it is not the result of his free self-determination. At the same time, a person refuses free self-determination in life, deliberately rejects the demands of life that are opposed to the evaluative position.

Ermine P.P. and Vaskovskaya S.The. (1995) define their approach to psychological counseling as problem... They see the purpose of the work of a psychologist-consultant in the client's solution of their psychological problems. The emphasis here is on the word "Problems". Problems are placed at the center of work and are viewed not as a hindrance, but as driving forces for the development of the client's personality. A person with psychological difficulties predominantly concentrates his efforts in the plane of emotionally rich images and experiences. He feels uncomfortable and seeks to get rid of it. He is often far from thinking that it is possible that the fact that he is faced with a problem has a positive meaning for him. The psychologist's job is to help the client find this meaning. Attention is drawn to the fact that as a result of overcoming problems, a person enriches his experience, harmonizes his life.

Note that these psychologists are the authors of another interesting manual, only their names on the cover of this manual have changed places - Vaskovskaya S.V., Gornostay P.P. (1996). This manual provides examples of psychological counseling in relation to a significant number of counseling situations, provides various options for work for each situation, depending on the results of the diagnosis. This book can be found, for example, in the Russian State Library.

Boris Mikhailovich Masterov (1998) calls his approach to psychological counseling reconstructive... The primary task of the psychologist-consultant within the framework of this approach is the reconstruction in a situation "here and now" of a fragment of the client's subjective picture of the world, which is related to his problem. The next task of the consultant psychologist is to draw the client's attention to any aspects of his subjective picture of the world and experience that he had not previously noticed, analyzed, or considered. This helps the client to gain a new experience in the reconstructed reality, which can be defined within this approach as the goal of counseling.

B.M. Masters identified and described the basic elements of the subjective picture of the world, which make it possible to facilitate and systematize the process of isolating deep categories in the client's text. This is, first of all, space, time and evaluation... The worlds are highlighted: feelings and emotional states, bodily sensations, rules, norms and obligations, relationships, images; physical, aesthetic, psychological, symbolic and other worlds.

A.V. Yupitov (1995) put forward an interesting goal for psychological counseling in relation to the peculiarities of psychological counseling at a university - the impact on the sphere of value-semantic orientations of the individual, mediation of current instrumental actions in different situations based on the leading values of the individual and the correction of current behavior in accordance with these values. For example, is it worth it to quarrel with even an incompetent teacher, if it will close the road to a diploma and to further activities that make a lot of sense to you. Progress towards this goal puts forward the task of studying the value-semantic orientations of the individual at the diagnostic stage of counseling.

Menovshchikov V.Yu. (1998) defines the goal of psychological counseling as adaptation to life through the activation of vital resources. Psychological counseling he defines as a solution to a thinking-oriented problem... People rarely perceive their difficulties as a thinking-driven task. This may be their mistake. The need for thinking arises when, in the course of life, a person faces a new goal, new circumstances and conditions of activity, and the old means and methods of activity are insufficient to achieve them. With the help of mental activity, which originates in a problem situation, it is possible to create new ways, means of achieving goals and satisfying needs. It is in problem situations that the need for counseling arises. This approach to psychological counseling puts forward the task of mastering special knowledge in the psychology of thinking, the skills of activating thinking. The stages of psychological counseling within this approach coincide with the stages of the thought process.

5. General characteristics of insight-oriented approaches in psychological counseling. Psychological counseling. There is no single understanding of this term either. In its most general form, counseling is understood as professional assistance to a person or a group of people (for example, an organization) in finding ways to resolve or solving a certain difficult or problematic situation and is currently widely used in various spheres of human practice: school counseling, family counseling, professional counseling, organizational consulting. All these types of counseling, as a rule, include both psychological and socio-psychological aspects related to interpersonal interaction, group dynamics, and psychological aspects of management. Psychological counseling itself is traditionally viewed as a process aimed at helping a person in resolving (finding ways to resolve) the problems and difficulties of a psychological nature that arise in him. There are three main approaches to psychological counseling: a) problem-oriented counseling, which focuses on analyzing the essence and external causes of the problem, finding ways to resolve it; b) personality-oriented counseling aimed at analyzing individual, personal reasons for the occurrence of problem and conflict situations and ways to prevent them in the future; c) counseling focused on identifying resources to solve the problem. Obviously, personality-oriented counseling is similar in its focus to psychotherapy.
It is difficult to draw a clear line between the concepts of "psychological counseling" and "psychotherapy". The definition of psychotherapy as work with patients, and counseling - with healthy ones, does not fully satisfy even the formal criterion. Psychological counseling is also used in medicine (for example, psychological counseling for pregnant women or patients with somatic and neuro-organic diseases who are not actually undergoing psychotherapeutic treatment, but who asked for help in connection with personal problems not directly related to their disease), and psychological work with by persons with serious personality problems, content does not differ in any way from psychotherapy.
Most authors emphasize rather the similarities between psychotherapy and psychological counseling. Psychotherapy and psychological counseling: a) use psychological means of influence; b) perform mainly the functions of development and prevention (and sometimes - both treatment and rehabilitation); c) aim to achieve positive changes in the cognitive, emotional and behavioral spheres in the direction of increasing their effectiveness; d) contain psychological theories as their scientific basis; e) need empirical verification (study of effectiveness); f) carried out within a professional framework. There are different views on the difference between psychotherapy and counseling. Thus, Nelson-Jones views psychological counseling as a psychological process focused on prevention and development. The author identifies goals in counseling related to correction (for example, overcoming anxiety or fear) and developmental (for example, developing communication skills). From his point of view, counseling is predominantly corrective. Corrective goals provide preventive functions. Development is associated with tasks that a person needs to solve at various stages of his life (professional self-determination, separation from parents, the beginning of an independent life, creating a family, realizing his own capabilities, disclosing resources). Great importance is also attached to increasing personal responsibility for one's own life. The ultimate goal of counseling is to teach people to help themselves and thus to teach them to be their own counselors. Nelson-Jones sees the difference between psychotherapy and psychological correction in that psychotherapy focuses on personal (personal) change, and counseling - on helping a person to better use their own resources and improve the quality of life. He also emphasizes that, unlike psychotherapy, most of the information obtained during counseling appears in the mind of the patient in the intervals between sessions, as well as during periods when people try to help themselves after the end of counseling.

6. Existential Counseling.

Existential psychotherapy, as defined by I. Yalom, is a dynamic therapeutic approach that focuses on the basic problems of the individual's existence. Like any other dynamic approach (Freudian, neo-Freudian), existential therapy is based on a dynamic model of the functioning of the psyche, according to which, at various levels of the psyche (consciousness and the unconscious), conflicting forces, thoughts and emotions are present in the individual, and behavior (both adaptive and psychopathological) represents are the result of their interaction. Such forces in the existential approach are considered confrontation of an individual with the ultimate given of existence: death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness... It is assumed that a person's awareness of these ultimate given gives rise to suffering, fears and anxiety, which, in turn, triggers psychological defenses. Accordingly, it is customary to talk about four existential conflicts:

between the awareness of the inevitability of death and the desire to continue living;
between the awareness of your own freedom and the need to be responsible for your life;
between the awareness of one's own global loneliness and the desire to be part of a larger whole;
between the need for a certain structure, the meaning of life and the awareness of indifference (indifference) of the Universe, which does not offer specific meanings.

Every existential conflict is alarming. Moreover, anxiety can either remain normal or develop into neurotic. Let us illustrate this point with the example of anxiety arising from human existential vulnerability to death. Anxiety is considered normal if people use the existential threat of death to their advantage, as a learning experience, and continue to develop. Especially striking are the cases when, having learned about a fatal disease, a person begins to live his life more meaningfully, productively and creatively. Psychological defenses are evidence of neurotic anxiety. So, for example, a terminally ill person experiencing neurotic anxiety may unnecessarily risk his life by displaying manic heroism. Neurotic anxiety also involves suppression and is destructive rather than constructive. It should be noted that existential counselors, working with anxiety, do not try to remove it altogether, but seek to reduce it to a comfortable level and then use the existing anxiety to increase the client's awareness and vitality.

Gestalt counseling.

Gestalt counseling is based on the analysis of holistic structures - gestalts, primary in relation to their components. Gestalt-oriented counseling opposes the structural principle put forward by psychology of dividing consciousness into elements and building from them - according to the laws of association or creative synthesis - complex mental phenomena.

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Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

behavioral psychological counseling psychoanalytic

Introduction

Psychological counseling as a profession is a relatively new area of psychological practice that has emerged from psychotherapy. This profession has arisen in response to the needs of people who are not clinically impaired, but who are looking for psychological help. Therefore, in psychological counseling, we are faced primarily with people who experience difficulties in everyday life. The range of problems is truly wide: difficulties at work (dissatisfaction with work, conflicts with colleagues and managers, the possibility of dismissal), unsettled personal life and turmoil in the family, poor school performance, lack of self-confidence and self-esteem, agonizing hesitation in decision-making, difficulties in establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, psychological counseling, as a young area of psychological practice, does not yet have strictly delineated boundaries; a variety of problems fall into its field of vision.

Some uncertainty of the subject of psychological counseling is reflected in the variety of definitions. Thus, the Licensing Commission of the Association of Employees and Managers of the United States, which issues permits for private practice, offers the following definition: “Counseling is a set of procedures aimed at helping a person in solving problems and making decisions about professional career, marriage, family, personal development and interpersonal relationships ". N. Burks and B. Steffire (1979) proposed a somewhat broader definition of counseling: “Counseling is a professional attitude of a qualified consultant to a client, which is usually presented as a“ person-person ”, although sometimes it involves more than two people. The purpose of counseling is to help clients understand what is happening in their living space and meaningfully achieve their goal based on informed choices in resolving emotional and interpersonal problems. "

Comparison of behavioral and psychoanalytic approaches in psychological counseling

Behavioral approach.

The behavioral approach in psychological counseling is an approach where the focus of the psychologist is on human behavior, actions and the results of our actions, everything is objective. He relies on the theory of learning and sees the cause of human difficulties and problems in the fact that in certain unfavorable environmental conditions the subject has learned "wrong" and maladaptive forms of behavior that bring suffering to him and the people around him. Human behavior is directed (directed towards something or from something, to some extent meaningful and expedient) personally or socially significant actions, the source of which is the person himself, and the author's responsibility for which is assigned to him. Unlike psychoanalysis and the humanistic direction of therapy, behavioral counselors focus not on internal conflicts and motives, but on human behavior visible to an external observer, and believe that problem behavior can be unlearned using special procedures based on the laws of learning. The goal of a behavioral approach in counseling is to eliminate inappropriate behavior (eg, excessive anxiety) and teach adaptive behavior (social interaction skills and confident behavior). How to overcome the fear of speaking in front of an audience, improve the behavior of a capricious and aggressive child, wean yourself from overeating, protect yourself in a conflict situation and learn to interact with the opposite sex are typical tasks solved in behavioral counseling. The emphasis of the work is not on self-understanding, but on exercises and the development of certain skills. What will be the result is important, and everything internal, spiritual and deep is important only to the extent that it is connected with real behavior, with what is being done.

Psychoanalytic approach.

The basis of psychoanalysis is the topographic model of personality proposed by Freud, which consists of three layers: conscious, preconscious and unconscious. The level of consciousness is thoughts, sensations, experiences that a person is able to be aware of at a given moment in time. The area of the preconscious includes all experiences that are not realized at the moment, but can easily return to consciousness. The unconscious is the deepest and most significant area of the mental, containing instinctive drives, desires, memories, and other material, the release of which to the conscious level is associated with a feeling of threat, anxiety, anxiety. According to Freud, it is this unconscious material that largely determines our daily functioning of the personality.

Personality, according to Freud, consists of three main components - "Id" (It), "Ego" (I) and "Super-ego" (Super-I). The first component - "Id" (It) - functions entirely in the unconscious and, in fact, is the energy basis of the personality. It contains the basic instincts, desires and impulses with which people are born, namely: Eros - the instinct for pleasure and sex and Thanatos - the death instinct, which can motivate aggression or destructiveness towards oneself or others. The id seeks immediate gratification, regardless of social norms or the rights and feelings of others (acts according to the pleasure principle).

The second component of personality is "Ego" (I). Ego is intelligence. The "ego" seeks ways to satisfy instincts, taking into account the norms and rules of society, finding compromises between the unreasonable requirements of the "id" and the requirements of the real world. The ego follows the reality principle and operates through a secondary process. The purpose of the reality principle is to prevent the voltage from being discharged until a suitable object is found. With the help of a secondary process (realistic thinking and other higher mental processes), the "Ego" develops mechanisms that allow it to adapt to the environment, to cope with its requirements. Freud considered the most important function of the “Ego” to be self-preservation, as well as the acquisition of means that would allow for simultaneous adaptation to the influences from the “Id” and to the requirements of the surrounding reality. The "ego" system takes on the function of delaying instinctive discharge and its control and implements it with the help of various mechanisms, including defense mechanisms.

"Superego" is a personality component that develops in the process of education as a result of the internalization of parental and social values. S. Freud uses the term "introjection" for this process. "Superego" includes introjected values, our "shoulds" and "nos". This is our conscience. "Superego" acts on the basis of a moral principle, violation of its norms leads to feelings of guilt.

Freud believed that there is an unstable balance between the three components of personality ("Id" - "Ego" - "Superego"), since not only the content, but also the direction of their development are opposite to each other. As a result of the collisions occurring between them, intrapsychic, or psychodynamic, conflicts arise. According to Freud, the number of these conflicts, their nature and methods of resolution give form to the personality and determine many aspects of its behavior. Personality is reflected in how a person solves the problem of satisfying a wide range of their needs. Normally, adaptive behavior is associated with a small number of conflicts and / or with effective resolution of them. Multiple, severe or poorly managed conflicts lead to deviant personality traits, deviations, or mental disorders.

The purpose of psychoanalytic counseling in this case is the translation into consciousness of the material displaced into the unconscious. The counselor helps the client replay early experiences and analyze repressed conflicts; to become aware of unconscious motives, fixations, defense mechanisms, modes of behavior, etc., everything that leads to the strengthening of the ego and the construction of more realistic behavior.

Comparisononcriteria:

A look at human nature, behavior and development.

Behavioral approach:

A person is dependent on past experience, or rather, his product is the result of past reinforcements.

The human body is a black box. Human behavior is the result of a stimulus-reactive pattern. Only what is observed at the entrance to this "box" and at the exit from it is reliable. Personality is a set of behaviors that are characteristic of a given person. The differences between people are due to the difference in their environment.

The development of personality occurs in the process of differentiation, hierarchization of motives, the formation of new patterns of behavior based on reinforcement. Secondary motives gradually become leading. The reinforcement system is also becoming more complex: primary reinforcements lose their role. Reactions are differentiated, generalized on the basis of speech, and acquire an internal organization.

Psychoanalytic approach:

All manifestations of human activity are subject to certain laws and are determined by powerful instinctive forces, especially sexual and aggressive instincts. People are motivated by irrational impulses from the realm of the unconscious.

The human psyche in psychodynamics is represented by the following structure: IT (instincts, reservoir of psychic energy); I - stands out from IT, its role is to be an intermediary between the instinctive demands of the organism and the conditions of the environment, I follows the principle of reality and operates with a secondary process - thinking; Swer-I is an internal representation of traditional values and ideals. The superego is the moral strength of the personality. Its main task is to assess the right or wrong of something in terms of moral social standards.

The dynamics of the personality is determined by the methods of distribution and use of psychic energy on the part of the Id, I and the Super-I. Since the total amount of energy is limited, the three systems compete for the possession of energy. One system gains control over energy at the expense of the other two. With the strengthening of one system, the other two inevitably weaken, unless the overall system gains new energy. The personality develops on the basis of four sources of tension:

1) physiological growth processes;

2) frustrations;

3) conflicts;

A direct consequence of the increase in tension arising from these four sources is that the personality is forced to master new ways of reducing tension. This is what is meant by personality development. Identity and displacement are two methods by which the individual learns to resolve frustrations, conflicts, and anxieties.

Oral (0-1), anal (1-3), phallic (3-6), latent (6-11) and genital (11 and further) stages of personality development are distinguished. Each of them corresponds to the development of that part of the organism and its functions of the individual, which are most active in a given period and require control from him. Accordingly, the types of characters are distinguished, depending on which of these stages the fixation of the individual took place.

Basic theoretical concepts.

Behavioral approach:

1. Human activity is explained from the standpoint of the objective relationship stimulus-response. Information is entered, followed by the result, and what happens or does not happen later (reinforcement) determines the likelihood of a repetition of such a reaction following the input of information in the future.

2. The fundamental position of the reactivity of orgasm to external and internal stimuli is emphasized.

3. Formation of personality is considered as a result of learning: reinforcement of some types of behavior and extinction of others.

Psychoanalytic approach:

1. Recognizing that "things are not what they seem", that human behavior and consciousness are highly determined by unconscious motives that can evoke seemingly irrational feelings and behavior. Psychoanalysis is characterized by the idea of recognizing the unconscious as a factor determining behavior, often the opposite of perceived goals.

2. Explanation of the continuing influence of the specifics of the treatment of significant others in very early childhood on the nature of the experience of an adult. From this point of view, early life experience leads to the formation of stable inner worlds, which emotionally charge the constructions of the outer worlds and their emotional experience. The inner worlds are created in very early childhood and represent the constructed basis for the passage of life - psychic reality.

3. Establishment as the main regulator of the mental life of an individual of psychological defense aimed at overcoming internal anxiety. Practically all schools of psychoanalysis are characterized by the recognition that one hundred consciousness and our internal versions of the world - established in childhood - are systematically changed in order to avoid anxiety. Psychological defense aims to create inner versions of the world that reduce anxiety and make life more bearable. Since psychological defense often manifests itself unconsciously precisely with the action of its mechanisms and many of our irrational actions and ideas are associated.

The nature of human psychological difficulties.

Behavioral approach:

Emotional problems are seen as the result of the formation of a connection between emotion and a certain stimulus (for example, the teacher causes anxiety in the child). While recognizing that past events have influenced the client's problems, behavioral psychotherapists do not investigate the root of the disorder. Neurotic behavior, like normal behavior, is seen as the result of reinforcement.

The reasons for behavioral problems are the lack of an adequate parental model, deprivation of basic needs, trauma, an unsupported environment, and the inability to test and reinforce certain behavioral patterns.

Psychoanalytic approach:

The nature of human difficulties is associated with the resolution of the main conflict between the self and the superego, that is, the requirements of the individual and the requirements of society, which generates anxiety. To cope with anxiety, a person includes psychological defenses. However, such inclusion sometimes leads to incomplete development of the personality. Man is not what he really is. And how it should be for others (as a rule, those tough patterns of behavior that were laid in early childhood).

Methods of psychotherapy, their goals and purposes.

Behavioral approach:

Behavioral psychotherapy is symptomatic and is built as a process of extinction of undesirable behavior, re-conditioning, modeling, teaching social skills, problem learning.

Methods such as systematic desensitization, aversive psychotherapy, and extinction techniques are built on the principles of classical conditioning. psychological counseling psychoanalytic

The training of assertiveness (training of social abilities) and behavior modification are based on operant conditioning. Modeling relies heavily on imitation.

Psychoanalytic approach:

The main method: analysis of free associations, which is used in the analysis of mistakes, clearing, slips, slips, accidental or symptomatic actions, analysis of client dreams, introspection, transfer analysis, interpretation of resistance, emotional retraining.

The goal is to bring the repressed, affectively charged material of the unconscious to the light of consciousness, in order to include its energy in vital activity. What is possible in the opinion of S. Freud in an emotional response (catharsis).

Advantages and limitations of the direction.

Behavioral approach:

Advantages:

Analysis of behavioral practice, pragmatism, operationalizability, verifiability, high validity and reliability.

Flaws:

Ignoring the activity of consciousness and subjective experience, extraspectivity, the impossibility of grasping the real life experiences of the subject, tracking and explaining their dynamics, isolation from the real experiences of the subject and his phenomenology of being.

Psychoanalytic approach:

Advantages:

Investigation of the sphere of the unconscious, the use of clinical methods, non-traditional insights, methods of therapeutic practice, the study of real experiences and problems of the client.

Flaws:

High subjectivity, metaphor, low validity, focus on the past to the detriment of the present and future in the development of the subject.

By the degree of directivity:

Behavioral approach:

The client and therapist must agree on what problem they are going to work on. It is the solution of problems, and not a change in the personality characteristics or shortcomings of the patient. The therapist must be very empathic, natural, congruent (principles taken from humanistic psychotherapy); there should be no directiveness.

Psychoanalytic approach:

Psychoanalysts represent the individual as a victim of a conflict between social norms and biological instincts. In this direction, the personality is destructive, unadapted, dependent, outdated, ill, and therefore it must be treated according to a given psychoanalytic scheme, the psychologist finds himself in a position "above", and the studied person becomes an object, thing or victim of circumstances, fate, other people who, knowing better than the person himself, what he needs for happiness, they treat and develop him. This is the directivity and manipulative nature of this direction.

Conclusion

The psychoanalytic approach emphasizes the importance of intrapsychic conflicts for understanding the genesis and treatment of emotional disorders, which are the result of a dynamic and often unconscious struggle of conflicting motives within the personality.

It also emphasizes the importance for personal development of very early relationships between children and their love objects, usually the mother and primary caregivers. Particularly critical in a person's life is how the primary figures provide for the satisfaction of the child's physical and psychological needs.

Intrapsychic therapy is based on the principle that psychological problems and destructive behavior of a person are the result of an inadequate interpretation of his feelings, needs and motives, that is, inadequacy of self-awareness. The goal of therapy is, therefore, to help a person understand the reasons for his poor adaptation to reality and to enable him to adapt to it by changing himself and his behavior.

In the behavioral approach, human neuroses and personality anomalies are considered as an expression of maladaptive behavior developed in ontogenesis. Psychotherapy is associated with the need to form optimal behavioral skills in the person who applied for help.

Behavioral therapy, based on the principle that any human behavior is acquired, attempts, using conditioning methods or models, to replace a person's inappropriate behavior with another, which would allow him to act more adequately.

Bibliography

1. Aleshina Yu. E. Individual and family psychological counseling / Yu. E. Alyoshina. M .: Infra-M, 2009.

2. Gladding S. Psychological counseling / S. Gladding. SPb .: Peter, 2010.

3. Kochyunas R. Psychological counseling. Group psychotherapy: textbook / R. Kochyunas. 7th ed. Moscow: Academic Project: Mir Foundation, 2010.

4. Menovshchikov V.Yu. Introduction to psychological counseling / V.Yu. Money changers. M .: Smysl, 2012.

5. Hall KS, Lindsay G. Theories of personality / K.S. Hall, G. Lindsay. M .: Publishing house "Psychotherapy", 2008.

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