Home Flowers The brightest Viennese representatives of the classical school. Vienna Classical School of Music. Aesthetic settings of classicism

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The brightest Viennese representatives of the classical school. Vienna Classical School of Music. Aesthetic settings of classicism

Mozart is a representative of the Vienna Classical School

It was founded in Austria in the late 18th - early 19th century. Three great composers are associated with it - Haydn, Beethoven and Mozart, each of whom had a bright creative personality.

The music is distinguished by a light, joyful mood - lyrical and dramatic. preferred the heroic pathos of struggle, overcoming, victory, was a big fan of instrumental music. For many years he worked on the creation of the only opera Fidelio.

Haydn tried himself in different genres, but he achieved the greatest success in the field of instrumental music and oratorio (“The Creation of the World”, “The Seasons”).

Mozart was close to opera.

For all the individuality of each composer, their common features are revealed: realism, optimistic, life-affirming character, genuine nationality, democracy. Their writings harmoniously combine the tragic beginning with the comic, the free flight of fantasy - with precise calculation, clarity, perfection of form. They expressed even the most complex content in a simple, understandable language.

At this time, German poetry also flourished. The best thinkers and artists of that era put forward new humanistic ideals. Many of these ideals were embodied in the work of the composers of the Vienna Classical School.

Mozart frequently visited Italy to study Italian instrumental music. Since the population of Austria was multinational, the school included not only Austrian Germans, but also Hungarians, Czechs, Slovenes, who had an original folk culture. Haydn absorbed these elements of folk art and later displayed them in his writings. Mozart rarely used folk melodies, but we can often see their spirit and character in operas (The Magic Flute, Don Giovanni). Beethoven had the greatest interest in folk art.

Composers have developed a universal language of world musical art. Haydn wrote: "My language is understandable throughout the world", he was characterized by simplicity, clarity and expressiveness. The composers of the Vienna Classical School, relying on the wealth of folk song art, came to an understanding of the new melody. The appearance of this new melody takes on the “face” of the composition.

The main form for the Vienna Classical School is the sonata allegro. The development of instrumental music in the work of composers is closely connected with the development of the instruments of performing ensembles and associations. Such an association was the symphony orchestra, which was formed in the second half of the 18th century. Not a single instrument that was part of the symphony orchestra was new - only its functions have changed.

In the field of opera, significant achievements of Mozart and Beethoven were involved. Three of Mozart's most important operas - The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute - laid the foundation for the development of various types of classical opera. The development of the genre of Haydn's oratorios "The Creation" and "The Seasons" crowned his work.

The legacy of the composers of the "Vienna Troika" is one of the pinnacles of world musical art. It had a huge impact on the entire subsequent development of classical music. The works of the composers of the Vienna Classical School still remain an unsurpassed example.

Vienna Classical School

(Viennese classics, Viennese classicism, Viennese classics) - the direction of European music of the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th centuries. Composers Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven belong to it.

Music features

The three great composers of the Viennese school are united by their virtuosity in the most diverse styles of music and compositional techniques: from folk songs to baroque polyphony. The Viennese classics created that high type of instrumental music in which all the richness of figurative content is embodied in a perfect artistic form.

The main feature of this direction is the use of three techniques: obligatory accompaniment, the presence of cross-cutting themes, and work on the theme and form.

The work of the Viennese classics expresses a dynamic understanding of life processes, which found its most complete embodiment in sonata form and determined the symphony of many of their compositions. With symphonism, in a broad sense, the flowering of the leading instrumental genres of the era - symphony, sonata, concerto and chamber ensemble, the final formation of a 4-movement sonata-symphony cycle is associated.

The heyday of the Viennese classical school coincided with the general process of the formation of a symphony orchestra - its stable composition, the functional definiteness of orchestral groups. The main classical types of chamber ensembles were formed - the piano trio, string quartet and others. Of the music for solo instruments, piano music stood out especially. Mozart's operatic work opened up broad prospects for the development of various types of opera - lyrical and socially accusatory comedy, musical drama, philosophical fairy tale opera, and others.

Each of the masters of the Viennese classical school had a unique personality. Haydn and Beethoven were closest to the sphere of instrumental music, Mozart equally proved himself in both operatic and instrumental genres. Haydn gravitated more towards objective folk-genre images, humor, jokes, Beethoven - towards heroism, Mozart, being a universal artist - towards various shades of lyrical experience.

Vienna, the capital of musical culture of that time, became the central platform for the development of this musical direction. And if Paris with its opera and London with its public concerts were the musical cities of Europe in the second half of the 18th century, then Vienna, after the death of the famous Mozart and Beethoven's move to it, occupied a dominant position in the world of music. And if Mozart during his lifetime was rather one of the famous Viennese composers, then Beethoven already considered Vienna the crown of his creative career. This circumstance was perspicaciously noted by an admirer of Beethoven, Count Ferdinand Ernst Gabriel von Waldstein, in his letter to him: “Thanks to your tireless diligence, you will receive the spirit of Mozart from the hands of Haydn”

The term "Viennese classics" was first used by the Austrian musicologist Raphael Georg Kizewetter in 1834 in relation to Haydn and Mozart. Later, other authors added Beethoven to this list. The Viennese classics are also often referred to as representatives of the First Viennese School.

The system of genres, forms and rules of harmony, developed by the classical Viennese school, retains its significance to this day.

Vienna Classical School

http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enc_music/1528/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F

(German Wiener Klassik) - a creative direction that developed in Austria in the 2nd half. 18th century - 1st quarter of the 19th century. Three great composers belong to it - J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart and L. Beethoven. Each of them had a bright creativity. individuality, which determined both the general character of music, and the choice of genres, and the features of the muses. language. So, in Haydn's music, bright, joyful moods predominate, genre elements play a leading role; Mozart's lyrical-dramatic character stands out in particular. Start; The dominant feature of Beethoven's music is heroic. pathos of struggle, overcoming, victory. Haydn wrote in a variety of genres, but the most significant. contributed to the field of instr. music and oratorio ("Creation of the World", "Seasons"); in the work of Mozart, who enriched and instr. music, the most important place belongs to the opera; Beethoven, creator of unities. opera "Fidelio", on which he worked for many years, by the nature of his talent gravitated towards instr. music. For all their individual originality, the most important common features are found in the work of these artists: realism, optimistic, life-affirming character, humanistic orientation, genuine nationality, democracy. Works by composers V. k. sh. distinguishes the breadth of coverage of life content. Deep seriousness is organically combined in them with cheerfulness, joke, tragedy. beginning - with a comic. The emotional connects with the rational; free flight of fantasy - with precise calculation, utmost harmony, clarity, perfection of form. Representatives of V. to. sh. they were able to express even the most complex content in an extremely simple, understandable language. V. k. sh. like art. direction evolved as you move towards creativity. maturity of its senior representatives - Haydn and Mozart. And the work of the late Beethoven already goes beyond the limits typical for the entire V. to. sh. style. Therefore, some researchers (G. Abert) limit the period of V. to. sh. 1782-1812, although the creative activity of Haydn and Mozart began several decades earlier, and the youngest of the representatives of the V. k. sh., Beethoven, continued to work until 1827. The formation of V. k. sh. falls on the years of rapid development of it. and Austrian enlightenment. It is experiencing its heyday. poetry; art emerges. criticism, reaches a high development of philosophy. The major artists and thinkers of the era - Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Kant, Hegel - put forward new humanistic. ideals. The best representatives of it. and Austrian cultures also absorb advanced socio-political, ethical. and aesthetic French ideas. bourgeois enlighteners. Many of their aesthetic ideals, in particular the slogan of freedom and naturalness proclaimed by Rousseau, were embodied in the work of composers of V. k. sh. Beethoven's work was indelibly influenced by the ideas of the Great French. revolution. Composers V. k. sh. inherited the achievements of the so-called. early Viennese school, the most prominent representatives of which were G. X. Wagenseil (1715-77), G. M. Monn (1717-50), G. Muffat (1690-1770), J. Starzer (1726-87). However, the music the origins of V. k. sh. are not reduced to the Austrian proper. art-wu - they are much wider. Among them is Italian. opera, which has long been cultivated in Vienna, and Italian. instr. music. Mozart met with Italian. music not only in Vienna, but also in Italy itself, which he visited in 1771 and in 1772-73. An important role in V.'s formation to. sh. belongs to the Mannheim school that has developed in Bavaria; it included prominent Czechs. musicians J. Stamitz (1717-57), F. K. Richter (1709-89), K. Kannabich (1731-98), and others. The work of J. S. Bach (1685-1750), his sons Carl Philipp Emanuel (1714-88) and Johann Christoph (1732-95), as well as G. F. Handel (1685-1759) also had a role. Direct V.'s predecessor to. sh. was K. V. Gluck (1714-87). He began his operatic reform in Vienna (1750-72) and in his Parisian operas remained largely faithful to the Viennese tradition. Gluck created an opera art of world significance, which influenced the entire subsequent development of Europe. operas. "Glukov-sky" features are clearly reflected in "Idomeneo" and "Don Giovanni" by Mozart, in the overtures to the opera "Fidelio" and Beethoven's oratorios. Haydn's work was also influenced by the music of England, which he visited in 1791-92 and 1794-95. Among the most important muses. the origins of V. to. sh. - Nar. music. The population of Austria was multinational - in its composition, in addition to the Austrians. Germans, also included Czechs, Hungarians, Slovenes, who had their own original bed. music culture. People met in Vienna. musicians of all these nationalities. Composers V. k. sh. absorbed elements of their art, to-rye formed in their work a characteristic Austrian. "alloy". Most directly nar. Haydn implemented melodies in his compositions. Mozart rarely resorted to the use of genuine bunks. melodies, but deeply assimilated their character and spirit; many of the original themes he created are close to those of Nar. German and Austrian song (for example, in the operas "The Magic Flute", "Don Giovanni"). Great interest in Nar. Beethoven showed song. They carried out numerous processings of bunks. songs diff. nationalities. The work of composers V. k. sh. was closely associated with Viennese everyday music. This is evidenced by the divertissements, serenades, cassations created by Haydn and Mozart, marches and dances written by Beethoven. Composers V. k. sh. essentially summarized the entire previous experience of world music. art. On this basis, and while maintaining the leading role of German. and Austrian nat. element, they developed a truly universal language. "My language is understood throughout the world," wrote Haydn, and so it was in reality. Composers V. k. sh. realized the aspirations of advanced thinkers and musicians of the era - Herder, who considered music as the "art of mankind", Gluck, who admitted that he would like to write music understandable to all people. Muses. the language of composers V. k. sh. characterized by simplicity, clarity, expressiveness. Compared with the music of the pre-classical and early classical. periods, their rhythm is more natural, relaxed, varied and characteristic. One of the important new features of the muses. the language of representatives of V. to. sh. - clear articulation of music. fabrics into relatively short constructions, a kind of "express. cells", "grains", corresponding to a single structural principle. In this regard, the support for the composers of V. k. sh. served as people song and dance with their characteristic principle of structural association of an even number of measures - two, four, eight, etc. Of particular importance in the work of the Viennese classics is the eight-bar period, which breaks up into two similar four-bar sentences (the latter, in turn, are divided into two-bars). V. k. sh. brought with it a tremendous enrichment of harmony. If V.'s predecessors to. sh. mainly used the chords of the three basics. functions, representatives of V. to. sh. other consonances of the major and minor systems are also widely used, which marks the return at a new stage to the richness of harmonics. the language of G. F. Handel - J. S. Bach. They use dissonances, chromatisms more freely. The art of modulation reaches a high level of development among them. They also use chromatic, enharmonic. modulation; unexpected harmonies. "turns" are especially frequent in the late Haydn and Mozart. Although the representatives of the V. k. sh., like the composers of the pre-classical. period, give preference to major keys, the range of keys they use is greatly expanded. Along with the characteristic the interpretation of each individual tonality is mastered to express. and form-building possibilities of matching tonalities. Relying on the wealth of the folk-song art, representatives of V. k.sh. came to a new understanding of the melody, its functions and possibilities. It is with the period of V. to. sh. the statement of muses is connected. themes not only as a carrier of a certain expressiveness, but also as art. an image containing rich potential for development. In the process of becoming V. to. sh. characteristic, individuality, expressiveness of the original melodic. construction, themes are of great importance. Its "appearance" from the first bars now determines the "face" of the work. In accordance with the song warehouse, the theme in the works of composers V. k. sh. most often stated in the form of a rounded period. With all the laconism of such a structure, the theme often turns out to be internally complex, since it usually consists of a number of individual, opposing and balancing motifs. Because of this, the classic music the theme is able to develop intensively, being subjected to decomp. transformations, but without losing the most creatures. traits that allow the listener to "recognize" it even in a heavily modified form. Composers V. k. sh. reached the highest skill in the field of thematic. development, development, using a variety of techniques - changing the key, harmonization, rhythm, melody elements, etc. But it is especially characteristic for them to divide the topic into separate parts. motives, to-rye themselves are decomposed. transformations and are combined with each other in different ways. Thus, the "seed" of development is sometimes not the whole topic, but only its motive. Nevertheless, thanks to the logic, purposefulness of development (especially in the works of Beethoven), the listener often gets the impression that everything "embedded" in this thematic. The nucleus develops "self" like a living organism. Haydn and Beethoven often build whole parts on the basis of a few motifs, which, among other things, ensures the unity and integrity of the compositions. Mozart with his melodic usually more "wasteful" by ingenuity, but he also appreciated the way "motivated" development, having studied it from the writings of Haydn, a pioneer in this field. The main and most characteristic for V. to. sh. music the form is the sonata allegro. Although its formation began means. earlier, it was the composers of V. k. sh. made a decisive contribution to the formation of the sonata allegro and created a truly classic. the type of this form. The leading principle of the sonata allegro they created is contrast and its subsequent softening, bringing to unity (see. sonata form ). Sonata allegro by composers V. k. sh. is the "cornerstone" of multipart instr. forms. In their work there is a classic. type of four-part sonata-symphony. cycle - with a slow lyrical second part, a minuet or scherzo as the third part and a lively, often rondo-like finale. This cycle underlies all major instr. works of composers V. k. sh. - symphonies, various chamber ensembles named after their composition (trios, quartets, quintets, etc.), sonatas for solo instruments and with accompaniment. Only classic. the concerto is built as a three-movement cycle - it lacks a minuet and a scherzo. Otherwise, deviations from the above scheme are rare. Sonata-symphony. the cycle, which is a logically coherent and expedient combination of parts, served as the basis for the highest achievements of the composers of the V. k. sh. in the field of instr. music. In these large instr. writings expressing great vital content, they rose to the highest level of artistic generalization. In many mature instrumental compositions by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, a single ideological concept also determines the thematic connections between the individual parts. Mighty development instr. music in the work of composers V. k. sh. is closely connected with the development of tools, will perform. ensembles and associations. The highest such association was symphony. orchestra, formed precisely during this period. The composition of the so-called. classical (small) symphony. the orchestra was established in the 2nd floor. 18th century in the work of J. Haydn. None of the instruments included in the classic. the orchestra was not new; however, their functions have changed. The composition of the orchestra as a whole has stabilized. The leading place in the orchestra was occupied by the violin and instruments of its family (bow quintet), the clarinet and horn entered the wind group as equal members. The trombone entered the symphony. orchestra only from Beethoven's 5th symphony. With a rather large group of string instruments (from 24 to 30 violins, 10-20 other string instruments), a paired composition of wood (except for the flute) and brass wind instruments was established (3-4 horns were involved only as an exception); drums were constantly used timpani. All tools were used in the most natural way. volumes and registers. Brass who performed before will help. functions became independent. group with characteristic timbre capabilities. New in the field of chamber-instr. ensembles was the strengthening of their composition - the former diverse associations were replaced by strictly regulated stable compositions of strings and piano. trio, strings. quartet, quintet, duet Ph.D. instrument and fp. Of the solo instruments, the pianoforte acquired paramount importance, gradually replacing the clavichord and harpsichord (chambalo). The very interpretation of the piano has changed: the transparency, chamber sounding characteristic of the works of Mozart and Haydn has been replaced by the "orchestral" sounding of Beethoven's works. In the field of opera, the achievements of Mozart and Beethoven are especially significant (Haydn paid less attention to opera). New operatic forms developed in Mozart's work with great gradualness, based on the assimilation of the experience of predecessors (Italian opera seria and opera buffa, especially its late Neapolitan varieties, the German Singspiel, Gluck's "reformist" operas). Three of Mozart's most significant operas - "The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni" and "The Magic Flute" - laid the foundations for decomp. classical types. operas - realistic. comedy, characterized by acute philosophical and psychological. conflict, comedy-drama ("Dramma giocosa", as Mozart himself called "Don Giovanni") and poetic nar. music fairy tales. These operas are distinguished by deep realism, subtle individuality. delineation of characters acting in complex relationships, genuine music. dramaturgy, permeating the whole action, organic. a combination of various, seemingly opposing principles - serious, sublime and cheerful, comic. Although the first two of these operas were written in Italian. libretto, they were addressed to the Austrian. and German. listener and made up the most important stages in the development of it. nat. operas. Beethoven in his "Fidelio" created a peculiar type of sublime revolutionary-heroic. opera, generalizing and rethinking the experience of Gluck and the "opera of salvation" from the time of the Great French. revolution. The brightest milestone in the development of the oratorio genre was Haydn's oratorios The Creation of the World and The Seasons, which crowned his work. Combining elements of Handel's oratorios, opera, singspiel, song, church music and symphony, Haydn created deeply impressive works that combine the significance of content with the simplicity and accessibility of musical language. Presented in the works of composers V. k. sh. church genres. music, without changing externally, rethought "from the inside". Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven sated their muses. images of exceptional brightness and depth (Mozart's Requiem); from the works of the Church. everyday life, they have become a special kind of concert wok.-instr. music (Beethoven's Mass in C-dur and the Solemn Mass in D-dur). The work of composers V. k. sh. is one of the pinnacles of world music. lawsuit. It had an indelible influence on the entire subsequent development of the muses. lawsuit. The brightness and depth of thematics, the logicality and purposefulness of development, the rigor and at the same time the spirituality and freedom of forms in the works of composers of V. k. sh. still remains an unsurpassed example.

Literature: Braudo E. M., General history of music, vol. 2, L., 1925, 1930; his own, History of Music (concise essay), M., 1928, 1935; Livanova T., Musical classics of the XVIII century, M. - L., 1939; her, History of Western European Music until 1789, M. - L., 1940; Levik B. S., History of foreign music, vol. 2, M., 1966;

Introduction

During the 18th century in a number of countries (Italy, Germany, Austria, France, etc.) there were processes of the formation of new genres and forms of instrumental music, which finally took shape and reached their peak in the so-called "Viennese classical school".

The Viennese classical school, which organically absorbed the advanced achievements of national musical cultures, was itself a deeply national phenomenon, rooted in the democratic culture of the Austrian people. Representatives of this artistic direction were J. Haydn, V.A. Mozart, L. van Beethoven. Each of them was a bright personality. So, Haydn's style was distinguished by a bright worldview, the leading role of genre and everyday elements. For Mozart's style, the lyrical-dramatic beginning was more characteristic. Beethoven's style is the embodiment of the heroic pathos of struggle. However, along with the differences that determined the uniqueness of the individuality of each of these composers, they are united by realism, a life-affirming principle and democracy.

The art of the Viennese classics introduced a powerful realistic and democratic stream into world musical culture, based on the wealth of folk art, and therefore it has retained all its value and artistic significance for us.

1. The Vienna Classical School as an artistic direction in the musical culture of the 18th - early 19th centuries

1.1. Features of the style of the Viennese classical school

The artistic style of classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) arose in the 17th century in France. Based on the ideas of regularity, the rationality of the world order, the masters of this style strove for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, and the embodiment of high moral ideals. They considered the works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, therefore they developed ancient plots and images. Classicism in many ways opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, inconsistency, asserting its principles in various types of art, including music.

The activity of the composers of the Viennese classical school was prepared by the artistic experience of their predecessors and contemporaries, including Italian and French opera and instrumental culture, the achievements of German music. A huge role in the formation of the Viennese classical school was played by the musical life of Vienna - the largest musical center, the musical folklore of multinational Austria. The art of the Viennese classics is closely connected with the general upsurge of Austro-German culture, with enlightenment, which reflected the humanistic ideals of the third estate on the eve of the French Revolution. The creative ideas of the Viennese classics are closely related to the views of G.E. Lessing, I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller, I. Kant, G. Hegel, with some provisions of the French encyclopedists.

The art of representatives of the Viennese classical school is characterized by the universality of artistic thinking, consistency, clarity of artistic form. Feelings and intellect, tragic and comic, precise calculation and naturalness, ease of expression are organically combined in their works.

The work of the Viennese classics expresses a dynamic understanding of life processes, which found its most complete embodiment in sonata form and determined the symphony of many of their compositions. Symphonism, in a broad sense, is associated with the flourishing of the leading instrumental genres of the era - symphony, sonata, concerto and chamber ensemble, the final formation of a 4-part sonata-symphony cycle.

The music of the composers of the Viennese classical school is a new stage in the development of musical thinking; their musical language is characterized by strict orderliness, centralization, combined with internal diversity and richness. In their work, classical types of musical structures are formed - period, sentence, etc.

The heyday of the Viennese classical school coincided with the general process of the formation of the symphony orchestra - its stable composition, the functional definiteness of orchestral groups. The main classical types of chamber ensembles were formed - the piano trio, string quartet, etc. Piano music especially stood out from the music for solo instruments. Mozart's operatic work opened up broad prospects for the development of various types of opera - lyrical and socially accusatory comedy, musical drama, philosophical fairy tale opera, etc.

The work of the composers of the Viennese classical school, which belongs to the heights of world artistic culture, had a huge impact on the further development of music.

Introduction 3

1. The Viennese Classical School as an artistic movement

in the musical culture of the 18th – early 19th centuries 4

1.1. Features of the style of the Viennese classical school 4

1.2. Music genres 7

2. F.J. Haydn - the founder of the Viennese classical school 10

3. Musical genius - V.A. Mozart 12

4. The creative path of L. van Beethoven 16

Conclusion 19

References 20

Introduction

During the XVIII century in a number of countries (Italy, Germany, Austria, France, etc.) there were processes of formation of new genres and forms of instrumental music, which finally took shape and reached their peak in the so-called "Viennese classical school".

1. The Vienna Classical School as an artistic direction in musical culture XVIII - start XIX century

1.1. Features of the style of the Viennese classical school

The work of the Viennese classics expresses a dynamic understanding of life processes, which found its most complete embodiment in sonata form and determined the symphony of many of their compositions. Symphonism, in a broad sense, is associated with the flourishing of the leading instrumental genres of the era - symphony, sonata, concerto and chamber ensemble, the final formation of a 4-part sonata-symphony cycle.

The work of the composers of the Viennese classical school, which belongs to the heights of world artistic culture, had a huge impact on the further development of music.

1.2. Music genres

As noted above, in the work of the composers of the Viennese school, many musical genres received their classical appearance. In this section of our essay, we will consider the most significant of them.

Symphony

The most complex form of instrumental music is the symphony (Greek “consonance”). It is designed to be performed by a symphony orchestra. The possibilities of this genre are great: it allows you to express philosophical and moral ideas by musical means, to talk about feelings and experiences. The genre was formed in the middle of the 18th century in the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school. The composers developed a sonata-symphony cycle in four parts, which differ in the nature of the music, tempo and methods of theme development. The first movement, built in sonata form and usually performed at a fast pace, is filled with dramatic content. Sometimes it is preceded by a slow introduction. The second movement is slow, contemplative; it is the lyrical center of the composition. The third one is in contrast to the second one: moving, live music is either dancing or playful. Until the beginning of the XIX century. composers used the form of the minuet (fr. menuet, from menu - “small, small”), a common salon dance of the 18th century. Later, the minuet was replaced by a scherzo (from Italian scherzo - “joke”) - this was the name of small vocal or instrumental works, fast in tempo and playful in content. The fourth, usually fast, movement is the finale of the symphony; here the results of the development of the themes and images of the work are summed up.

Composers of the Viennese school gave the symphony extraordinary flexibility and the ability to embody in a generalized form the various aspects of human existence. They created various types of symphonism - folk-genre, lyrical-dramatic, heroic-dramatic, which were subsequently developed and enriched by romantic composers.

sonata form

One of the most complex and rich in content musical forms, the sonata, began to take shape in the first half of the 18th century. and acquired its final form in the second half of the century in the works of composers of the Viennese classical school. Sonata form is the principle of presentation of musical material. It involves not a mechanical alternation of parts and sections, but the interaction of themes and artistic images. Topics - main and secondary - are either opposed to each other or complement one another. The development of themes goes through three stages - exposition, development and recapitulation. Topics arise in the exposition (from Latin expositio - "exposition, display"). The main one sounds in the main key, which determines the name of the key of the entire composition (for example, the Symphony in C). The side story is usually presented in a different tone - there is a contrast between the themes. In development, further development of themes takes place. They can come into sharp mutual contradiction. Sometimes one suppresses the other or, conversely, goes into the shadows, leaving the "rival" complete freedom of action. Both themes can appear in a different light, for example, they will be performed by a different composition of instruments, or they will change character dramatically. In a reprise (French reprise, from reprendre - “renew, repeat”), themes at first glance return to their original state. However, the secondary sounds already in the main key, thus coming to unity with the main one. The recapitulation is the result of a complex path, to which themes are enriched by the experience of exposition and development. The results of development are sometimes fixed in an additional section - a code (from Italian coda - “tail”), but it is optional. The sonata form is usually used in the first part of the sonata and symphony, and also (with minor changes) in the second part and in the finale.

Sonata

One of the main genres of instrumental music is the sonata (Italian sonata, from sonare - “to sound”). This is a multi-part (usually three or four parts) work; composers of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. There are also one-part compositions. In the work of the masters of the Viennese classical school, the sonata, like the symphony, reached its peak. Unlike a symphony, a sonata is intended either for one instrument (usually a piano) or for two (one of which is a piano). The first part of the works of this genre is written in sonata form. Here are the main musical themes of the work. The second movement, usually calm and slow, contrasts sharply with the first. The third is the final, performed at a fast pace. He sums up and finally defines the general character of the work.

Clarinet Concerto in A major, KV 622: II. Adagio

4. 4.Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756-1791) - Download

Piano Concerto No. 21 in C major, KV 467: II. Andante

5. 5. Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756-1791) - Download

Piano Concerto No. 13 in C major, KV 415: II. Andante

6. 6. Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756-1791) - Download

Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major, KV 41: II. Andante

7. 7. Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756-1791) - Download

Symphony No. 40 in G minor, KV 550: I. Allegro molto

8. Ludwig van BEETHOVEN (1770-1827) From Sonata-Quasi una Fantasia No. 14 in C sharp minor, op. 27 No. 2 "Moonlight" (Adagio sostenuto) - Download

German composer, conductor and pianist. A key figure in Western classical music, one of the most respected and performed composers in the world: | | .

It is perhaps very difficult to find a person who has never heard the enchanting sounds of the famous "Moonlight Sonata" by Ludwig van Beethoven. This is a truly unique work that will be popular many years later and after us. And even the one who says that he does not know what kind of work this is, having heard only its first part, will immediately determine that this amazing music is well known to him.

9. Ludwig van BEETHOVEN (1770-1827) Romance No. 2 for Violin and Orchestra in FD major, op. fifty - Download

10. Ludwig van BEETHOVEN (1770-1827) Bagatelle in A minor, op. 59 For Elise - Download

11. Joseph HAYDN (1732-1809) - Download

Symphony No. 45 "Farewell" in F sharp minor - Allegro assai

Symphony No. 45 "Farewell" in F sharp minor - Adagio.

Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART (1756 - 1791)- the great Austrian composer: | | | .

According to contemporaries, he had a phenomenal ear for music, memory and the ability to improvise. Mozart is widely recognized as one of the greatest composers: his uniqueness lies in the fact that he worked in all musical forms of his time and achieved the highest success in all. Along with Haydn and Beethoven, he belongs to the most significant representatives of the Vienna Classical School.
Mozart's short life was full of contrasts. A child prodigy who composed his first harpsichord concerto at the age of four; who, in addition, owned the violin and organ, he won all-European fame in his early childhood, performing on tour throughout Europe. In his mature years, Mozart suffered severely from non-recognition. He experienced hostility and envy, bent under the yoke of desperate need and, despite this, composed music that was bright, life-affirming, full of optimistic power.
A brilliant opera composer who left in his legacy such masterpieces as The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute, Mozart created a special era in the symphony genre as well. In twenty years he wrote about fifty symphonic cycles. The first symphonies, composed by him at the age of six, were an imitation of the style of Johann Christian Bach, while the latter influenced Haydn's later symphonies and anticipated the appearance of the symphonies of Beethoven and Schubert. His church music, first of all, an unsurpassed masterpiece - Requiem, belongs to the deepest creations in terms of thought and expression of feelings.

Ludwig van BEETHOVEN (1770 - 1827)- German composer, conductor and pianist, one of the three "Viennese classics".
Beethoven is a key figure in Western classical music between classicism and romanticism, and one of the most respected and performed composers in the world. He wrote in all the genres that existed in his time, including opera, ballet, music for dramatic performances, choral compositions. Instrumental works are considered the most significant in his legacy: piano, violin and cello sonatas, concertos for pianoforte, for violin, quartets, overtures, symphonies. Beethoven's work had a significant impact on symphonic music in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn. Ludwig's father served as a tenor at the court in Bonn, so his life began in a musical environment.
The whole world later learned about Beethoven's musical talent, but little is known about his childhood. At first, they started talking about him as a child prodigy, calling him little Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In his youth, his extraordinary musical talent was discovered. In 1778, Beethoven went to Cologne, and three years later - on tour to Holland, where he demonstrated his magnificent performing abilities.
"Music is the highest manifestation of wisdom and philosophy" - Ludwig van Beethoven.
In 1787 Beethoven travels to Vienna for the first time to see Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Mozart highly appreciated the talent of the young musician, urging the musical community to pay attention to this young man, "he will still make the world talk about himself."
Since 1795 Beethoven developed hearing problems. The disease progressed and by 1819. went into total deafness. The composer became more and more withdrawn into himself. In the last years of his life, communication with him was possible only through a special notebook.
March 29, 1827 Ludwig van Beethoven's life ended. The musical legacy of the composer, left to his contemporaries and descendants, is priceless.

Joseph HAYDN (1732-1809)- Austrian composer, representative of the Viennese classical school, one of the founders of such musical genres as the symphony and the string quartet. The creator of the melody, which later formed the basis of the anthems of Germany and Austria-Hungary: | | | | .

Haydn was the second of 12 children in a poor family, where they practiced home music every day. After the excellent musical talent of the five-year-old Haydn was noticed by a distant relative, the boy's musical lessons on playing the violin and piano became more intense.

Since Haydn also had a wonderful vocal voice, in 1740. he was received by the imperial court composer Johann Georg Reutter as a solo treble in the choir of Stefan's Cathedral in Vienna. Reutter wanted to castrato him in order to save his voice, however, the operation was prevented, and vocal breakdown ensued. This was the end of his singing career, but he continued his piano and violin studies.

In 1766 Haydn assumed the position of the first Kapellmeister under Prince Paul Anton Esterhazy. In the magnificent baroque castle of Esterhazy, located on the shores of a beautiful lake, among other things, there was also an opera house. Here Haydn wrote the largest number of his operas, about 80 of his 104 symphonies, more than 50 works for piano, and also composed more than 70 string quartets and several masses. In 1790 Haydn, who in the meantime had become known throughout Europe, traveled to England to present his compositions there in person. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford University and even played in front of the royal family several times. When in 1792 Haydn returns to Vienna, he studies with the young Ludwig van Beethoven in the piano class. Joseph Haydn's contribution to world musical culture is truly invaluable. The foundations of the classical form of a musical work laid by him served as a starting point in the work of many famous composers.

Introduction 3

1. The Viennese Classical School as an artistic movement

in the musical culture of the 18th – early 19th centuries 4

1.1. Features of the style of the Viennese classical school 4

1.2. Music genres 7

2. F.J. Haydn - the founder of the Viennese classical school 10

3. Musical genius - V.A. Mozart 12

4. The creative path of L. van Beethoven 16

Conclusion 19

References 20

Introduction

1. The Vienna Classical School as an artistic direction in musical culture XVIII - start XIX century

1.1. Features of the style of the Viennese classical school

The work of the Viennese classics expresses a dynamic understanding of life processes, which found its most complete embodiment in sonata form and determined the symphony of many of their compositions. Symphonism, in a broad sense, is associated with the flourishing of the leading instrumental genres of the era - symphony, sonata, concerto and chamber ensemble, the final formation of a 4-part sonata-symphony cycle.

The work of the composers of the Viennese classical school, which belongs to the heights of world artistic culture, had a huge impact on the further development of music.

1.2. Music genres

Symphony

sonata form

Sonata

2. F.J. Haydn - the founder of the Viennese classical school

About the music of Joseph Haydn - one of the founders of the Viennese classical school - his friend and younger contemporary Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote: Haydn". The flourishing of such genres as the symphony (he has one hundred and four of them, not counting the lost ones), the string quartet (eighty-three), and the clavier sonata (fifty-two) is associated with the work of Haydn. The composer paid much attention to concerts for various instruments, chamber ensembles and sacred music.

Franz Joseph Haydn was born in the village of Rorau (Austria) in the family of a carriage master. From the age of eight he began to sing in the St. Stephen's Chapel in Vienna. The future composer had to earn a living by copying notes, playing the organ, clavier and violin. At the age of seventeen, Haydn lost his voice and was expelled from the chapel. Only four years later he found a permanent job - he got a job as an accompanist to the famous Italian opera composer Nicola Porpora (1686-1768). He appreciated Haydn's musical talent and began to teach him composition.

In 1761 Haydn entered the service of the rich Hungarian princes Esterhazy and spent almost thirty years at their court as a composer and head of the chapel. In 1790 the chapel was dissolved, but Haydn retained the salary and position of bandmaster. This gave the master the opportunity to settle in Vienna, travel, and give concerts. In the 90s. Haydn lived and worked fruitfully in London for a long time. He gained European fame, his work was appreciated by his contemporaries - the composer became the owner of many honorary degrees and titles. Joseph Haydn is often referred to as the "father" of the symphony. It was in his work that the symphony became the leading genre of instrumental music.

In Haydn's symphonies, the development of the main themes is interesting. Conducting a melody in different keys and registers, giving it this or that mood, the composer thus discovers its hidden possibilities, reveals internal contradictions: the melody is either transformed or returned to its original state. Haydn had a subtle sense of humor, and this personality trait was reflected in his music. In many symphonies, the rhythm of the third movement (minuet) is deliberately ponderous, as if the author is trying to portray the clumsy attempts of a commoner to repeat the elegant movements of a gallant dance. Witty Symphony No. 94 (1791). In the middle of the second part, when the music sounds calm and quiet, timpani strikes are suddenly heard - so that the listeners “do not get bored”. It is no coincidence that the work was called "With the battle of the timpani, or Surprise." Haydn often used onomatopoeia (birds sing, a bear roams the forest, etc.). In symphonies, the composer often turned to folk themes, mainly to Slavic - Slovak and Croatian.

The representatives of the Viennese classical school, and above all Haydn, are credited with the formation of a stable composition of the symphony orchestra. Previously, composers were content with only those instruments that were currently available. The appearance of a stable composition of the orchestra is a clear sign of classicism. The sound of musical instruments was thus brought into a strict system, which obeyed the rules of instrumentation. These rules are based on knowledge of the capabilities of the instruments and assume that the sound of each is not an end in itself, but a means of expressing a certain idea. A stable composition gave an integral, homogeneous sound to the orchestra.

In addition to instrumental music, Haydn paid attention to opera and spiritual compositions (he created a number of masses under the influence of Handel), turned to the genre of oratorio (The Creation of the World, 1798; The Seasons, 1801).

3. Musical genius - V.A. Mozart

Mozart's work occupies a special place in the Viennese classical school. In his works, classical rigor and clarity of forms combined with deep emotionality. The composer's music is close to those trends in the culture of the second half of the 18th century that were addressed to human feelings ("Storm and Drang", partly sentimentalism). It was Mozart who first showed the inconsistency of the inner world of the individual.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg (Austria). Possessing a phenomenal musical ear and memory, he learned to play the harpsichord at an early age, and at the age of five he wrote his first compositions. The first teacher of the future composer was his father Leopold Mozart, a musician in the chapel of the Archbishop of Salzburg. Mozart masterfully owned not only the harpsichord, but also the organ and violin; He was famous as a brilliant improviser. From the age of six he toured Europe. At eleven he created the first opera Apollo and Hyacinth, and at fourteen he was already conducting at the theater of Milan at the premiere of his own opera Mithridates, King of Pontus. Around the same time, he was elected a member of the Philharmonic Academy in Bologna.

Like many musicians of that era, Mozart was in the court service (1769-1781) - he was an accompanist and organist with the archbishop of the city of Salzburg. However, the independent nature of the master caused a sharp displeasure of the archbishop, and Mozart chose to leave the service. Of the outstanding composers of the past, he became the first who chose the life of a free artist. In 1781 Mozart moved to Vienna, he had a family. He earned money from rare editions of his own compositions, piano lessons and performances (the latter served as an incentive for creating piano concertos).

Mozart paid special attention to opera. His works represent a whole epoch in the development of this type of musical art. The opera attracted the composer with the opportunity to show the relationship of people, their feelings and aspirations.

Mozart did not strive to create a new operatic form - his music itself was innovative. In mature works, the composer abandoned the strict distinction between serious and comic opera - a musical and dramatic performance appeared in which these elements are intertwined. As a result, in Mozart's operas there are no uniquely positive and negative heroes, the characters are lively and multifaceted, not bound by the scope of their roles.

Mozart often turned to literary sources. So the opera The Marriage of Figaro (1786) was written based on the play by the French playwright P.O. Beaumarchais Crazy Day, or The Marriage of Figaro, which was banned by the censors. The main theme of the opera is love, which, however, can be said about all the works of Mozart. However, there is also a social subtext in the work: Figaro and his beloved Susanna are smart and energetic, but they are of humble origin, but only servants in the house of Count Almaviva. Their opposition to the master (stupid and fooled aristocrat) arouses the sympathy of the author - it is quite obvious that he is on the side of the lovers.

In the opera "Don Giovanni" (1787), a medieval story about a conqueror of women's hearts received a musical embodiment. Energetic, temperamental, self-willed and free from all moral standards, the hero is opposed in the person of the Commander by a higher power, personifying a reasonable order. Philosophical generalization coexists here with love intrigues and genre elements. Tragic and comic form an inseparable unity. This feature of the opera was emphasized by the author himself, giving his work the subtitle "Merry Drama". It would seem that justice triumphs in the final - vice (Don Juan) is punished. But the music of the opera is subtler and more complicated than such a simplified understanding of the work: it evokes in the listener sympathy for the hero, who remained true to himself even in the face of death.

The philosophical tale-parable "The Magic Flute" (1791) was written in the singspiel genre. The main idea of the work is the inevitability of the victory of good over evil, a call for fortitude, for love, for understanding its higher meaning. The heroes of the opera are subjected to serious trials (silence, fire, water), but they overcome them with dignity and reach the realm of beauty and harmony.

Mozart considered music to be the main one, although he was very demanding on the text of the libretto. In his operas, the role of the orchestra increased significantly. It is in the orchestral part that the author's attitude to the characters is often revealed: either a mocking motive flashes by, or a beautiful poetic melody appears. To an attentive listener, these details say more than the text. The arias remained the main portrait characteristics, and the relationship of the characters is described in vocal ensembles. The composer managed to convey in the ensembles the peculiarities of the character of each character.

As a representative of the Viennese classical school. Mozart attached great importance to the genre of the symphony. The last three symphonies are especially popular - the Thirty-ninth, Fortieth and Forty-first ("Jupiter"), created in 1788. In the works of this genre, the four-movement cycle and the rules of sonata form were finally fixed. Mozart's symphonies include many subtle emotional nuances. The themes are often uneven in nature, complex in rhythm, sometimes accompanied by sharp harmonies, but the music retains its sharp, clear forms.

Mozart was also one of the creators of the classical concerto genre. The concert is based on the competition between the soloist and the orchestra, and this process is always subject to strict logic. The composer owns twenty-seven concertos for piano and orchestra, seven for violin and orchestra. In some works, the listener is struck by virtuosity, festivity, in others by drama and emotional contrasts.

Mozart's piano work includes nineteen sonatas in which he continued to develop sonata form, as well as works in the fantasy genre (musical work based on improvisation and free in form). The composer abandoned the harpsichord and clavichord, which have a softer but weaker sound compared to the piano. Mozart's piano style is distinct, elegant, with careful finishing of melody and accompaniment.

The master's interests were not limited to opera and instrumental music. He also created spiritual works: masses, cantatas, oratorios, requiems. The music of the requiem (1791), intended for soloists, choir and orchestra, is deeply tragic (Mozart worked on the composition when he was already ill, in fact, before his death). Parts of the composition, reminiscent of opera arias and ensembles, make the music very emotional, and polyphonic ones (primarily “Lord, have mercy!”) personify the spiritual principle, the highest justice. The main image of the requiem is a suffering person in the face of severe Divine justice.

The master did not have time to complete the requiem; it was finalized according to the composer's sketches by his student F.K. Susmayr.

Mozart composed music very easily, sometimes even without drafts, creating creations unsurpassed in artistic beauty and harmony. Contemporary musicians highly appreciated Mozart's talent, but the majority of the aristocratic public did not understand his work, and in the last years of the composer's life did not accept it at all. Mozart died in poverty and was buried in Vienna in a common grave.

4. The creative path of L. van Beethoven

“Music should strike fire from the human breast” – these are the words of the German composer Ludwig van Beethoven, whose works belong to the highest achievements of musical culture.

Beethoven's worldview took shape under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the freedom-loving ideals of the French Revolution. Musically, his work, on the one hand, continued the traditions of Viennese classicism, on the other hand, captured the features of the new romantic art. From classicism in the works of Beethoven, the sublimity of content, excellent mastery of musical forms, appeal to the genres of symphony and sonata. From romanticism bold experimentation in the field of these genres, interest in vocal and piano miniatures.

Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn (Germany) in the family of a court musician. He began to study music from early childhood under the guidance of his father. However, the real mentor of Beethoven was the composer, conductor and organist K.G. Nave. He taught the young musician the basics of composition, taught him to play the clavier and organ. From the age of eleven, Beethoven served as an assistant organist in the church, then court organist, concertmaster at the Bonn Opera House. At the age of eighteen, he entered the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Bonn, but did not graduate from it and subsequently did a lot of self-education.

In 1792 Beethoven moved to Vienna. He took music lessons from J. Haydn, I.G. Albrechtsberger, A. Salieri (the largest musicians of that era). Albrechtsberger introduced Beethoven to the works of Handel and Bach. Hence the composer's brilliant knowledge of musical forms, harmony and polyphony.

Beethoven soon began to give concerts; became popular. He was recognized on the streets, invited to solemn receptions in the houses of high-ranking persons. He composed a lot: he wrote sonatas, concertos for piano and orchestra, symphonies.

For a long time, no one guessed that Beethoven was struck by a serious illness - he began to lose his hearing. Convinced of the incurability of the disease, the composer decided to die and in 1802. prepared a will, where he explained the reasons for his decision. However, Beethoven managed to overcome despair and found the strength to write music further. The way out of the crisis was the Third ("Heroic") Symphony.

In 1803-1808. the composer also worked on the creation of sonatas; in particular, the Ninth for violin and piano (1803; dedicated to the Parisian violinist Rudolf Kreutzer, therefore it was called "Kreutzer"), the Twenty-third ("Appassionata") for piano, the Fifth and Sixth symphonies (both 1808).

The sixth ("Pastoral") symphony is subtitled "Memories of Rural Life". This work depicts various states of the human soul, which is temporarily removed from internal experiences and struggle. The symphony conveys feelings arising from contact with the world of nature and rural life. Its structure is unusual - five parts instead of four. The symphony has elements of figurativeness, onomatopoeia (birds sing, thunder rumbles, etc.). Beethoven's finds were subsequently used by many romantic composers.

The pinnacle of Beethoven's symphonic work was the Ninth Symphony. It was conceived back in 1812, but the composer worked on it from 1822 to 1823. The symphony is grandiose in scale; the finale is especially unusual, which is something like a large cantata for choir, soloists and orchestra, written to the text of the ode “To Joy” by J.F. Schiller.

In the first part, the music is severe and dramatic: a clear and very large-scale theme is born out of the chaos of sounds. The second part - the scherzo in character echoes the first. The third part, performed at a slow pace, is the calm look of an enlightened soul. Twice, the sounds of fanfares burst into the unhurried flow of music. They remind of thunderstorms and battles, but they cannot change the general philosophical image. This music is the pinnacle of Beethoven's lyrics. The fourth part is the final. The themes of the previous parts float before the listener like the passing past. And here comes the theme of joy. The inner structure of the theme is amazing: trepidation and strict restraint, a huge inner strength released in a grandiose hymn to goodness, truth and beauty.

The premiere of the symphony took place in 1825. at the Vienna Opera House. The theatrical orchestra was not enough to implement the author's plan, and amateurs had to be invited: twenty-four violins, ten violas, twelve cellos and double basses. For a Viennese classical orchestra, such a composition was unusually powerful. In addition, each choral part (bass, tenor, alto and soprano) included twenty-four singers, which also exceeded the usual norms.

During Beethoven's lifetime, the Ninth Symphony remained incomprehensible to many; it was admired only by those who knew the composer closely, his students and listeners enlightened in music. Over time, the best orchestras in the world began to include the symphony in their repertoire, and it found a new life.

The works of the late period of the composer's work are characterized by restraint of feelings and philosophical depth, which distinguishes them from the passionate and dramatic early works. During his life, Beethoven wrote 9 symphonies, 32 sonatas, 16 string quartets, the opera Fidelio, Solemn Mass, 5 piano concertos and one for violin and orchestra, overtures, separate pieces for different instruments.

Surprisingly, the composer wrote many works (including the Ninth Symphony) when he was already completely deaf. However, his latest works - piano sonatas and quartets - are unsurpassed masterpieces of chamber music.

Conclusion

So, the artistic style of classicism arose in the 17th century in France, based on ideas about the laws and rationality of the world order. The masters of this style strove for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, the embodiment of high moral ideals. They considered the works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, therefore they developed ancient plots and images.

The peak in the development of musical classicism was the work of Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who worked mainly in Vienna and formed the Viennese classical school in the musical culture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Note that classicism in music is in many ways not similar to classicism in literature, theater or painting. In music, it is impossible to rely on ancient traditions, since they are almost unknown. In addition, the content of musical compositions is often associated with the world of human feelings, which are not amenable to strict control of the mind. However, the composers of the Viennese classical school created a very harmonious and logical system of rules for constructing a work. Thanks to such a system, the most complex feelings were clothed in a clear and perfect form. Suffering and joy became for the composer a subject of reflection, not experience. And if in other types of art the laws of classicism already at the beginning of the 19th century. seemed outdated to many, then in music the system of genres, forms and rules of harmony developed by the Viennese school retains its significance to this day.

Once again, we note that the art of the Viennese classics is of great value and artistic significance for us.

List of used literature

1. Alshvang A.A. Ludwig van Beethoven. Essay on life and creativity. - M .: Soviet composer, 1971. - 558s.

2. Bach. Mozart. Beethoven. Meyerbeer. Chopin. Schumann. Wagner / Comp. "LIO Editor". - St. Petersburg: "LIO Editor", etc., 1998. - 576 p.

3. Velikovich E. Great Musical Names: Biographies. Materials and documents. Composer stories. - St. Petersburg: Composer, 2000. - 192 p.

4. Musical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. G.V. Keldysh. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. - 672 p.

5. Osenneva M.S., Bezdorodova L.A. Methods of musical education of younger students: Proc. allowance for students. early fak. pedagogical universities. - M .: "Academy", 2001. - 368s.

6. I know the world: Det. Encyclopedia: Music / Ed. A.S. Klenov. Under total ed. O.G. Hinn. - M.: AST-LTD, 1997. - 448s.

Application

Haydn wrote 24 operas, mostly in the genre of the Italian opera buffa and opera seria, 3 oratorios, 14 masses, and other spiritual works, 104 symphonies, overtures, marches, dances, divertissements for orchestra and various instruments, clavier concertos, and others. instruments, 83 string quartets, 41 piano trios, 21 string trios, 126 trios for baritone (bow), viola, cello and other ensembles, 52 clavier sonatas, various pieces for clavier, songs, canons, arrangements of Scottish, Irish, Welsh songs for voice and piano (violin or cello optional).