Universities arise in the Middle Ages. It is a mistake to say that the university as a form of educational institution existed earlier. There were magnificent Confucian schools of the "semicircular pool school" back in the Tang empire, the Pandidakterion high school in Constantinople was operating from the 9th century, and the Al-Karaouin school in Morocco has been operating from the 9th century to the present day, but these are not universities by nature. This does not detract from their fame and dignity at all, but the university is something very specific.

1. How universities come into being

Universities emerged in the 11th century, when the West entered a period of amazing upsurge, when the Middle Ages began in its classical sense, with all the attributes of feudal society. The beginning of this period was marked by the Gregorian reform and the strengthening of the position of the papacy. At the same time, the rise of cities, the establishment of senior relations. It is against the backdrop of these processes that university corporations emerge.

Nobody founded the first universities, they arise by themselves. Therefore, the statements “Philip August founded the University of Paris in 1200” or “Friedrich Barbarossa founded the University of Bologna” are fundamentally wrong. These schools arose themselves, having acquired the only conceivable and then very convenient form of mutual oath ( conjuratio), which was quickly called universitas- a community of people equal to each other, who brought each other a mutual oath, possessing what would later be called a legal entity. Universitas is not only a union of masters and students, any city commune, any corporation of artisans was universitas... Subsequently, at the beginning of the XIII century, this term began to be used only in relation to educational organizations.

We cannot talk about the existence of universities in the XI and XII centuries, but rather about pre-university formations, studios, training centers. This is a very important, interesting, tradition-rich era. At this time, the reception of Roman law was made, canon law was created, rational theology was born.

2. The life of a new type of intellectuals

In previous periods, intellectuals lived either at the court of a prince, emperor, king, or, more often, in monasteries. Intellectuals of a new type lived in the city and taught to all comers, of whom there were more and more. It is no coincidence that the science that emerged was called school science, or scholasticism. The thinkers of that era took the formal logic of Aristotle and applied it to new areas of knowledge. A system was created that sets an algorithm for actions in cases where the opinions of the authorities on a particular issue differed. This was extremely important, since nothing was done in the Middle Ages without recourse to authorities.

The intellectual of the new formation was not a practitioner, but a specialist in the field of thinking. It was not necessary to know Roman law well to judge the peasants in English Manor: society lived according to different laws. Wounds and fractures were better treated not by an expert in Hippocrates and Galen, but by an uneducated barber surgeon. A highly learned theologian could not captivate his flock with a passionate sermon, as an ordinary Franciscan monk did. But a person who took a university course knew how to think logically - this gave him the opportunity to formulate a problem and cope with any task. Since this period, the transformation of the world has gone by leaps and bounds.

3. Formation of university corporations

Universities appear at the beginning of the 13th century. Paris, Bologna, Montpellier, Oxford - the places where they arose on their own. What is a corporation and a partnership? German scientist Axle gave a very good definition: "a corporation is a fellowship of the living and the dead." The first university charter of 1215 in Paris gives a very large place to the rules for the funeral of masters and students, clearly prescribing what and how each member of the corporation should do.

This logic is very clear. What is the most important thing in the life of a medieval person? Death and how he leaves this life. The further existence of his soul depends on this. If he dies in a foreign land, who will take care of the righteous end? These are the people who took the mutual oath. The mutual oath was taken in order to live in peace, not to conflict. And for this it was necessary to determine the order of giving lectures, exams, rules of conduct, dress code (what is now called a dress code). And, most importantly, to guarantee mutual assistance. So an organizational form was developed, which quickly began to be replicated. Secular or ecclesiastical authorities simply took a ready-made form of the charter and opened new universities.

The status of university corporations was based on independence from local secular authorities, representatives of the king and, most importantly, from local spiritual authorities. Initially, teaching was supervised by the bishop, issuing permission to teach ( licentia docendi). After the establishment of the university, the chancellor of the bishop continued, with the permission of the Pope, to issue permits in a new form - licentia ubique docendi, that is, the right to teach throughout Christendom. This right was given only after an examination conducted by a corporation of equal people. It was she who decided whether the applicant was worthy to enter the corporation or not, whether he was worthy of being awarded the title of bachelor, master, doctor or not. And the chancellor only agreed with this decision and issued a permit. This can be called the basis of Western European intellectualism.

Of course, European intellectualism as an autonomous corporation exists with the consent of the authorities. If there is no charter issued by the Pope (less often - by the emperor, sometimes by the king, who tried to put himself in independence from the emperor), then there is no university.

4. Social magic

I like to ask: "Tell me, please, who was Thomas Aquinas by social origin?" And, as a rule, people cannot answer this question, although his father was a count. Who was Jean Gerson by birth? His parents were peasants, and of a rather low status. And who was Erasmus of Rotterdam? He was illegitimate, his father is a priest. This is important: entering the world of people of knowledge, a person, as it were, broke with his former environment (although origin was always extremely important for medieval society), acquiring a new social status. French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu called this moment social magic: there was one person, but there was another. From my point of view, the ability to award degrees is the most important thing that constitutes the essence of a university corporation. This ability was perfectly conveyed by Soviet folklore: "You may not be a scientist, but you must be a candidate."

5. The logic of the university

Over the years, the situation changed: the independence of the university weakened, the role of the secular government increased more and more, but the universities still possessed enormous authority, which allowed them to act as advisers to the monarchs. Very quickly, what we call university culture is being formed: a special type of thinking, folklore, habits, discursive practices characteristic of university people. This type of culture survived the Middle Ages and established a certain type of communication for universities in the modern era. Thus, the indispensable medieval riot of students is inherited by the German universities of the Enlightenment. Students- burshi they simply had to behave defiantly towards philistine philistines. As you know, M.V. Lomonosov so well mastered the customs of the burshe that only a miracle saved him from serious troubles in Germany, and the quietest man Pierre Bezukhov ties the bear to the quarter, demonstrating his attachment to the German traditions of university culture. This code of behavior is surprisingly reproduced in other eras and in other regions.

The logic of the corporation, which asserted that “our degrees are our inalienable right, no one can take them away from us,” was also characteristic of Soviet scientists. It was this that became an important argument for the refusal of the Academy of Sciences to deprive the academic title of Academician Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov.

This logic is inherent in modern universities and academies. Taking on their reform without understanding their medieval nature is rather strange. This does not mean the conservation of the archaic principle. But successive university reformers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt and John Newman have looked to the origins of university autonomy and corporatism.

6. Extension of the university form to the world

Universities have spread all over the world - in this one can see European expansion. If we compare with this other social and political institutions exported by Europe (European parliamentarism, freedom of speech, the doctrine of human rights) and which do not take root everywhere, then the triumphal procession of universities around the world looks more than convincing. There is no country today that does not have its own university, and the best are often found outside Europe. That is, the university turned out to be a surprisingly tenacious form, invented in the great era of the XII-XIII centuries, from my point of view, in the golden time for European civilization.

7. History of the study of university culture

There are many relevant studies on the history of the university, but the most interesting things were said by the French medievalist Jacques Le Goff, his critics and his supporters in the 50-60s of the XX century. An interesting attempt to include Russian universities in the context of European history is the work of A. Yu. Andreev on the transfer of the university idea to Russia, the work of E. A. Vishlenkova and her co-authors, who show from the inside how university traditions took root and formed in Russia.

Research on the history of universities, which, unfortunately, we do not have, will be promising. But the last generalizing work in Russian on the history of European universities was published in 1896 (though republished in 2012). It remains to be hoped that the situation will change soon: the history of medieval universities is in demand in our country today as never before.

Andreev A. Yu. Russian universities of the 18th - first half of the 19th century in the context of the university history of Europe M., 2009.

Vishlenkova E.A., Galiullina R.Kh., Ilyina K.A. Russian professors: university corporatism or professional solidarity. M., 2012.

De Libera A. Medieval thinking. M., 2004.

Le Goff J. Intellectuals in the Middle Ages. SPB, 2003.

Suvorov N.S. Medieval Universities, M., 1896, 2nd ed. M., 2012.

In the XII century. as a result of the increased need for scientific knowledge and people possessing it - scientists - the process of education on the basis of cathedral schools in the largest cities of Western Europe of higher schools - universities began. Initially, the concept of "university" (from the Latin universitas - aggregate) meant a corporation of teachers, professors and students, "scholar", the purpose of which is to study and augment a single Christian knowledge.

The first universities appeared in Bologna (1158), Paris (1215), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1206), Lisbon (1290). It was in these educational institutions that the basic principles of academic autonomy were formulated, democratic rules for the management of higher education and its internal life were developed. Thus, universities had a number of privileges granted to them by the Pope: the issuance of teaching permits, the awarding of academic degrees (previously this was the exclusive right of the church), the exemption of students from military service, and the educational institution itself from taxes, etc. rector and deans.

Usually, the structure of the university consisted of four faculties: arts, law, medicine and theology. In medieval higher schools, a hierarchy was established: the theological faculty was considered the eldest, then the faculties of law, medicine and art. On this basis, the faculty of arts, where the "seven liberal arts" were studied, is called junior or preparatory in some historical and pedagogical studies, however, the rules of the university did not imply this. At the theological faculty, they studied mainly the Holy Scriptures and the "Sentences" of Peter of Lombard (early XII century - 1160), the training lasted about 12 years, the students, continuing their studies, could teach themselves and hold church positions, at the end of the training they were awarded the title of master theology, and then a licentiate (a teacher admitted to lecturing, but not yet defended his doctoral dissertation).

At the Faculty of Law, Roman and Catholic law were considered, after four years of study, students received a bachelor's degree, and after another three years - a licentiate. Education at the Faculty of Medicine included the study of the works of Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galen and other famous doctors. After four years of study, students were awarded a bachelor's degree, and for two years they had to practice medicine under the supervision of a master. Then, after five years of study, they were allowed to sit exams for the title of licentiate.

On the basis of the school course of the trivium, students of the art department studied the quadrium, especially in detail geometry and astronomy, in addition, in the course of study they considered scholasticism, the works of Aristotle, and philosophy. Two years later, students received a bachelor's degree, the preparation of a master's degree lasted from three to ten years. The main goal of training at all faculties was to achieve academic degrees.

Classes at universities lasted all day long (from 5 am to 8 pm). The main form of teaching was lecturing by the professor. Due to the insufficient number of books and manuscripts, this process was laborious: the professor repeated the same phrase several times so that the students could remember it. The low productivity of training is partly due to its duration. Once a week, a debate was held, aimed at developing independent thinking, students were required to attend the debates.

The student's duties included attending lectures: obligatory daytime and repetitive evening. An important feature of the universities of that era was disputes. The teacher assigned the topic. His assistant - a bachelor - led the discussion, that is, answered questions and commented on the speeches. If necessary, the master came to the bachelor's aid. Once or twice a year, disputes "about anything" were arranged (without a rigidly agreed-upon topic). In this case, burning scientific and ideological problems were often discussed. The participants in the disputes behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts.

As a rule, a university graduate had an excellent career. Yesterday's students became scribes, notaries, judges, lawyers, prosecutors.

The Middle Ages inherited from antiquity the basis on which education was built. These were the seven liberal arts. “One student asked the teacher and said:“ Since there are seven arts, and seven tests, and seven classes, I would like you to list them for me: what are they? Teacher: “I will list. These are arts: dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, physics, music, astronomy. There are many different views on what the seventh is about ... Some who disregard philosophy claim that it is grammar. " Grammar was considered the "mother of all sciences", dialectics provided formal logical knowledge, the foundations of philosophy and logic, rhetoric taught to speak correctly and expressively. "Mathematical disciplines" - arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy were thought of as the sciences of numerical ratios underlying world harmony.

Therefore, it is not surprising that medieval universities had 4 faculties: artistic or arts, theological, legal and medical. Compulsory for all was the art (preparatory general education) faculty, which taught the "seven liberal arts", later called the philosophical. First, the trivium was taught ( trivium ) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, then quadrium ( quadrivium ) - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. The learning process consisted of lectures and debates. Teaching was conducted in Latin, international in medieval Europe. After studying grammar, rhetoric and the basics of dialectics, the student received a bachelor of arts degree, and after studying the full course (philosophy, arithmetic, astronomy and theology of music), he was awarded a master of arts degree and was given the right to enter one of 3 faculties: theological, medical or law. upon completion of which they were awarded bachelor's, licentiate and master's (doctor's) degrees. Both the duration of study and the age of students at the universities were not established (in practice, studies at universities lasted 12-14 years).

Thus, the medieval paradigm of education was based on the idea of ​​inheritance of knowledge, its "cleansing" of alien layers, achieving greater clarity, broadcasting accompanied by the necessary comments. However, this approach was the least consistent with the content of the quadrivium disciplines. The teaching of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy, even at the level of the elementary arts course, was more relaxed. To some extent, the reason for this can be seen in the fact that the quadrivium was taught by more experienced teachers. And in general, one gets the impression that in the teaching of the disciplines of this cycle, to some extent there were elements of "research" - teaching was often conducted "in the spirit" of the text being studied. The program of the quadrivium, like that of the trivium, was rooted in Greek philosophy. After architecture and medicine were excluded from the nine arts, the seven liberal arts of the Middle Ages were formed, the final canonization of which belongs to Martianus Capella (circa 410-439) in the treatise The Marriage of Mercury and Philology. The first three of the 20 books of Etymology by Isidore of Seville were devoted to the seven liberal arts.

Music

Of the four constituents of the quadrium, it was music, by virtue of its important role in divine services, that occupied a very respectable position in life, and even before the role of the university became noticeable. According to the testimony of Brunetto Latini, music belonged to the place of the second mathematical science, for it "is used for our delight and service to God." And the opinion of Pythagoras that music is a means of improving the soul was shared by Betius. Of course, music had technical aspects - vocal, instrumental, but at school it figured in its theoretical guise, based on the monocord theory, from which the presentation of almost all remarkable works began. More than a hundred texts are devoted to this topic, among which the most important is the synthesis of ancient traditions performed by Bettius in “ Deinstitutione musica ". The theory of music of Pythagoras, presented by Bettius in the work that became a continuation of his "Arithmetic", was based on the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic proportions of the numbers 6, 8, 9 and 12. rather to puzzle than to clarify anything. With the transition from numeric fractions to letters, musical notation is gradually developing. It is improved by the works of such scholars as Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. The greatest achievements in music are celebrated where the subject was taught in conjunction with a major church or cathedral. Betius' writings formed the basis of the study of music in all universities, where it was taught in the faculties of liberal arts.

Arithmetic

As for arithmetic, then, as can be seen from most of the statutes, testimonies of biographers and numerous surviving manuscripts, here too, Bettius' work largely determined the intellectual diet of the young schoolboy at the Faculty of Arts. The complement was played by Euclid, whose elements contain a lot of arithmetic. Among the most common works are work Massa compoti Alexander Villedier on the principles of calculating the calendar and Flgorismus Sacrobosco.

Geometry

Practical considerations have never faded into the background in any part of the programming arts. This, in particular, is evidenced by the words of Brunetto Latini about geometry, with the help of which we know the dimensions and proportions of objects in length, width and height; this is the science with which the ancients, using their knowledge of geometry, could determine the dimensions of the earth and heaven, the distance between them, not counting other admirable ratios. In relation to geometry, the same reservations remain valid as in relation to astronomy: the focus was on memorizing the rules, and not the logic of science itself, thanks to which, in the first place, these rules arose. Elements of Euclid served as a generally accepted introduction to the course. In many ways, the content of training depended on the duration of the art course, which fluctuated over a wide range. As for "practical" geometry, a variety of directions were presented in it. The difference between theoretical and practical geometries goes back to Plato and Aristotle.

Astronomy

Aristotle's oversimplified schema — concentric spheres carrying planets and a centrally located set of spheres — was at the heart of medieval cosmology teaching. And although Almagest Ptolemy was mentioned in the program, but more often he was replaced by short textbooks. Among these works, the work of Sacrobosco stood out, which was used at least until the 17th century. much more voluminous work of the same Sacrobosco Computus in some universities (for example, Oxford) was included not in the arithmetic course, but in the astronomy course. Students and teachers lived in dormitories - colleges (colleges, colleges), here classes were held. Some of the students lived in a university dormitory (collegium), and sometimes in a student apartment (bursa), which was under the supervision of the university.

In the 15th century, university students acted out comedies by the Roman poet Terentius in some cities. It goes without saying that these comedies were remade and most of them translated into German. The people were very fond of such theatrical performances: in order to watch them, residents of the surrounding places came to the city.

With the development of schools and universities, the demand for the book is expanding. In the early Middle Ages, the book was a luxury item. The books were written on parchment - specially made calfskin. Parchment sheets were sewn together using thin strong ropes and placed in a binding of boards covered with leather, sometimes adorned with precious stones and metals. The text was decorated with hand-drawn capital letters - initials, headpieces, and later - magnificent miniatures from the 12th century. the book becomes cheaper, city workshops for the correspondence of books are opened, in which not monks, but artisans work. From the 14th century. in the production of books, paper maga began to be widely used. The process of book production is simplified and unified, which was especially important for the preparation of book printing, the appearance of which in the 40s of the 15th century. (its inventor was the German master Johannes Gutenberg) made the book truly popular in Europe and entailed significant changes in cultural life. Until the XII century. books were mainly concentrated in church libraries. In the 12-15 centuries. there are numerous libraries at universities, royal courts, large feudal lords, clerics and wealthy citizens.

What was the fate of a university graduate? In the cities of northern Italy, first of all, the desire for independence and secular literacy, due to early rationalism, the development of law, and "modern" constitutional forms, manifests itself and spreads with surprising speed. It is here that such types of professional activities as a lawyer, a notary, and a doctor are gradually taking shape. The positions that gradually became available to those who completed their training in law schools were primarily occupied by those who knew the common law well. In the second half of the 12th century. there is a transition from an aristocratic form of government to a constitutional one. More often, a native of old aristocratic families was appointed to the role of city leader for a period of one year, and, as a rule, was a professional administrator who studied law in Bologna. The role of vocational training eventually became comparable to the origin: for those who received education, more and more positions become available over time. The clerics studied in Bologna primarily in canon law. The number of canons, archdeacons and bishops trained in law schools is growing. Since 1153, an expert in canon law has headed the papal chancellery. Masters of Arts also often trained notaries, the most widespread semi-legal category of professionals in medieval Italy.

In the Iberian Peninsula, there are Spanish and Portuguese students in Italy and France, most of whom were and became Catholics. Study did not play the role of an effective means of career, a factor in the formation of "professional groups". Between 1002-1197 among the German bishops, most of whom in the 13th century. did not know how to write, aristocratic origin and the presence of influential patrons turned out to be more important than the years of study. Career opportunities for representatives of "young" Europe in the 12th century, who studied at the university, were limited only to holding positions in the church hierarchy. Along with the introduction of Christianity in the northern countries, a need arose for a well-educated upper clergy. In the second half of the 12th century. Paris is becoming an educational center for Norwegians and, to a lesser extent, for Danish and Icelandic clergy. Everywhere and at any level in the 13th and 14th centuries. the church paid great attention to legal issues. The synodal system, fiscal practice, and local church relationships have all contributed to a growing demand for university graduates. Avignon is becoming the most important center of attraction for graduates who dream of success. In the urban communes of Italy in the 13th century. a minimum level of requirements for lawyers had already been determined, which did not so much imply graduation from the university as the minimum duration of study. But only two centuries later, a similar situation developed in France. Education opened the way for graduates of the Faculty of Liberal Arts not only to a teaching career, but also to work as secretaries in princely or city offices. Doctors featured as practitioners, scholar, and members of the city's elite. For France 13-14 centuries. the processes taking place in the south are very indicative, especially if we pay attention to the historically very important role of lawyers who were called upon to implement the royal policy to form a strong and energetic monarchy. From the beginning of the 12th century. Bologna has a significant impact on the legal culture. Many French people from the south also study here, most of whom later returned home, where they make their careers. Service to individuals or the community in the cities of the region was seen as the norm. As for the royal service, it was considered the limit of what was desired: it was poorly rewarded and built on a short-term basis. By serving the needs of various clients, lawyers have thus contributed to the creation of a legal climate that ensures constant control over the actions of the monarchy. As a result, the king's servants also had to "match" both in number and in level of training in order to avoid wasting time in parliament. Lawyers acted as representatives of opponents of the royal court. Cities increasingly resorted to their services. A new legal culture is spreading, providing employment for lawyers. Even the offspring of aristocratic families become doctors, although most of them were from the bourgeoisie. in the royal service were lawyers - immigrants from both the South and the North. After 1825 in Parliament, in the financial service, in the chancellery, it was mainly lawyers who had been trained in Orleans. More vague data on the state of affairs is not so profitable compared with the professions of doctor and lawyer, for example, masters of arts or other graduates of this faculty. Up to 15 century. in "young" Europe, studying at foreign faculties of law was highly valued. But by 1370, the practice of attracting lawyers who graduated from local universities began to take shape: the role of the university in the life of a German city was growing. At the same time, university graduates are well represented among the clergy, especially in cathedrals: many canon law lawyers are in the service of both the state and the church. At the end of the century, not only judges, but also lawyers and even simple attorneys most often became university graduates. Not long before 1500, notable changes occurred in the fortunes of university graduates in Spain. In the context of rapid economic growth, the "new" monarchies experienced an acute need for qualified officials. As a result, the number of holders of senior positions with academic titles began to grow. And in the 15th century. studies and careers in "young" Europe are still predominantly associated with the church. In the second half of the 15th century. secular power begins to lead. An urban career meant being involved in administration and working at the level of decision-making bodies. Since 1366, Nuremberg begins to hire on a permanent basis lawyers-doctors. In Antwerp and Lowen, lawyers appear in 1431 and 1451. At first they are content with the positions of tax officials, but soon the requirement for qualifications in the field of law becomes general. The situation described is quite typical for the provincial environment of Central Europe. The university of this era was more of an educational than a social and professional institution.

The formation of modern science is a sufficiently developed topic, but it has not lost its relevance today: to understand the nature of science, which determined the nature of industrial civilization, the study of its genesis is of paramount importance. Despite the fact that many aspects of this topic have been studied quite well by historians of science, philosophy and culture, there are still many questions concerning, in particular, the period that could be called the prehistory of the formation of modern European science and which played a very important role in revising the principles of ancient ontology and logic, thereby preparing the transition to a different type of thinking and worldview, which constituted the prerequisite for the science and philosophy of modern times. This refers to the period of the late Middle Ages - XIV-XVI centuries. This era is characterized by a general atmosphere of skepticism, which until now has not been sufficiently taken into account, but which is essential for understanding the intellectual shifts that took place at the end of the 16th-17th centuries. and which are called the scientific revolution.

Medieval science developed in large cities, where for the first time in Europe there are higher educational institutions - universities (Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Prague). Universities contributed to the development and dissemination of knowledge, as well as the creation of new branches of knowledge, which a little later took shape in various sciences - medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, etc. Science began to reproduce itself, which accelerated its progress.

Gradually, a completely new stratum of society is being formed - the student body, which to this day is the engine of education and science in modern society.

In medieval universities, such effective forms of education are created that they are used to this day. For example, a lecture (literally - reading) at a medieval university was, of necessity, the main form of communication of knowledge. There were few books, they were expensive, and therefore reading and commenting on theological and scientific works was an important form of information. Academic titles and degrees, faculties as educational units have been formed in universities. Such a form of education as a dispute, which was widespread in medieval universities, has died out, but scientific discussions and seminars are of great importance in modern science and in higher education.

The teaching was conducted in Latin, as was the divine service in Catholic churches. Until the 18th century. Latin was an international scientific language, Copernicus, Newton and Lomonosov wrote in it. Until now, solemn speeches are read in European universities, and diplomas are written in Latin. At ceremonial acts, professors appear in medieval doctoral robes and hats. Thus, modern science preserves the memory of the first universities, the emergence of which was one of the main prerequisites for scientific progress.

In the Middle Ages, many technical discoveries were made that contributed to the development of science later, many of these achievements we use to this day. Around the XI century. the first watches with striking and wheels appeared, and two centuries later - pocket watches. At the same time, a modern steering design was created, which allowed in the 15th century. cross the ocean and discover America. A compass has been created. The invention of the printing press was of the greatest importance; book printing made the book accessible. Thus, the time that is considered the period of "darkness and obscurantism" created the preconditions for the emergence of science. For scientific knowledge to form, one had to be interested not in what is unusual, but in what is repeated and is a natural law, i.e. from reliance on ordinary experience, based on the testimony of the senses, to move on to scientific experience, which happened gradually in the Middle Ages.

European medieval science

The era of the Middle Ages belongs to the beginning of the II century. n. e., and its completion by the XIV-XV centuries. The Middle Ages is based on theological values. The Church interferes in all spheres of human life. Philosophy, like science, are the "servants" of theology. Provisions that are at variance with Christian dogmas are condemned.

Therefore, science in the Middle Ages is often assessed as a kind of intellectual aspiration, deprived of the freedom of search and fettered by prejudices and delusions. Research objectives are also directed towards the attainment of grace and salvation.

In the Middle Ages, the postulates of creation assumed the allocation creative nature ( natura naturans ) and nature created ( natura naturata ) ... The middle ages knew seven liberal arts — triumvium: grammar, dialectics, rhetoric; quadrium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music. Every scientist was obliged to master all these sciences - arts. In the XII-XIII centuries. the texts of Arabic-speaking scientists devoted to natural scientific research were known; Arabic numerals were widely used. The most important inventions of the compass, gunpowder, watches, horse collars, steering rack came from the East. In science, the scholastic method prevailed with its necessary component - the citation of authorities, which made the task of studying natural laws unimportant.

Medieval scholars, usually from Arab universities, called their knowledge natural magic, understanding by it a reliable and deep knowledge of the secrets of nature. Magic was understood as a deep knowledge of the hidden forces and laws of the Universe without violating them, and, therefore, without violence against Nature. Patristics (from Lat. Father - father) - the teaching of the church fathers - was the first stage in the development of medieval philosophy. From the 1st to the 6th century The problems of philosophy within the framework of patristics were represented by: Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, Gregory of Nyssa, Tertullian, Origen, etc. They discussed the problems of the essence of God, the movement of history towards a certain ultimate goal ("city of God"), the relationship between free will and the salvation of the soul. It was of great importance that the mind was thought of as striving to expand its boundaries, and intelligible nature placed its hopes on the capabilities of the human mind.

A classic of medieval patristics Tertullian(160-220) exposed the chasm between the reality of faith and the truth of speculation, each time showing the disparity between faith and reason. Faith does not need rational theoretical argumentation, the truths of faith are revealed in the act of revelation. His credo “I believe because it’s absurd” shows that cognitive-rational structures do not have power in the sphere of attraction of faith.

Representative of the early patristics Origen(about 185-253 / 254) drew attention to the fact that Nature is superior to the clearest and purest human mind. The universe is co-ordinate with God, before and after our world there have been and will be other worlds. The process of changing the world in his Christological teaching was associated with the depth of the fall of the spirits, their return (salvation) to the original blissful state, which was not final, since the spirits, by virtue of their free will, could experience a new fall.

Scholasticism (from Latin - school), which took shape in the 9th-12th centuries, seeks to update religious dogmas, adapting them to the convenience of teaching in universities and schools. Great importance is attached logic reasoning, in which they see the way to comprehend God. The flourishing of scholastic scholarship is associated with the sharpening of the logical apparatus, rational methods of substantiating knowledge, in which the thesis and antithesis, arguments and counterarguments collide. Anyone who is engaged in teaching activities calls himself a scholast: Eriugena, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Abelard, Anselm of Canterbury.

Questions about the ratio reason and faith, science and religion. The relationship between philosophy and theology is interpreted ambiguously. Anselm of Canterbury(1033-1109) believes that truths obtained by reason, but contrary to the authority of Scripture, should be forgotten or rejected. Abelard(1079-1142) strives for a clear distinction between faith and knowledge and suggests that first, with the help of reason, examine religious truths, and then judge whether they deserve faith or not. He owns the famous principle: "To understand in order to believe." Unlike faith, philosophy, like knowledge, relies on the evidence of reason.

The Middle Ages were characterized by a struggle between nominalism and realism that touched the creature general concepts - "universal"... Nominalists denied the ontological (existential) meaning of general concepts. Universals exist only in the mind. In the XIV century. Ockham will express this idea of ​​nominalism, stating that the subject of knowledge can only be single things - individuals. Realists argued that universals really exist and independently of consciousness.

The nominees created the doctrine of dual truth, who insisted on the separation of the truths of theology and the truths of philosophy. What is true in philosophy can be false in theology, and vice versa. The principle of the duality of truth indicated two fundamentally different pictures of the world: theologian and natural philosopher. The first associated truth with divine revelation, the second with natural reason.

The famous scientist Albert the Great (1193-1207) sought to reconcile theology (as an experience of the supernatural) and science (as an experience of the natural). The main method of scientific research, he considered observation and was sure that when studying nature, one should turn to observation and experience. In his secret workshop, he conducted countless experiments.

For Roger Bacon (c. 1214-1294), there were three main modes of knowledge: authority, reasoning, and experience. Experienced science, he considered the mistress of the speculative sciences. Having an encyclopedic education and a broad outlook, he emphasized the importance of studying works from the originals and the need for knowledge of mathematics. R. Bacon strove to create a kind of encyclopedia of sciences, which, in addition to mathematics, included physics, optics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, and ethics. It is interesting that R. Bacon distinguished three types of experience: external, acquired through the senses, internal, interpreted in the spirit of mystical illumination, and the original experience that God endowed the “holy fathers of the church” with.

In teaching Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274) there are indications of the method of the intellectual, i.e. comprehending contemplation, which grasps not the image of an object, beyond which neither physics nor mathematics can go, but the prototype of this image, the actual form of the object, "which is being itself and from which being comes."

Interesting ideas about the process of cognition, developed by the English philosopher and logician Ockham(c. 1285-1349). He was confident in the independence of scientific truths from theology, their close connection with experience and reliance on reason. Sensory cognition deals with single objects. However, it loses the character of their accurate reproduction. "Representation as such is a state or act of the soul and forms a sign for the corresponding external thing." Consequently, in the soul we find a sign for a corresponding phenomenon in the external world. Ockham distinguishes between intuitive knowledge associated with the perception and experience of a single thing, and abstract knowledge, which is able to be distracted from the single. The well-known principle of Occam ("Occam's razor"), which says that "you should not multiply entities unnecessarily," entered the treasury of human intellectual thought, which means that each term denotes only a certain subject. The formation of concepts in Occam is due to potency - the striving of the human soul for the subject of knowledge. His teaching on concepts is called terminism ... Natural concepts related to the things themselves, Ockham calls "terms of the first intention", and artificial, referring to many things and the relationship between them, are called "terms of the second intention." It is they who become the object of analysis in logic. Ockham limited the application of the concept of causality to the sphere of empirical assertion. Occam's ideas were widespread in medieval universities.

The peculiarities of medieval science, scientists rank its orientation to a set of rules in the form of comments, the tendency to systematize and classify knowledge. Compilation, so alien and unacceptable for modern science, is a characteristic feature of medieval science associated with the general ideological and cultural atmosphere of this era.

The emergence of the first universities

The Middle Ages are a difficult, important and most interesting period in human history. At this time, various events take place: states are experiencing feudal fragmentation (for example, German lands), they unite their lands (for example, Spain), cities rise and develop - the most important centers of trade, science, culture, civilization. Its own culture is developing, the antique is being revived. All this calls to life a strong machine of state power, and, accordingly, there is a need for qualified employees - lawyers, theologians, doctors, therefore, science, education, schools begin to develop actively.

In the 12th century, the world's first higher schools - universities - began to appear in Europe. Some universities, for example, in Seville, Paris, Toulouse, Naples, Cambridge, Oxford, Valencia, Bologna, were founded in the XII-XIII centuries. The rest, for example, in Uppsala, Copenhagen, Rostock, Orleans, were founded later - in the XIV-XV centuries.

For all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, like worship, was Latin. Thousands of schoolchildren were required to learn Latin at that time. Many could not stand it and ran away from cramming and beatings. But for those who nevertheless endured, Latin became a familiar and understandable language, and therefore the lecture in Latin was understandable to listeners from different countries.

There was a huge book in the professor's chair, supported by a triangular music stand. The word "lecture" means "reading". Indeed, the medieval professor read the book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. The students had to perceive the content of this book by ear, assimilate by memory. The fact is that books in those days were handwritten and very expensive. And not everyone could afford to buy it.

Thousands of people flocked to the city, where the famous scientist appeared. For example, at the end of the 11th century in the city of Bologna, where Irnerius, a connoisseur of Roman law, appeared, a school of legal knowledge arose. Gradually this school became the University of Bologna. It was the same with Salerno, another Italian city that became famous as the main university center for medical science. Opened in the 12th century, the University of Paris has won recognition as the main center of theology. Following several higher schools of the XII century. most of the medieval universities arose in the 13th and 14th centuries. in England, France, Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Poland and Germany.

The first universities were organs of medieval science, which in all countries of Latin influence was unified and taught in the same way, in the common Latin language for all peoples; in addition, the universities were molded into the forms of medieval guilds, the essential features of which sworn partnership, regulation and monopolization of labor and production are repeated in all countries.

There was another feature that marked the medieval university: its ecclesiastical character. Whoever was the founder of the university - whether a city commune or a secular or spiritual prince, or, finally, the world power of a pope or an emperor - its members are indifferently called clerics (clerici), and the economic well-being of the school is mainly based on church preferences.

At the beginning of the 15th century, students in Europe attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. The most famous among them were: Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Krakow.

Two effects have accompanied the activities of universities. The first is the birth of a class of scholars, priests, and lay people, to whom the church has entrusted the mission of teaching the truths of revelation. The historical significance of this phenomenon lies in the fact that along with the traditional two powers - ecclesiastical and secular - a third appeared - the power of intellectuals, whose influence on social life became more and more tangible over time.

The second effect is associated with the opening of the University of Paris, where students and teachers of all classes flocked. University society from the very beginning did not know caste differences; rather, it formed a new caste of heterogeneous social elements. And, if in subsequent eras the university acquires aristocratic features, the medieval one was originally "popular" in the sense that the children of peasants and artisans through a system of privileges (in the form of low tuition fees and free housing) became students. Their "nobility" was not determined by their more class origin, but depended on the accumulated cultural baggage.

Structure of a medieval university

University teachers created associations in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval high school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theological), and medicine. But if the training of a future lawyer or physician took 5-6 years, then the future philosopher-theologian - as much as 15 years. Before entering one of the three main faculties, the student had to graduate from the preparatory - artistic faculty, which studied the already mentioned "seven liberal arts" ("artist" in Latin - "art"). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - "reading") professors and masters. The scholarship of the teacher was manifested in his ability to explain what he had read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and the essence of scientific concepts. In addition to the lectures, disputes were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. Hot in intensity, sometimes they turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

In the XIV-XV centuries. so-called colleges appear. At first, this was the name of student dormitories. Over time, they also began to hold lectures and disputes. The collegium founded by Robert de Sorbonne, the confessor of the French king, the Sorbonne, gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris. The latter was the largest higher school of the Middle Ages.

Bachelor, Licentiate and Master

In medieval universities, there were four faculties: the lowest - artistic, or "liberal arts", which gave the right to study further, and three higher - medical, legal and theological. The main task of the faculty was to control the quality of teaching. At the art faculty, training lasted from 5 to 7 years; the student became first a bachelor and then a master of arts. According to the statutes, this degree could not be obtained by a person under the age of 21. The master received the right to teach, but he could continue his studies at one of the higher faculties. The highest degree awarded by the faculties was the doctorate or master's degree, i.e. professor (teacher, lecturer) who received this degree, subject to the fulfillment of the requirements that are required for the issuance of a license. The name "Master" was gradually assigned to the professors of the Faculty of Arts, and the name "Doctor" - to the professors of the three higher faculties. Due to the variability of national traditions, those who received the highest academic degree at the senior faculty could also be called "masters".

The educational process was multi-stage; the passage of each stage ended with the receipt of a certain rank, which fixed a certain level of qualification in accordance with a strict standard. Over time, additional degrees - bachelor's and licentiate - appeared in the practice of a medieval university. The bachelor's degree, which was actually an apprentice of the scientific workshop, opened up access to obtaining other degrees. To obtain it, it was necessary to pass the appropriate exam. Continuing education bachelors were eligible for teaching, fulfilling the duties of lower rank teachers. For example, at the Faculty of Theology, they began their teaching career as a bachelor-tutor ("cursor"), then sequentially moved on to the following degrees: "biblicus" (Bible commentator); "Sententiary" (teacher of "Sentences" by Peter of Lombard). The highest bachelor's degree was the "baccalariusformatus" (an established teacher, practicing debate and preaching, ready for a licentiate degree).

The procedure for awarding a bachelor's, doctor's or master's degree was distinguished by theatricality, its details were determined by the university statute. The bachelor candidate was offered a plot for the interpretation of an authoritative text. It was forbidden to answer on the basis of pre-made notes. In case of correct answers, the student was given a bachelor's clothing, having put on which, he took a place among the bachelors. After that, he again demonstrated his knowledge, took the oath of allegiance to the faculty. His mentor gave a speech in honor of the applicant, assessing his personal qualities.

To obtain higher degrees, the candidate had to conduct many hours of debate, read sermons and test lectures. The entry of the licentiate into the college of professors was accompanied by a well-known ritual. He was to receive a doctoral hat as a token of his teaching dignity. In the procedure, furnished with great solemnity, the main role was played by a dispute that took place for more than one day. Disputes were not just a form of qualification tests: they were the essence of scholastic science, subject to the laws of intelligence (ratio). They were preceded by commenting on some authoritative text. Of great importance was the ability to single out the main problem and break it down into questions in order to further conduct polemics, the result of which was the production of the subject's own thought ("determinatio"). Bachelors took part in the debate. The final decision of the controversial issue belonged to the new doctor. Getting a doctor's hat was expensive. For many licensed people, it was beyond their means. Thus, an independent degree appears - "licentiate", an average between a bachelor's degree and a doctorate, or master's degree.

The Western European Higher School - University was distinguished by a high degree of institutionalization and structuredness. It developed sufficiently reliable techniques to protect the academic community from corruption.

What did you study in medieval universities?

The goals of learning at the dawn of university life are set out in one document from the early 13th century: “Some (students) studied solely in order to know ... others, to become famous ... others studied in order to gain later profit ... few of them studied in order to be edified or edified others ... teachers and doctors multiplied their preferences and coveted places ... ".

The entire university system demanded the strictest external order, completely opposite to modern academic freedom. Not only the academic year, but also the day was precisely delineated. In the early morning (usually no later than 5:00 in the summer), the obligatory lectures (ordinariae) began, which ended around 8-9 a.m. In the afternoon or evening, optional readings (extraordinariae) took place. At the beginning of the academic year, the teachers of the art faculty distributed among themselves the books to be read, and at first there was no division of labor, and each "artist" had to gradually sort through all the books, from which it was completely impossible to delve into the specialty. This system was especially inconvenient in senior, special faculties, where the number of associate professors was negligible; among doctors, for example, one read all theoretical, the other - all practical medicine. Even books in many universities were divided by a special commission, chaired by the rector, into departments (puncta), for which exact dates were set (puncta taxata). The slightest deviation from the planned order entailed heavy fines. The university authorities even resorted to spying on professors, for which students and Bedels were involved. For example, 12 weeks were allocated for Nikomachev's ethics in Paris, 50 lectures for the aphorisms of Hippocrates, 38 lectures for a book about fever. During the lectures, the associate professor occupied a place at the department; the scholar of the senior 3 faculties sat on benches, while the "artists" were ordered to sit on the floor, on a straw mat, "in order to instill in them humility." The street in Paris, on which the audiences of the artists were located, in the 14th century. received the nickname Rue de Fouarre (Vicus straminis, Straw street). In 1366, Pope Urban VI prescribed the same "order" for the Oxford artists. Associate professors were forbidden to dictate their lectures; nevertheless, this mode of teaching in some universities became so ingrained that some noble scholars began to send their servants to record lectures.

The regulation of student life followed from the rules for organizing the corporate system: everything had to be scheduled, deviation from the rules seemed like a violation of the usual norms of life.

Over time, faculties appeared in every medieval university: law, medicine, theological. But training began with the "preparatory" faculty, where the so-called "seven liberal arts" were taught. And since in Latin art is "artes", the faculty was called artistic. Students - "artists" studied first grammar, then rhetoric, dialectics (which meant logic); only after that did they move on to arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. The "artists" were young people, and according to the university charter, they could be flogged, like schoolchildren, while older students were not subjected to such punishments. These facts are reflected, for example, in the poetry of the vagants.

Medieval science was called scholastic (literally - school). The essence of this science and its main flaw was expressed by the old proverb: "Philosophy is the servant of theology." And not only philosophy, but all the sciences of that time had to strengthen the truths of religion with each of their conclusions. The scholastic method did not question faith, but the methods used in scholasticism made a real revolution in mental attitudes, they helped to accept the possibility of the existence of different opinions, weaned people from being afraid of innovations, used observation and experiment, and contributed to the development of inner spiritual life.

The auditorium of the medieval university resembled the auditorium of the university of our day: in the same way, benches are located in stepped rows, below there is a massive oak lectern, behind which is a professor giving a lecture. The students listened and wrote with a pencil lead on waxed boards. The age of the students was very diverse. You could see people of different nationalities: Spaniards, Germans, French, British. For all European (especially Western European) countries, the language of science, like worship, was Latin. The word "lecture" meant "reading." The medieval professor read a book, sometimes interrupting the reading with explanations. Students had to perceive the content of this book by ear, learn from memory, and rewrite. The scholarship of the teacher was manifested in his ability to clarify what he had read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and scientific concepts.

Disputes played an important role in the educational life of the medieval university. At the so-called master's debates, the master who taught the students skillfully drew them into an argument. Proposing to confirm or dispute the theses put forward by him, he forced the students to mentally check these theses with the opinions of the “church fathers”, with the decisions of church councils and papal messages. During the dispute, each thesis was contrasted with the opponent's counter-thesis. The tactics of the offensive is to lead the enemy to such a forced confession, which either contradicted his own assertion, or was at odds with the unshakable church truths, with a string of interrelated questions, which was tantamount to an accusation of heresy. Hot in intensity, sometimes the disputes turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

The course at the university was designed for a long time. In those days, however, younger students came to the university than today, so in the 13th century in Paris, students first studied at the Faculty of Arts for six years. During this period, the student could become a "bachelor" and help in secondary roles in teaching others. But he could not start teaching until he was twenty years old. The theology course was initially taught for eight years, but it tended to lengthen. After completing a course at the Faculty of Arts and several years of teaching, the student devoted four years to studying the Bible and two years to studying the Sentences of Peter of Lombard. After that he could become a bachelor and for two years read lectures on the Bible, and for one year - on the "Sentences". He received his master's or doctor's degree after another four to five years.

Some students, of course, endured such a long study in the hope of progressing up the church ladder. However, the curriculum itself was clearly oriented towards teaching, towards the graduation of teachers or professors. And since the training of "art" prepared for the study of higher sciences and theology, which was considered the queen of all sciences, then obtaining a master's or doctor's degree in theology, giving the right to teach, was naturally considered the pinnacle of an academic career. From this it is easy to understand why the most prominent thinkers of the Middle Ages were theologians.

Conclusion

The formation of the first universities in Europe, starting from the XII century, was caused by the consolidation of trends in the development of feudal society. If in the early Middle Ages society did not particularly need educated people, and in general society itself was formed on the basis of the remnants of ancient civilization and the traditions of barbarian kingdoms, then during the developed Middle Ages, due to the growth of cities, the complication of social relations, people felt the need for knowledge, intellectual skills ... Church and monastery schools could not meet the needs of a secular society, laity, society needed a new type of school - city schools and universities.

The algorithm for the development of medieval educational needs can be defined as follows: from elementary beginnings of knowledge, through the study of traditional ancient sciences, to mastering the demanded sciences in medieval society and, if desired, the search and study of scientific and spiritual truths, various jobs where knowledge and skills were required ...

The rights of the university were initially given by patrons: kings, dukes, bishops, the city administration, in a word, the authorities of those lands on which the university was organized. But the Pope himself won in this line. Knowledge was associated with the concept of God's word, before knowledge was concentrated in churches and monasteries, so the church tried to put the inner life of the university under its control. This applied to the sciences (theology first of all), and benefits, and even the appearance and rules of life in school and in everyday life. But the motley student environment made its own adjustments, the kings and their administration intervened in the affairs of the universities, and little by little the universities achieved various privileges, turning into a special corporation with its own laws and rules. The regulation of university life corresponded to the guild rules of the Middle Ages. But the intellectual life could not be driven into the framework of the guild restrictions. This is how the variegated environment and customs of universities developed. Here both teachers from mendicant monastic orders and renowned professors had weight. The students became persons of various classes, including wandering schoolchildren. The university corporation consisted of many federations: faculties, nations, colleges, dormitories, boarding houses, merchants, etc. The life of the university was run by an elected person - the rector. The university intervened in the intellectual and political collisions and conflicts of the era. Universities have become an important part of urban and intellectual life in Europe.

This is how the medieval university developed: from city schools to a guild organization, which grew into a powerful corporation, and then into a state within a state.

The focus of university education was higher than the need for basic counting, reading, writing. Medieval society felt the need for a deeper study of law, theology, medicine. The first step to comprehending these sciences remained the study of the seven liberal arts, the traditions of which were laid down in antiquity: grammar were studied, then rhetoric, dialectics (which meant logic); only after that - arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. Most of the graduates became professional teachers, many others took various jobs in society, where knowledge and skills were required. When considering students, one should distinguish between the student elite who have already taught, the bulk of the students, and the undergraduate students.

The graduate elite of universities and practitioners were worried about many intellectual issues. To obtain a diploma, it was required to study for many years, re-read many books, master the art of eloquence, and for lawyers and doctors also practical knowledge. It is not surprising that popes, cardinals, famous poets and writers, dexterous administrators, legal experts, famous surgeons, scientists and warlock alchemists emerged from the university environment. This same environment provided the basic knowledge base for humanists. In general, the issues of compatibility of the comprehension of divine knowledge with the need to take money for their labor, questions of the search for true nobility (by blood or by knowledge), questions of reforming science (from scholasticism), the search for secret, unacceptable, knowledge, questions were significant for intellectuals of that time. on the compatibility of knowledge and art.

But the bulk of the students and also the teachers were worried about the search for earnings. This mass poured directly into the life of cities and villages (the organization of schools) and contributed to the formation of the profession of medical practitioners, notaries, secretaries, prosecutors, school teachers. Near the university environment, scribes, booksellers and other suppliers of the necessary working supplies for writing and sciences were fed, a city dweller could choose in various life situations between acting at his own peril and risk (in legal incidents, in treatment, and even in drawing up petitions) and the experience of a specialist ...

This kind of corporate formations and free associations of students and mentors with their privileges, established programs, diplomas, titles and knowledge, like universities and their inhabitants, have not seen antiquity either in the West or in the East.

List of used literature

1. Verger J. Prototypes (History of the Medieval University) // Bulletin of the Higher School. 1991.

2. Ivanovsky V.N. Public education and universities in the Middle Ages // Book for reading on the history of the Middle Ages. Edited by P.G. Vinogradov. M., 1898. T.4.

3. From the history of European universities in the XIII - XV centuries. Voronezh, 1984.

4. Copston F. History of Medieval Philosophy ".- M .: Enigma, 1997

5. Kokhanovsky V.P., T.G. Leshkevich, T.P. Matyash, T.B. Fathi. "Philosophy of Science in Questions and Answers". Rostov-on-Don, 2006.

6. Kublanova B.M. How they studied at a medieval university // Book for reading on the history of the Middle Ages. M., 1951. Part 1.

In the Middle Ages, there was no separation of higher education from secondary education, therefore, junior and senior faculties existed in universities. After studying Latin in elementary school, a school student (scolarius) at 15-16, and sometimes even at 12-13 years old, entered the university at the preparatory faculty.

Here he studied the "seven liberal arts" (septem artes liberales), which consisted of two cycles - "trivium" (trivium - "crossroads of three ways of knowledge": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) and "quadrivium" (quadrivium - "crossroads of four ways of knowledge ": music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy). Only after studying "philosophy" was it given the right to enter the senior faculties: law, medicine, theology.

Rhetoric is the science of how to speak correctly and, to a lesser extent, write and compose not only speeches but also documents. The highest authority was the work of Cicero.

Dialectics or Logic. Ability to think logically and understand issues, trying to make out all the pros and cons as much as possible. The highest authority here was Aristotle. Abelard played an important role in its formation.

The liberal arts faculty took an average of about five to seven years to study. This period could be less or more, depending on the specific student and local traditions. After studying for the first 2 years, he received a bachelor's degree, having attended the full course of the Master of Liberal Arts. They now had the right to teach at their own faculty or continue their studies at others. About a third of the students graduated from the Liberal Arts Faculty. Education in medicine and law took about six more years. Studied theology for at least 8 years. And more often the training was delayed for 15-16 years.

People of all ages could study with one teacher, and the level of training could vary greatly. There was also no firm idea of ​​how much a student should study. The term of study could have changed in any direction. The reasons could be both the ability of a particular student and his position.

Educational sessions at the university were designed for the entire academic year. The division into semesters or semesters appears only towards the end of the Middle Ages in German universities. True, the academic year was divided into two unequal parts: the large ordinary school period (magnus ordinarius) from October, and sometimes from mid-September to Easter, and also the "small ordinary school period (ordinarius parvus) from Easter to the end of June. Curriculum however, was compiled for the entire academic year.

There were three main forms of teaching.

A complete, systematic presentation of an academic subject, according to the program set out in the statutes, at certain times was called lectio. These lectures were divided into ordinary (obligatory) and extraordinary (optional). The fact is that in the Middle Ages, schoolchildren did not take a course in any particular science, say, a course in philosophy or Roman law, etc. Then they said that such and such a teacher reads or such and such a student listens to such and such a book. Roger Bacon put it this way in the 13th century: "If someone knows the text, he knows everything that relates to the science about which this text is interpreted." Some books were considered more important and obligatory (ordinary) for the student, others less important and optional (extraordinary). The difference in lectures also led to the division of teachers into ordinary and extraordinary. For ordinary lectures, as a rule, morning hours (from dawn to 9 am) were appointed, as more convenient and designed for the more recent strength of the audience, and extraordinary ones were read in the afternoon (from 6 to 10 pm). The lecture lasted 1 - 2 hours. Before the start of the lecture, the teacher made a short introduction, in which he defined the nature of the work on the book and did not shun self-promotion. The main task of the teacher was to compare different versions of the texts and provide the necessary explanations. The statutes prohibited students from requiring repetition or slow reading. Schoolchildren were supposed to come to lectures with books. This was done in order to force each listener to directly familiarize themselves with the text. Books at that time were very expensive, so schoolchildren rented texts. Already in the 13th century, universities began to accumulate manuscripts, copy them and create their own exemplary texts. Audiences in the modern sense of the word did not exist for a long time. Each teacher read to a certain circle of his students in any rented room or at home. Bologna professors were among the first to set up school premises, and from the 14th century, cities began to create public buildings for classrooms. One way or another, schoolchildren, as a rule, were grouped in one place. In Paris, it was Rue de Straw (Foir), so named because the students sat on the floor, on straw, at the teacher's feet. Later, a kind of desks appeared - long tables, at which up to 20 people could fit. The department began to settle on a dais, under a canopy.

Repetitio is a detailed explanation of a separate text from different angles, taking into account all possible doubts and objections. At the University of Paris, it was more often a check of all sources related to a particular particular problem on various manuscripts and a look at the corresponding commentaries in various essays. In German universities, they took place in the form of a dialogue between teacher and student. The teacher asked questions and judged the student's progress by the answers. There was one more form - the repetition of a part of what was read. At the same time, they were preparing for disputes.

One of the most common forms of teaching was disputatio. The university authorities attached great importance to them. It was the disputes that were supposed to teach schoolchildren the art of dispute, the protection of acquired knowledge. Dialectics came to the fore in them.

At the end of the training, the student passed the exam. He was received by a group of masters from each nation, led by the dean. The student must prove that he has read the recommended books and participated in the prescribed number of disputes (6 for his master's and 3 for university-wide). They were also interested in the behavior of the schoolboy. Then he was admitted to a public debate, at which it was supposed to answer all questions. The award was a first bachelor's degree. For two years the bachelor assisted the master and received the "right to teach" (licentio docendi), becoming a "licentiate". Six months later, he became a master and had to read a solemn lecture in front of bachelors and masters, take an oath, arrange a feast.

In concluding this chapter, it makes sense to recall a little about the higher sciences. There were three of them Theology, Jurisprudence and Medicine.

Theology (Theology).

The main teaching was carried out according to the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, which included the opinions of the most authoritative theologians on various controversial points in the Bible.

Jurisprudence.

Undoubtedly, the largest number of students who transferred to higher courses specialized in this discipline.

It should be noted that there were several sources of laws. It:

Canonical law based on decisions of church councils, popes and other hierarchs of the church.

Roman law. The main thing here was the code of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. This code paid great attention to various types of property.

But in practice, lawyers also needed to know local laws.

Various feudal rulers, for example, the king of France, issued their laws. In general, every more or less independent sovereign could establish its own rules and laws, be it a feudal lord or a city. The relations between them were also regulated by laws, be it the norms of service, the number and size of various levies, the division of various powers, etc.

As a result, each province had its own local laws, which could copy or contradict the common law.

Medicine

Medicine included the doctrine of four fluids that dominate a person's blood, mucus, bile and black bile. It was believed that the disease stemmed from a violation of the ratio of these fluids.

Bloodletting and enemas played an important role in the treatment. Various incense was widely used.