In anatomy, the generally accepted designations of mutually perpendicular planes are used, which clarify the definition of the position of organs or their parts in space. There are three such planes: sagittal, frontal, horizontal. It must be remembered that when these planes are related to the human body, its vertical position is meant (Fig. 5).
The sagittal plane means vertical plane, through which we mentally (and on a fixed, for example, on a frozen corpse, and in fact) cut the body in the direction of the arrow (sagitta) piercing it from front to back and along the body.
Sagittal plane passes just in the middle of the body, divides it into two symmetrical halves, right and left, and is called the median (median) plane (medianus, lat. - located in the middle). Parasagittal planes run parallel to it.
A plane that also runs vertically, but at right angles to the sagittal, is called frontal, parallel to the forehead (frons, frontis - forehead). It divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
third, horizontal, the plane is drawn horizontally, that is, at right angles to both the sagittal and frontal planes. It divides the body into upper and lower sections.
The designation of the position of individual points or lines in these planes is taken as follows: what is located closer to the median plane is designated as medial, medialis(medianum, lat. - middle); what lies further from the median plane is designated as lateral, lateralis(latus, will give birth, lateris - side).
In the anteroposterior direction: closer to the anterior surface of the body - anterior, anterior, or ventral, ventralis (venter - belly), closer to the back surface is called back, posterior, or dorsal, dorsalis (dorsum - back).
In the vertical direction: closer to the upper end of the body - the upper, superior, closer to the lower end - lower, inferior.
In relation to parts of the limbs, the terms " proximal" and " distal". Proximal (close) serves to designate parts located closer to the place of the beginning of the limb near the body, distal (distant), on the contrary, to designate further located parts. For example, on the upper limb, the elbow occupies a proximal position compared to the fingers, and the latter compared with the elbow - distal.
The terms "outdoor", externus, and "inner", internus, are used primarily to indicate the position in relation to the body cavity and entire organs, in the sense of "more inward" or "more outward" lying; "superficial", super-ficialis, and "deep", profundus, to mean respectively "less deep" or "more deeply" separated from the surface of a body or organ.
Usual terms of magnitude: large- magnus, small - parvus, larger- major, smaller - minor.
The last two terms are major and minor- are used to denote the comparative size of two close or similar formations, for example, on the humerus tuberculum (tubercle) majus and minus. The term magnus (large) does not indicate the presence of another similar formation of a smaller size. For example, nervus auricularis magnus - the large ear nerve, is named because of the thickness of the trunk, but the small ear nerve does not exist.
Shape of various formations, especially in the department, is given by a number of names, the meaning of which is better with direct acquaintance with these formations
At the VI International Congress of Anatomists, held in Paris in 1955, an anatomical nomenclature was adopted, called the Parisian ( PNA). In this edition, anatomical terms are given according to the latest anatomical nomenclature, corrected and supplemented at recent international congresses, including the X International Anatomical Congress in Tokyo in 1975, - "International Anatomical Nomenclature" edited by S. S. Mikhailov (M .: Medicine) .
Certain terms of the earlier Basel nomenclature that are used in the clinical literature and are absent in PNA, are given with the notation ( BNA).
A number of terms are given in abbreviated form.:
art. - articulatio (joint); artt. - articulationes (joints);
lig. - ligamentum (ligament), ligg. - ligamenta (ligaments);
a.- arteria (artery), aa.-arteriae (arteries);
v.-vena (vein), vv.- venae (veins);
n.-nervus (nerve), nn.-nervi (nerves);
m.-musculus (muscle), mm.-musculi (muscles).
Scheme of axes and planes in the human body:
1 - vertical axis;
2 - frontal axis;
3 - frontal plane (one of the frontal ones);
4 - horizontal and vertical lines lying in the frontal plane;
5 - the shoulder is brought to the body (adductio);
6 - the left arm is bent at the elbow joint (flexio);
7, 17 - transverse axis (one of the horizontal axes in the frontal plane);
8 - horizontal plane (one of the horizontal planes); arrows indicate sagittal (front to back) and frontal (left to right and vice versa) directions;
9 - brush in the position of pronation, thumb facing the body (pronatio); 10 - moving the position from pronation to supination, an example of rotation (rotatio);
11 - IV and V fingers are bent (flexio);
12 - brush in the position of supination, the thumb is turned outward (supinatio);
13 - thumb abducted (abductio);
14 - sagittal axis;
15 - medial edge of the forearm;
16 - lateral edge of the forearm;
18 - the right arm is extended at the elbow joint (extensio);
19 - the arm is taken away from the body (abductio);
20 - horizontal and vertical lines in the sagittal plane (shown by arrows);
21 - one of the parasagittal planes;
22 - median (median) plane, plane of symmetry (one of the sagittal planes)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sagittal plane(from lat. sagitta- arrow) - an imaginary vertical plane that runs from front to back and divides the object into left and right parts. Used in human and animal anatomy.
Any number of sagittal planes can be drawn through the body. One of them, the one that passes through the vertical main axis, is called the median, or median. It divides the body into two symmetrical halves - right and left.
see also
- Spatial relations in anatomical terminology
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An excerpt characterizing the Sagittal plane
- Lie down? Yes, okay, I'll go to bed. I'm going to bed now, - said Natasha.Since Natasha was told this morning that Prince Andrei was seriously wounded and was traveling with them, she only in the first minute asked a lot about where? as? is he dangerously injured? and can she see him? But after she was told that she was not allowed to see him, that he was seriously injured, but that his life was not in danger, she obviously did not believe what she was told, but convinced that no matter how much she said, she would be answer the same thing, stopped asking and talking. All the way, with big eyes, which the countess knew so well and whose expression the countess was so afraid of, Natasha sat motionless in the corner of the carriage and was now sitting in the same way on the bench on which she sat down. She was thinking about something, something she was deciding or had already decided in her mind now - the countess knew this, but what it was, she did not know, and this frightened and tormented her.
planes and directions passing through the body, respectively, to three planes and axes of the system of rectangular coordinates are used in the anatomical description. Of the three planes, one runs horizontally and is called horizontal plane, and two running perpendicular to it are vertical planes and are called one - frontal plane, another - sagittal plane. The horizontal plane runs parallel to the horizon line; frontal plane - in the transverse direction, corresponding to the plane of the forehead, from where its name came from (frons - forehead, frontalis - frontal); sagittal plane - through the body in the anteroposterior direction (sagitta - arrow). In anatomy, it is conventionally accepted to study the body in a vertical symmetrical position with lowered hands, the thumbs of which are turned outward (supination position).
Sagittal plane, passing strictly in the middle of the body and dividing it into the right and left halves, is called the median or median. axes, going at the intersection of horizontal and frontal planes, are called transverse axes ; going at the intersection of horizontal and sagittal planes - sagittal or anteroposterior; located at the intersection of the frontal and sagittal planes - vertical. Naturally, any number of frontal, horizontal and sagittal planes can be drawn through the body. The exception is the median plane - it can be drawn only one. The frontal plane, passing through the longitudinal axis of the body, divides it into anterior and posterior sections. The anterior is also called abdominal or ventral (venter-belly), and the posterior - dorsal or dorsal (dorsum-back). The surface of an organ facing the anterior surface of the body is called the anterior or ventral surface, and the surface directed towards the back is called the posterior or dorsal. The surface of the organ, which faces the median plane of the body, is called internal or medial (medialis), and the opposite - external or lateral (lateralis). The surface facing the head is called cranial (cranialis - cranial) or upper, and the opposite surface facing the pelvis is called caudal (caudalis - tail) or lower. According to the planes and axes of the body, the directions along which this or that organ is located are also named: upward, or cranially, that is, towards the head; downwards, or caudally, i.e. towards the pelvis; anteriorly, or ventrally; posteriorly, or dorsally; inside, or medially; outwards, or laterally. The terms "cranial" and "caudal" are used only when referring to the trunk and neck. For a limb, terms are used that denote a position of its part that is closer or more distant in relation to the body: respectively, proximal or distal. To define the direction, the terms "proximal" and "distal" are used. The two halves of the body, into which its median plane divides, are constructed according to the type of their mirror image. However, in detail they are not exactly the same. The asymmetry of the body structure especially affects the structure and position of its internal organs. Such unpaired organs as the stomach, spleen, heart and others are asymmetric both in their structure and in their location in the body. If we talk only about the external forms of the body, then they are also not quite symmetrical. For example, right-handers usually have a more developed right hand: it is not only stronger, but also longer than the left, about a centimeter. Lefties have the opposite. You can also note some asymmetry in the structure of the legs. The spinal column is also not built quite symmetrically and has slight bends to the side. Almost all people have some facial asymmetry.
To indicate the position of the human body in space, the location of its parts relative to each other in anatomy, the concepts of planes and axes are used (Fig. 1). It is customary to consider the initial position of the body when a person is standing, legs together, palms facing forward. Man, like other vertebrates, is built on the principle of bilateral (bilateral) symmetry, his body is divided into two halves - right and left. The boundary between them is the median (median) plane, located vertically and oriented from front to back in the sagittal direction (from Latin sagitta - arrow). This plane is also called the sagittal plane.
Sagittal plane separates the right side of the body (right - dexter) from the left (left - sinister). The vertical plane, oriented perpendicular to the sagittal and separating the front part of the body (anterior - anterior) from the back (posterior - posterior), is called frontal (from Latin irons - forehead). This plane in its direction corresponds to the plane of the forehead.
As synonyms for the terms "anterior" and "posterior" in determining the position of the internal organs, the concepts of "abdominal" or "ventral" (ventralis) and "dorsal" or "dorsal" (dorsilis) can be used, respectively.
Rice. 1. Axes and planes drawn through the human body (diagram).
1 - vertical (longitudinal) axis;
2 - frontal plane;
3-horizontal plane;
4-transverse axis;
5-sagittal axis;
6-sagittal plane.
The horizontal plane is oriented perpendicular to the sagittal and frontal and separates the lower parts of the body (lower - inferior) from the overlying ones (upper - superior).
These three planes - sagittal, frontal and horizontal - can be drawn through any point on the human body. Therefore, the number of planes can be arbitrary. According to the planes, directions (axes) can be distinguished that allow the organs to be oriented relative to the position of the body. The vertical axis (vertical - verticalis) is directed along the body of a standing person. Along this axis are the spinal column and the organs lying along it (spinal cord, thoracic and abdominal parts of the aorta, thoracic duct, esophagus). vertical axis coincides with the longitudinal axis (longitudinal - longitudinalis), which is also oriented along the human body, regardless of its position in space or along a limb (leg, arm), or along an organ, the long dimensions of which prevail over other dimensions. The frontal (transverse) axis (transverse - transversus, transversalis) coincides in direction with the frontal plane. This axis is oriented right to left or left to right. The sagittal axis (sagittal - sagittalis) is located in the anteroposterior direction, as is the sagittal plane.
To indicate the position of organs and parts of the body, the following definitions are used, which are included in the list of anatomical terms:
medial(medialis), if the organ (organs) lies closer to the median plane;
lateral(lateral; lateralis), if the organ is located further from the median plane;
intermediate(intermedins), if the organ lies between two adjacent formations;
interior(lying inside; internus) and external (lying outside; externus), when talking about organs located respectively inside, in the body cavity, or outside it;
deep(lying deeper; profundus) and superficial (located on the surface; superficialis) to determine the position of organs lying at different depths.
When describing the upper and lower limbs, special terms are used. To indicate the beginning of the limb - the part that is closer to the body, use the definition of proximal (closest to the body) (rgoximalis). The part of the limb remote from the body is called distal (distalis). The surface of the upper limb relative to the palm is designated by the term palmar (palmaris or volaris - located on the side of the palm), and the lower limb
Ti relative to the sole - plantar (plantaris). The edge of the forearm from the side of the radius is called the radius (radialis), and from the side of the ulna - the ulna (ulnaris). On the lower leg, the edge where the fibula is located is called the fibula (fibularis), and the opposite edge, where the tibia lies, is called the tibia (tibialis).
To determine the projection of the boundaries of the heart, lungs, liver, pleura and other organs, vertical lines are conventionally drawn on the surface of the body, oriented along the human body. The anterior median line (linea mediana anterior) runs along the front surface of the human body, on the border between its right and left halves. The posterior median line (linea mediana posterior) runs along the spinal column, above the tops of the spinous processes of the vertebrae. Between these two lines on each side, several more conditional lines can be drawn through the anatomical formations on the surface of the body. The sternal line (linea sternalis) runs along the edge of the sternum, the mid-clavicular line (linea medioclaviculdris) passes through the middle of the clavicle. Often this line coincides with the position of the nipple of the mammary gland, in connection with which it is also called the nipple line (linea mamillaris). The anterior axillary line (linea axillaris anterior) starts from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris anterior) in the axillary fossa and runs along the body.
The middle axillary line (linea axillaris media) starts from the deepest point of the axillary fossa; posterior axillary line (linea axillaris posterior) - from the fold of the same name (plica axillaris posterior). The scapular line (linea scapularis) passes through the lower angle of the scapula, the paravertebral line (linea paravertebralis) - along the spinal column through the costal-transverse joints (transverse processes of the vertebrae).
Imaginary axes and planes of the human body are needed to facilitate the description of its structure, diseases. Their references can often be found in the specialized literature on anatomy. Let us briefly touch on the characteristics of all such planes and dwell in more detail on the sagittal plane.
Axes of the human body
There are three axes of the human body, they intersect with each other at an angle equal to 90 degrees:
- The vertical axis is the longest, it is directly perpendicular to the support on which the person stands.
- The transverse axis is parallel to the support.
- Sagittal axis - divides the body from front to back.
It is conditionally possible to draw any number of transverse and sagittal axes through the human body. There is only one vertical axis, which is why it is also known as the main axis.
The axes correspond to the plane of the body - sagittal, frontal and horizontal.
Planes of the human body
Briefly characterize all planes:
- The sagittal plane coincides with the axis of the same name. She is perpendicular to the transverse.
- The frontal plane coincides with the vertical axis, it divides the body into two halves: anterior and posterior. Passes at right angles to the support. It got its name because the front parts of the body (front), in particular, the forehead, are parallel to it.
- The horizontal plane runs in the direction of the transverse axis. It conditionally divides the body into upper and lower parts.
Sagittal plane
This plane, like the other two, is widely used in the anatomy of both humans and animals. The sagittal plane of the body with an imaginary line divides the latter into the right and left sides. As already mentioned, an arbitrary number of such planes can be drawn through the body.
The line that passes through the main axis is the mid-sagittal plane or medial. It divides the human body into two equal halves - left and right. Symmetry is observed not only externally, but also with regards to internal organs. For example, left and right kidney, left and right lung. Unpaired organs violate it. The heart, for example, is located closer to the left side of the sternum, the stomach and spleen also gravitate to this side of the abdominal region.
The position of the organs relative to the planes
Depending on the proximity of the location to a particular plane, the organs are described by the following terms:
- cranial: those closer to the skull, head;
- lateral: external, lateral, distant from the medial plane;
- caudal: organs that are located closer to the lower half of the body;
- medial: located closer to the main axis;
- ventral: organs that are located on the abdominal, anterior half;
- dorsal: located on the dorsal, back of the body.
If we talk about limbs, then the following formulations apply:
- distal: remote from any part of the body;
- proximal: on the contrary, closer to it.
Posture: concept, norm
Ozhegov describes posture as a manner of holding oneself. Medical dictionaries characterize this concept as a familiar, relaxed, relaxed posture of a standing person. Posture is determined by two important factors: the level of muscle development and the position of the pelvis.
The sagittal plane of posture should be symmetrical. Correct, normal posture is characterized by:
- strictly vertical position of the head, slightly raised chin;
- strictly horizontal passage of the line of the forearms: symmetrical relative to each other angles that form the lateral surfaces of the neck and outlines of the shoulder girdle;
- symmetrical with respect to the medial plane of the chest, which does not protrude or sink;
- vertical abdominal region: the navel is located strictly on the line of passage of the median plane;
- shoulder blades pressed to the body, symmetrical with respect to the spine;
- parallel lines drawn through the popliteal fossa and gluteal folds;
- when viewed from the side: inverted abdomen, raised chest, straight lower limbs, the angle of inclination of the pelvic region is not more than 30-35 degrees.
Posture defects
Posture disorders (deviations from its normal state) are functional changes in the human musculoskeletal system, characterized by the appearance of new conditioned reflex connections that fix the abnormal position of the body.
Common causes of posture defects:
- the habit of sitting in the wrong postures;
- weakened body: from rickets, bronchial asthma, childhood infections;
- insufficient physical development.
Violations of posture are visible in two planes: frontal and sagittal. The first type is associated with the lack of symmetry between the parts of the body - the so-called asymmetric posture. The second - with a deviation from the normal curvature of the spine. In particular:
- Increased curvature of the spine: stooping, round or round-arched back.
- Curve reduction: flat and flat-concave back.
Let's take a closer look at these changes.
Violation of posture in the sagittal plane
Description of each defect:
- Slouch. An increase in the forward curvature of the spine with a simultaneous decrease in its backward curvature. The legs are slightly bent when walking, the angle of the pelvis decreases. Characterized by a protruding belly, pterygoid shoulder blades, raised shoulder girdle.
- Round back. With this form, the increased curvature of the spine is visible to the naked eye. In addition to the pterygoid shoulder blades, a protruding abdomen, there is also a head tilted forward, a retracted chest, arms hanging at some distance in front of the body.
- Round arched back. All physiological curves of the spine increase. At the same time, the legs are slightly bent when walking, the stomach can not only protrude, but also hang. Raised forearms, sometimes pterygoid scapulae are observed. The head is slightly pushed forward.
- Flat back. Reducing all the curves of the spine, the angle of the normal inclination of the pelvis. The chest moves forward, the lower abdomen protrudes slightly. The winged shape of the shoulder blades is often observed.
- Flat back. Reduction of the forward curvature of the spine while maintaining the norm or increasing its posterior curvature. The line of the cervical vertebra is often flattened, the shape of the shoulder blades can be in the form of a wing. The pelvis is displaced backwards, the legs are slightly bent when walking, and the knees are overbent in an unnatural direction.
Vertical, horizontal, sagittal plane - these concepts are often used in anatomy. They are also indispensable in characterizing the manifestations of a number of diseases, developmental defects, in particular, posture disorders.
