Home natural farming Functional words are able to enter into synonymous relations. Lexical synonymy in Russian. Task and control questions

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Functional words are able to enter into synonymous relations. Lexical synonymy in Russian. Task and control questions

Two or more lexical synonyms, correlated with each other when designating the same phenomena, objects, signs, actions, form a certain group, a paradigm in the language, otherwise called a synonymic row or nest. For example: to denote an action that leads to a state of nervous tension, a rise in the Russian language, they use the synonymous series to excite, excite, excite, excite, excite, electrify, electrify.

A polysemantic word can be included in several synonymic rows at once. So, the word high, in addition to the above series, can be included in the series "sublime", "elevated", "solemn", "pathetic" (bookish), if we are talking about the style of the language, and in the series "thin", "squeaky" when it comes to voice.

Synonyms are usually distributed according to the sphere of use and according to other signs, so the word doctor is the dominant of the synonymic series "doctor" - "doctor" - "healer" - "esculapius", however, when used as an address or with a surname, only the word doctor (doctor House), doctor has an ironic connotation, aesculapius is a purely literary word, which is sometimes also used with a touch of irony.

They distinguish synonyms that are independent of the context, they can replace each other in any context, without stylistic difference, for example: huge - huge, hippopotamus - hippo are synonyms with a stylistic difference, when the choice of a synonym does not depend on the subject or thematic side of the context, but on the genre and style, for example: eat - eat - eat - eat - crack - burst - shamat.

Phraseological synonymy should be especially taken into account when words are mutually replaced that are not synonymous in themselves, but can be synonymous only in certain phraseological turns, for example: “case - fact - circumstance of this kind”, but “we must move from words to deeds”, “science loves exact facts”, “special circumstances prompted him to do this” (replacement is impossible).

As part of the synonymic series, one word stands out, which is semantically as capacious as possible and stylistically neutral (having no additional stylistic characteristics). It becomes the main, pivotal, supporting, often called the dominant. Synonymous resources of the Russian language can be considered from different points of view. So, according to their lexical and grammatical correlation, only words of one part of speech, for example, nouns: applause - applause, can be combined into synonymic rows. In a synonymic series, together with individual words, combinations of words of different types are sometimes combined: significant words and combinations of function words with significant ones (in spite - in spite; a lot - up to the throat, over the edge, without counting, and others). But even in this case, each of the members of the synonymic series performs similar grammatical functions. Such stability of synonymic relations is typical for both heterogeneous and single-root synonyms. However, the synonymy between derivative words is especially consistently preserved: harmony-euphony, harmonious (and harmonic) - euphonious, harmony - euphony, harmonious - euphonious, and so on. Synonyms also differ in their stylistic affiliation and stylistic essence. Words used in different styles of speech can be combined in one row, that is, bookish (official business, scientific, journalistic) and colloquial vernacular, for example: seem (interstyle) - give up (colloquial), imagine (colloquial), seem strange ( colloquial) and others. The same row often includes words that have an unequal stylistic characteristic, that is, they perform different emotional and expressive functions, for example: stylistically neutral seem to be synonymous (except for the above colloquial words) words with somewhat outdated stylistically elevated semantics: dream, dream.

A synonymic series is not just a set of words close in meaning, not just a combination of them, but a microsystem in which all units are in a certain relationship, they do not negate, do not exclude each other, but clarify and correspond to compatible concepts.

The dominant is the center of the synonymic microsystem; on the basis of the dominant, all other members of the synonymic series are distinguished, often representing words with emotionally expressive meanings. As a rule, the interpretation of the meanings of the words of the synonymous series is carried out with the help of the dominant, to which one or another additional explanation is added. These explanations may indicate differences in semantics or functional affiliation. The dominant opens a synonymic row in the dictionary of synonyms.

For example: fall, fall down, thump, slap, crash, fly, hoot, rattle, etc.

Synonymic series are not the same in terms of the number of components: they

can be verbose (cry, roar, howl, sob, whimper, squish, sniff, make a noise), and can consist of 2-3 words (arena - arena; architect - architect).

The synonymic series is not a closed system, it can change both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in the Old Russian language the word labor had the meaning of "spiritual sorrow" and was included in the synonymous series sadness - labor - tightness (to grieve). Having changed the meaning, it began to enter into a different series: work - work - business.

Despite the wide synonymous connections of words in the Russian language, not all words can enter into synonymous relations:

- words of different parts of speech are not combined into a synonymic row;

- do not form a synonymous series of generic and specific concepts (tree

- birch, shoes - shoes);

- synonymy with proper names is not characteristic (although there is another opinion on this matter);

- many words with a specific meaning also do not have synonyms.

conclusions

The famous French educator Danny Diderot wrote that people stop thinking when they stop reading. A Russian proverb says: a mind without a book is like a bird without wings. We can add: a person cannot seriously think about language, about the stylistic possibilities of language means, if he does not read books and articles about language, because then a person stops enriching his speech. Of all lexical means, synonyms have the greatest stylistic possibilities.

Synonyms are words that have a meaning similar to the meaning of the reference word, but differ from each other in shades of the main meaning, the scope of use and stylistic properties.

Synonymy (from the Greek synönymia - eponymous), a binary relation in which any two equivalent, but not identical expressions are found; equivalence is understood as correlation either with the same denotation (fact, object, etc.), or with the same significatum (linguistic signifier).

The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, more precisely, convey thoughts more clearly, allow expressing the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.

Language, being a means of social communication, is constantly evolving and improving. It is in constant change, which is determined, on the one hand, by the progressive movement of society and the accompanying extralinguistic factors, and, on the other hand, by the laws of development of the language itself as a system, that is, intralinguistic factors. The needs of human communication, the development of society, the need to express complex relationships and connections between objects of reality contribute to the continuous replenishment of the language with new units.

Synonymous connections and relationships are found in various areas of the language: in vocabulary, phraseology, morphology and syntax. The synonymy of linguistic units is based on the principle of dialectical unity of the common and the different, which reflects different aspects of the same phenomena or relations of objective reality. From a philosophical point of view, the problem of synonymy is part of a broader problem of identity and difference.

In synonymy, the similarity of grammatical meanings is manifested, which allows you to express the same idea in different ways and at the same time convey various stylistic and semantic shades. Synonymous units of syntax act as components of the grammatical system of the language that are in complementary relationships. The relation of synonymic completion in the grammatical system of the language "is not a sign of an irrational," redundant "construction of this system, but is of great positive importance as a means of creating great flexibility and "maneuverability" in the organization of speech, and also creates an additional ability to express various shades of grammatical meanings" .

Within the framework of an elementary sentence, there is synonymy in the sphere of various types of phrases, various types of prepositional-case combinations, as well as synonymy of a compound word for some types of phrases.

Within the framework of complex and complicated sentences, the most common types of synonymy include the synonymy of subordinate clauses with participial and infinitive constructions, as well as some types of prepositional-nominal combinations.

The enrichment of the language with synonyms is carried out continuously, and the differentiation of synonyms is also continuous, up to the complete loss of their synonymy. Of course, the reason for this movement of synonyms should be sought not only in the self-contained laws of the development of language and in the laws of individual thinking, but also in the analysis of its social conditioning.

Thus, synonyms have two main properties. On the one hand, they have semantic similarity, closeness or even identity of meanings. On the other hand, the semantic and stylistic shades of synonyms do not completely coincide, and this makes synonymy one of the expressive means of the language.

By choosing the right synonyms, you can avoid the obsessive repetition of the same word, monotony in speech. Can express the subtlest semantic nuances, clarify one word with another, or, jointly using, pumping up several synonymous words, give an exhaustive description of one and the same subject. This work is a way of fighting against patterns, against inexpressive phrases and empty words. After all, language is our true friend when we know it; and he is an enemy if we do not know him well or our thought is not clear. After all, words are the clothes of our thoughts.

The synonymy of the Russian language deserves great attention. This phenomenon is now poorly understood in relation to the journalistic style, which seems to be a mixture of expression and standards. There is a clear relationship between the genres of journalism, the nature of the publication and the saturation with synonyms.

So, informational and analytical genres are the genres that are least saturated with expression. In the center is fact and analysis. By the nature of the use of language means, they approach the scientific and business style, possessing the features of factuality, documentary in the transmission of information. These genres are closest to the neutral language and least of all are saturated with synonyms. Language units are usually taken here in their direct nominative meaning, i.e. have only one level of understanding - semantic. Here, the main function of the used synonyms is accuracy in the transfer of information, specificity.

Artistic and journalistic genres, on the contrary, involve all linguistic means, including synonymy, for emotional impact on the reader. it allows maximum expressiveness. Here, in addition to the content level of understanding, characteristic of informational and analytical genres, a level of additional meanings, “connotations”, acquired in a broad context, is added. These genres are openly evaluative, brightly journalistic in nature and are aimed at agitational influence, in certain parameters approaching fiction. Synonymy acquires a pronounced expressive character here.

However, this line is very arbitrary. The modern trend in journalism is the mixing of genres. It is difficult to find now any genre in a "pure" form. Therefore, one can observe the interweaving of expression and standards in most newspaper articles.

the meaning of compatibility and therefore is an independent morpheme.
3) However, in the mentioned words, one more morpheme can be distinguished - the zero suffix.
All of the above phrases are verbal formations: locomotive
‘what carries the ferry’, airplane‘what flies by itself’, moon rover‘that which walks on the moon’.
However, none of the above morphemes conveys the meaning of the agent. Therefore, the series
researchers are inclined to think about isolating the zero suffix of the agent here.

So: 5 morphemes: two roots + interfix + zero suffix + (zero) ending. 4 -
the same, but without interfix (or zero suffix), 3 - two roots + zero ending.

Rating: 7 points.

6. Read the text and answer the questions.
« In the distance forests darken, ponds sparkle, villages turn yellow; larks by the hundreds
they rise, sing, fall headlong, stretching out their necks sticking out on clumps; rooks on
they stop on the road, look at you, cling to the ground, let you pass, and,
bouncing twice, they fly heavily to the side ...". (I. S. Turgenev. Notes of a hunter.
Tatyana Borisovna and her nephew).

1. Explain the meaning of the words (village) turn yellow and lumps.
2. Is it possible to replace the highlighted verbs with verbs that are paired in appearance? Argument
your answer.

Answer:
1. Villages turn yellow(‘distinguished by their yellow color’) , because the roofs of the village
the huts are covered with yellow straw. Glybochka- diminutive of lump, that is, it is lump, lump
earth.
2. Replacement of verbs darken (forests), sparkle (ponds,) turn yellow (villages) verbs
darkened, shone, turned yellow impossible, because imperfective verbs
denote a state that has no internal limit.

Rating: 8 points.

7. Match to words feel, agree, force synonyms associated with
particles and interjections or formed from them.

Answer.
Chu - to feel, yes - to agree, well - to urge.
Optional: aha - agakat, uh-huh - hoot
Grade:
6 points.

8. In some dialects of the Russian language, there is a pronunciation of verbs in the form 3
present tense persons without a final consonant - T. However, the absence of this consonant
not always observed: most often - T not pronounced in singular forms
verbs of I conjugation and in plural forms of verbs of II conjugation.
1) Why - T usually does not disappear in the singular forms of verbs of II conjugation and in
plural forms of verbs of I conjugation?
2) Why, however, is the consonant usually absent in forms like shivering?
3) How in the same dialects the forms of 3rd person units will be pronounced. and many others. h.
verb run away?

Answer:
1) -T usually does not disappear in the singular forms of verbs of II conjugation and in the forms
plural verbs of the I conjugation, because in the case of such a fall-off, these
forms will match the forms of the 1st person or the imperative.
2) Because in dialects, as in literary colloquial speech, there are no gerunds
3) Runs / run(depending on the form of the imperative), run.

Rating: up to 11 points.

9. Service words are able to enter into synonymous relations, replace each other
friend in context, expressing the same meaning. Determine the meaning of the preposition in
the given phrases and complete the table. Choose prepositions that are synonymous
the preposition OT in different meanings.

We bought everything - from textbooks to pencils, all shades from blue to gray, mute from
birth, sun glasses, fall from fatigue, wake up from noise, read
book from the first page to the last, work from dawn to dusk, work shift from
seven o'clock to twelve, cough tablets.

The meaning of the preposition
Phrases
Synonymous
prepositions

Answer:

The meaning of the preposition
Phrases
Synonym
Causes
fall from fatigue
Because of,
wake up from the noise;
because of,

with (colloquial)
When specifying a subject,
cough pills, eyeglasses
Against
which
the sun;
remedy is applied.
When indicating the moment
mute from birth;
WITH
time, age from which
something starts.
When referring to the initial
work shift of seven hours

Synonyms (from the Greek synonimon - "co-naming") are different-sounding words (and set expressions) in those meanings that either completely coincide or are very close to each other *. For example: anger - anger; future - coming; bad - disgusting; two - a pair; listen - listen - hear; because - just like - because, etc.

Rejecting the definition proposed above as containing the indefinite concept of "proximity of values", D.N. Shmelev recognizes as synonyms words "opposed only by such semantic features that in certain contexts become irrelevant" (Shmelev D.N. Modern Russian vocabulary. M., 1977. P. 196).

Synonyms, united by the fact that they denote the same concept, constitute a synonymic series. The synonymic series is headed by the word (linguists call it the supporting or dominant), which is the most common, direct and accurate name of the concept denoted by the words of this series in the modern literary language. So, in a number of words expressing the concept of "insignificant in size (size, volume)", the reference, dominant, is the word small. Other members of the same series - small, tiny, tiny, tiny, tiddly, miniature, microscopic, etc. - for the most part, they introduce one or another addition or clarification into the expression of the concept "insignificant in size": a small one speaks of an object, although not large, but one that seems to be a little larger than a small one; tiny, tiny, tiny, tiddly denote a sign of a very small object (and in addition, they have an affectionate character), miniature is usually used to emphasize not only the small size, size, but also the well-known elegance of something, microscopic indicates that this the item is small even for small sizes, etc.

From the above definition ("... in those meanings ...") it follows that the ability of words to enter into synonymous relations is closely related to polysemy. A polysemantic word in its various meanings is a member of various synonymic series, the composition of which usually does not coincide. So, the adjective big in the sense of "significant in size, size" ("big fish", "big stone") forms a series that combines the words large, huge, gigantic, colossal, healthy, hefty, etc. In the meaning "significant in degree, strength of its manifestation" ("big wind"), it is included in a row with the dominant strong, where there is also powerful, mighty, decent, healthy, etc. And in the meaning of "adult" ("big children"), it is a member of the series adult - big.

Synonyms can be words of the same root (lord - ruler - lord; live - live; unforgettable - unforgettable; on foot - infantry - peshkodral, etc.) * or different roots (frost - cold; bad - disgusting; think - reflect, etc. .). But whatever the synonyms may be - one root or different roots - in the overwhelming majority of cases they do not coincide with each other in some way. And depending on how the synonyms included in one synonymous series differ from each other, they are divided into the following groups:

One-root synonyms should be distinguished from paronyms. Paronyms are words that also have a common root, but are different in meaning: fearful and fearful, highlight and illuminate; nest and nest; spectacular and efficient, etc.

ideographic synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are only close (and not identical) in meaning. They are also called conceptual synonyms. An example of such synonyms is the words open - open - open. The reference word, the dominant in this series - open - means: "pulling the sash, give access (to air or a passage), give the opportunity to see, see, survey something"; to open (in accordance with the meaning of the prefix ras-) indicates that the wings of something are completely open, and to open tells not only about the limit of the abduction of the valves, but also about the strength, sharpness with which the action is performed. The synonyms to go - to plod - to trail - to drag - to stretch - to mince - to march - to shove - to shove, etc. also differ in slight semantic shades. The main word of this series - to go - only names the action ("to move on foot"), but does not report anything about the speed of movement, or the degree of the width of the step, or the state of the walker. Its synonyms to trudge, trudge, drag, stretch, denoting the same action (movement on foot), indicate at the same time that this action is carried out slowly, that the movements of the walker are sluggish (because he does not have a specific goal or because he is tired or unwell, etc.) d.). Wed, for example: "He did not walk, but trudged, almost crawled along the deserted, endless streets of cities" (Fedin K.A. Cities and Years). To mince says that they move in small steps, to march indicates that they are walking slowly, with dignity, and to shove and shove denotes the action of someone who must overcome a long distance. Wed: "Throw me ashore. From here it will not be a verst to my village. And from Teremtsy I will go all night" (Paust.) *.

For other differences between the synonyms of the considered series, see below, p. 91.

Conceptual synonyms may differ from each other by the presence in the meaning of some words of a given synonymic series and the absence in the meaning of others of an indication of intentionality or, on the contrary, unintentionality, an accident of action. Thus, the verb find (its meaning is "to notice something hidden, or lost, or unknown") does not say anything about whether this action was accidental or intentional. Its synonyms to find, find, dig out indicate that finding something is associated with intentional (and also thorough) searches. Wed, for example: "Answer, where are the rifles, machine guns, bombs hidden? Yes, look, we will dig the whole earth, but we will still find it" (A.P. Gaidar). On the contrary, the synonym of the same row to stumble indicates that the finding was accidental.

Many conceptual synonyms differ from each other in the quantity of a sign or the degree of intensity of the action, state: cold - cold; uneducated - dark; location - sympathy; small - tiny (tiny, microscopic); burn - blaze; grieve - lament; slowly - at a snail's pace, etc.;

Instead of a doctor, he said the word "doctor" on purpose and, as he himself later announced, "he said it as an insult" (F. M. Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov).

4) synonyms that differ in figurativeness. When, for example, a beard, hair is said to be gray, then this is a direct name, an ugly designation of a feature, silver (hair) is a figurative, figurative (using a metaphorical epithet) designation of the same feature. Wed also: sluggish - inanimate, sleepy; set - forest ("forest of hands"); fidget - dragonfly; to enjoy - to revel; interfere - put sticks in the wheels; starve - put your teeth on the shelf, etc .;

5) synonyms that differ in the degree of modernity. So, the second word in synonymous pairs around is around; in the evening - in the evening; forehead - forehead; victory - victoria; hand - hand; to drag - to drag; wiggle ("wave") - wave, etc. is an obsolete word, an archaism, which in modern texts is used only for a certain stylistic purpose, while the first synonym of the pair is a completely modern word.

7) synonyms that differ in compatibility, more precisely, lexical compatibility. For example, the adjectives unexpected and sudden can be combined with a wide range of words (cf. unexpected or sudden "arrival", "departure", "call", "blow", "rush", "rain", unexpected, sudden "news", " incident", etc.), and the sudden in modern literary language is used only in combination with the words "death", "death", "end".

21. Lexical antonyms. Structural and semantic types of antonyms. Semantic asymmetry of antonyms. The concept of enantiosemy. The use of antonyms in media texts. Antonyms (gr. anti - against + onyma - name) - these are words that are different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lies, good - evil, speak - be silent. Antonyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and form pairs.

Antonymy in the language is presented `narrower than synonymy: only words enter into antonymic relations that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts: beautiful - ugly, much - little, morning - evening, remove - bring closer. Words of other meanings usually do not have antonyms; cf .: house, thinking, writing, twenty, Kiev, Caucasus. Most of the antonyms characterize qualities (good - bad, smart - stupid, native - alien, thick - rare, etc.); there are many that indicate spatial and temporal relationships (large - small, spacious - cramped, high - low, wide - narrow; early - late, day - night); fewer antonymic pairs with quantitative meaning (many - few; single - numerous). There are opposite names of actions, states (cry - laugh, rejoice - grieve), but there are few of them.

The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related. The word good, for example, evokes the word evil in our minds, the word distant reminds us of the near, to speed up - to slow down.

Antonyms "are at the extreme points of the lexical paradigm"1, but between them in the language there may be words that reflect the indicated feature to a different extent, i.e., its decrease or increase. For example: rich - prosperous - poor - poor - beggar; harmful - harmless - useless - useful. Such a contrast implies a possible degree of strengthening of a sign, quality, action, or gradation (Latin gradatio - a gradual increase). Semantic gradation (gradation), thus, is characteristic only of those antonyms, the semantic structure of which contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large, etc. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of a sign of gradualness: top - bottom, day - night, life - death, man - woman.

Antonyms that have a sign of gradualness can be interchanged in speech to give the statement a polite form; so, it is better to say thin than skinny; older than old. Words used to eliminate the harshness or rudeness of a phrase are called e in femizm and m and m and (gr. eu - good + phemi - I say). On this basis, sometimes one speaks of antonimah-e in femisms, which express the meaning of the opposite in a softened form.

In the lexical system of the language, it is possible to single out and antonyms s-conversios (lat. conversio - change). These are words expressing the relationship of opposites in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statements: Alexander gave the book to Dmitry. - Dmitry took the book from Alexander; The professor takes the test from the trainee.- The trainee passes the test to the professor 2.

There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - the antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or en n an t and o se m and i (gr. enantios - opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemantic words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, the verb depart can mean "to return to normal, feel better," but it can also mean "to die, say goodbye to life." Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: The editor looked through these lines; I listened to the divertissement; The speaker made a reservation and under.

By structure, antonyms are divided into different-rooted (day-night) and single-rooted (come - leave, revolution - counter-revolution). The former constitute a group of proper lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite of meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relations; cf .: invest - lay out, attach - set aside, close - open. Therefore, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that the addition of prefixes not-, bez- to quality adjectives, adverbs most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite (young - middle-aged), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with non-prefixed antonyms turns out to be "muffled" (middle-aged - it doesn't mean "old"). Therefore, not all prefix formations can be attributed to antonyms in the strict sense of this term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless.

Synonyms (from the Greek synonimon - "co-naming") are different-sounding words (and set expressions) in those meanings that either completely coincide or are very close to each other *. For instance: malice - malice;future - coming;bad - disgusting;two is a couple;listen - hear - hear;because - that 2to how - for etc.

* Refusing the definition proposed above as containing the indefinite concept of "proximity of values", D.N. Shmelev recognizes as synonyms words "opposed only to such semantic features, which in certain contexts become irrelevant" ( Shmelev D.N. Modern Russian vocabulary. M., 1977. S. 196).

Synonyms, united by the fact that they denote the same concept, constitute a synonymic series. The synonymic series is headed by the word (linguists call it the supporting or dominant), which is the most common, direct and accurate name of the concept denoted by the words of this series in the modern literary language. So, in a series of words expressing the concept of "insignificant in size (size, volume)", the reference, dominant, is the word little. Other members of the same series - small, tiny, minuscule, diminutive, tiny, miniature etc. - for the most part, they introduce one or another addition or clarification into the expression of the concept "insignificant in size": small speaks of an object, although not large, but one that seems to be a little more than a small one; tiny, tiny, tiny, tiny indicate a sign of a very small object (and besides, they have an affectionate character), miniature is usually used to emphasize not only the small size, size, but also the well-known elegance of something, microscopic indicates that the item is small even for small sizes, etc.

From the above definition ("... in those meanings ...") it follows that the ability of words to enter into synonymous relations is closely related to polysemy. A polysemantic word in its various meanings is a member of various synonymic series, the composition of which usually does not coincide. Yes, adjective big in the meaning of "significant in size, size" (" big a fish", " big stone") forms a series that combines the words large, huge, gigantic, colossal, healthy, hefty etc. In the meaning of "significant in degree, strength of its manifestation" (" big wind") it is included in a row with the dominant strong, where there is also powerful, mighty, decent, healthy etc. And in the meaning of "adult" (" big kids") it is a member of the series adult is big.

Synonyms can be words of the same root ( lord - lord - lord;to live - to live;unforgettable - unforgettable;on foot - infantry - on foot etc.)* or different roots ( frost - cold;bad - disgusting;think - think and etc.). But whatever the synonyms may be - one root or different roots - in the overwhelming majority of cases they do not coincide with each other in some way. And depending on how the synonyms included in one synonymous series differ from each other, they are divided into the following groups:

* One-root synonyms should be distinguished from paronyms. Paronyms are words that also have a common root, but different in meaning: fearfully and timidly, illuminate and illuminate;nest and nesting;spectacular and effective etc.

1) ideographic synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are only close (and not identical) in meaning. They are also called conceptual synonyms. An example of such synonyms are the words open - open - open. The key word, the dominant in this series - open - means: "pulling the sash, give access (air or passage), give the opportunity to see, see, survey something"; to uncover(according to the meaning of the prefix race-) indicates that the wings of something are completely open, and open up informs not only about the limit of abduction of the valves, but also about the strength, sharpness with which the action is performed. Synonyms also differ in slight semantic shades. walk - trudge - trail - trudge - stretch - mince - march - shove - shove etc. The main word of this series is go - only names the action ("to move on foot"), but does not report anything about the speed of movement, or the degree of the width of the step, or the state of the walker. Its synonyms drag, drag, drag, drag, denoting the same action (moving on foot), indicate at the same time that this action is carried out slowly, that the movements of the walker are sluggish (because he does not have a specific goal or because he is tired or unwell, etc.). Compare, for example: "He did not go, but dragged along almost crawled along the deserted, endless streets of cities "(Fedin K.A. Cities and Years). mince says that they move in small steps, march indicates that they are walking slowly, with dignity, and shove and shuffle denotes the action of one who must overcome a great distance. Wed: "Throw me ashore. From here it will not be a verst to my village. And from Teremtsy I shuffle all night" (Paust.) *.

* For other differences between the synonyms of the considered series, see below, p. 91.

Conceptual synonyms may differ from each other by the presence in the meaning of some words of a given synonymic series and the absence in the meaning of others of an indication of intentionality or, on the contrary, unintentionality, an accident of action. Yes, the verb find(its meaning is "to notice something hidden, or lost, or unknown") says nothing about whether this action was accidental or intentional. Its synonyms to find, to find, to dig indicate that finding something is associated with an intentional (and also thorough) search. Wed, for example: "Answer, where are the rifles, machine guns, bombs hidden? Yes, look, we will dig up the whole earth, but anyway looking for"(A.P. Gaidar). On the contrary, a synonym for the same series stumble indicates that the finding was accidental.

Many conceptual synonyms differ from each other in the amount of a sign or the degree of intensity of an action, state: cold - cold;uneducated - dark;disposition - affection;small - tiny(tiny, microscopic);to burn - to blaze;mourn - mourn;slowly - at a snail's pace etc.;

2) stylistic synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are used in different communication conditions (official, business or informal, ordinary everyday conversation; communication with a large, personally unfamiliar audience or communication with a friend, acquaintance, etc.), which also pursues different goals (telling something either persuasion, attraction to one's side, etc.). Here, for example, is how the writer and journalist L. Likhodeev says about the word spouse: "Have you noticed that kings always have spouses, not wives. A wife is too ordinary, and a wife is very majestic, as befits a dignity" (Likhodeev L. Star from the sky). Although jokingly expressed, this remark correctly emphasizes the existence of a stylistic difference between the words wife and spouse: the first is characteristic of ordinary speech, it is stylistically neutral, the second is characteristic of official business speech, it is used in relation to the wives of persons holding a high position. Other examples of stylistically different synonyms: steal - interstyle word, not assigned to any specific style, kidnap has a book character and is used mainly in official and book-literary speech, pull off, pull off, take away colloquial, rude steal vernacular (these synonyms are characteristic of everyday speech, flowing in conditions of easy communication). Adjective not assigned to any style blue, its synonyms azure and azure are used primarily in fiction (prose and poetry). Traditionally poetic is the word prophetic, as opposed to interstitial prophetic. The usual stylistically neutral form of greeting is Hello(Hello). In everyday speech, with easy communication of people who know each other well, colloquial Hey, colloquial familiar firework, colloquial great etc.;

3) emotional-evaluative synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are capable of not only naming, but also (at the same time) expressing emotions associated with the called object, person, action, etc., and hence the assessment of this object, person, action, etc. For example, here is how one of the heroes of F.M. Dostoevsky's use of the word doctor in relation to the doctor: "Don't worry, doctor, my dog will not bite you," Kolya snapped loudly, noticing the doctor's somewhat restless look at Chime... He said the word "doctor" instead of doctor on purpose and, as he himself later announced, "he said it as an insult" (Dostoevsky F.M. Brothers Karamazov.) This example shows that in comparison with a word devoid of emotional evaluation doctor(as well as doctor) its synonym doctor expresses disdain, as in Dostoevsky's text, or irony. A playful or ironic attitude is also contained in the word of the same synonymous series - Aesculapius. Compare, for example: “I think,” said Golubev, gently shaking the professor’s hand, “if the doctor thinks in advance that the patient must die, what’s the point of such aesculapius don't wait" (V.Ya. Diaghilev). In "Eugene Onegin" we find such an ironic naming of the poet: "Some piit army Here a villainous rhyme waved. "And in Pushkin's poems there are other ironic and dismissive synonyms: rhymer("Would you, oh frail poet, Honor me with your cryptic, But I don't want to. Give it, my dear, to one of the fashionable rhymers"), stop adder("With a smile, listens to the howl stacker frail: Tilimakh, torn to pieces, groans before him"), etc. More examples (the word that comes first in the given pairs does not have an emotional connotation): fight - battle(joke or irony); face - muzzle, snout(neglect); father - parent(usually irony); miss - miss(irony, mockery); to wander - to wander(disapproval, displeasure or sympathy); inconspicuous - ugly(neglect); new - newly made, freshly baked(joke or irony)* etc.;

* As can be seen from the examples above, evaluativeness can be created by the figurative use of words, including words that are part of complex ( battle, muzzle, dangle;freshly baked), as well as the roots of words ( miss); The nature of the assessment depends to a large extent on which class of "objects" the used image belongs to (see also the thematic classification in the "Metaphor" section about this).

4) synonyms that differ in figurativeness. When, for example, a beard, hair is said to be gray-haired that is, it is a direct name, an ugly designation of a feature, silver(hair) - figurative, figurative (with the help of a metaphorical epithet) designation of the same feature. Wed also: lethargic - lifeless, sleepy;set - forest("forest of hands"); fidget - dragonfly;enjoy - indulge;interfere - put sticks in the wheels;starve - put your teeth on the shelf etc.;

5) synonyms that differ in the degree of modernity. So, the second word in synonymous pairs around - around;in the evening - in the evening;forehead - forehead;victory - victoria;hand - hand;to drag - to drag;wiggle("wave") - wave etc. is an obsolete word, archaism, which is used in modern texts only for a certain stylistic purpose, while the first synonym of the pair is a completely modern word. In other cases, this difference is not felt so sharply, and it is more correct to say about one of the synonyms that it is becoming obsolete or, even more carefully, it is becoming less common. So, enthusiasm and gramophone record in modern speech are less common than their synonyms hobby* and plate(but by the way, the word plate lately experiencing "onslaught" from the word disk, which already has its own word-formation nest: "disco", "disco", "disco program", "disco club", etc.);

* It is curious that in the early 70s A.V. Kalinin, speaking about this word in the article "On New Words", believed that it was used "not in all seriousness."

6) synonyms for different areas of use. The synonyms of this group indicate that in the synonymic series there are words that are used mainly by a particular group. These can be groups of people united by one profession, one occupation, pastime or place, area of residence. Sailors, for example, call a ladder ladder, kitchen galley, they say no bind, but accepted 2twist. Many special words and expressions are used by the inhabitants of a particular locality. In the Vladimir region, according to the writer V. Soloukhin, aspen mushrooms are called chelysha 2mi; in other places the same mushrooms are called rubies(unit. blushing 2To) and edges(unit. red); boletus in some dialects - obabok; they talk about lingering songs in the Vologda region fibrous, about the towel rukoternik; "put" not only in the Vologda region, but also in many other northern regions - knock down etc. Popular words may also have jargon synonyms, i.e. synonyms inherent in the speech of people united by a common interest, habits, passions, social status, etc. For example, public work are synonymous with slang plow(usually in the speech of young workers), to mantle, to lean on one's horns(these jargons are found in the novel by Yu. Dombrovsky "Faculty of unnecessary things"); nationwide disappear has in jargon (mostly urban youth) a synonym fade away; public gramophone record, yes and disk, in youth jargon corresponds to plate; in relation to the modern vagabond called bum, use slang terms such as scourge, dead end, sharomyga, bulrush, bogodulnik etc.;

7) synonyms that differ in compatibility, more precisely, lexical compatibility. For example, adjectives unexpected and sudden able to connect with a wide range of words (cf. unexpected or sudden"arrival", "departure", "call", "strike", "gust", "shower", unexpected, sudden"news", "incident", etc.), but sudden in modern literary language it is used only in combination with the words "death", "death", "end". Other examples: open("eyes", "mouth", "book", "umbrella", etc.) gape("mouth", "mouth"); quickly("run", "grab", "write", "read", "say", etc.) - headlong("run" or "rush" and so on.); thin("neck", "arm", "leg", "waist", thin"nose", thin"fingers", "eyebrows", "lips", etc.) - wasp("waist"), etc.;

8) synonyms that differ in the forms of grammatical connection, or, as they say, control. Yes, the word characteristic requires the genitive case of the complement with the preposition "for" ("this act is very typical"), and its synonym peculiar - dative case without a preposition ("only him inherent deeds"). More examples: verbs pay and pay are used in constructions with the accusative case with the preposition "for" (" pay for travel", " pay for a toy"), and pay - also in the construction with the accusative case, but without the preposition (" pay passage", " pay toy"); review about what(" review about article", " review about the book"), and review for what (" review per article", "give review on the book"); testify, speak about what ("work testifies, speaks about the maturity of the author"), and show what ("work shows maturity of the author"), etc. This difference in the grammatical connections of synonyms is often not taken into account, or rather, the different grammatical management inherent in synonyms is mixed, as a result of which a construction is erroneously attributed to one of the members of the synonymic series, in which another synonym should be used. For example : "Suddenly there was a sound, for the forest unusual"(Koms. pr. 1969. Nov. 21) (need: "forest unusual"), "Carefully collected negative

1. The concept of lexical synonyms. Synonymous line.

3. Types of lexical synonyms: semantic, stylistic, semantic-stylistic. Lexical doublets. Contextual synonyms

4. The use of lexical synonyms in speech.

5. Dictionaries of synonyms

Polysemy and homonymy in the language is opposed by the phenomenon of lexical synonymy. If polysemantic and homonymous words are characterized by different content with the same form, then with synonymy, a different form expresses the same (or close) content.

Lexical synonyms(gr. synonymos“of the same name”) are words belonging to the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning and sounding differently: homeland - fatherland - fatherland; difficult - heavy - not easy - difficult - difficult; go - walk - walk.

Not all words enter into synonymous relations. Proper names are not synonymous in the literary language ( Ivan, Natalia, Caucasus, Minsk), names of residents ( Muscovite, Kievan, Omsk), many names of specific items ( table, chair, spoon, cupboard, book). As a rule, terms should not be synonymous, although in practice there are often synonymous terms: prefix=prefix, ending=inflection, linguistics=linguistics.

Two or more lexical synonyms form a certain group or paradigm in the language, which is otherwise called synonymous side by side. Yes, synonymous order- order - command - directive - instruction - command united by the common meaning for all members of the synonymic series ‘an indication to do something’. The main word of the synonymic series, which conveys the most general concept and is neutral in use, is called the dominant of the synonymic series(from lat. dominants"dominant"). In the above row, the dominant word is order. The remaining words of the synonymic series express additional shades: order‘the official order of the one who is invested with power’; command‘the same as an order, but with a touch of obsolete’; team‘short verbal order’; directive‘guiding instruction from a higher authority to subordinate authorities’.

Since the dominant expresses a concept that is common to all words included in a given synonymic series, it is usually located at the beginning of the synonymic series. Along with the term dominant, the scientific literature uses the synonymous term key word.

From the point of view of the constancy of the composition of words, synonymic series are characterized by openness. Changes and additions are possible in them, due to the ongoing process of development of the entire lexical system. For instance, path - road - route - track - orbit.

Synonyms are usually formed from heterogeneous words. But synonyms can be single root, i.e. arising from the same root, but decorated with different prefixes and suffixes: homeland - fatherland, potatoes - potatoes, radishes - radishes, expel - expel, swim - bathe, overtake - overtake.

2. Reasons for the appearance of synonyms

Synonyms appear in the language all the time. This is due to a number of reasons. 1. One of the main ones is the desire of a person to find some new features and shades in already known objects, phenomena of the surrounding world. A new additional feature of a concept is called a new word, similar or identical in meaning to the existing names. For example, for a long time there have been synonyms in the language world, universe with the general meaning ‘the totality of everything that exists, of all forms of matter’. Then the word entered the literary language universe, the semantics of which reflects ‘systematic, harmony of everything that exists’. In the 19th century, another synonym appears - space, semantically similar to the words already existing in the language. In the specialized literature of recent decades, the word is used with the same meaning. macrocosm(as opposed to the word microcosm).

2. Synonymic rows are also formed as a result of penetration into the Russian language and the development of foreign vocabulary by it: opposition - contrast, balance - balance, cramp - convulsion.

3. Under certain conditions, not only commonly used words of the literary language can enter into synonymous relations, but also limited in use lexical units: dialect professional etc: lead (lead) = turn the steering wheel; anxiety, restlessness, excitement in literary language are synonymous with colloquial commotion idialect words flashes, flashes etc.

4. Synonyms arise in the Russian language and as a result of the fact that the well-developed morphological structure of the language allows the use of different word-forming morphemes for two or more words similar in meaning, for example: innocent - innocent; harmless - harmless.

5. A synonym may arise as a result of the fact that once close words have diverged in meaning: bench = bench and shop a (‘small trading enterprise’) = shop = stall = tent.

6. Polysemy of words, especially metaphor and metonymy, has great resources for replenishing the synonyms of the Russian language. The appearance of figurative meanings in a word often leads to the fact that it enters into new synonymous relations: Hedgehog(prickly, small, big...) and Hedgehog hair, Hedgehog hairstyles; Ocean(calm, stormy, cold, affectionate...) and Ocean thoughts, an ocean of feelings, an ocean of blood, an ocean of tears); Forest(dark, mixed, pine...) and Forest hands, Forest banners.

Synonym types

In the modern Russian language, there are several types of synonyms that are distinguished depending on the nature of the differences between words with their general semantic similarity.

Words that have the same meaning are called full synonyms, absolute synonyms, or lexical doublets:linguistics=linguistics, throw=throw, look=look, stop=cease, strike=strike, original=original, everywhere=everywhere, spelling=spelling, cavalry=cavalry. These are words that have neither semantic nor stylistic differences. From this point of view, all other types of synonyms are incomplete, relative. There are few complete synonyms in Russian, as the language tries to avoid duplication.

Incomplete synonyms ( quasi-synonyms) .

Semantic (ideographic, conceptual), denoting the same phenomenon of reality, they distinguish different aspects in it and different so apart shades of its meaning I am.

If the meaning of one of the quasi-synonyms is completely “embedded” in the meaning of the second, and at the same time, there are some more semantic components in the meaning of the second, then there are relations of “inclusion” between them. The words carry = drag, attack = aggression are related in this way: drag- it carry, but with difficulty (you can carry a bag and drag it, but you can’t drag a cup of coffee, for example); any aggression is an attack, but not every attack can be considered aggression (in combination attack by robbers on a passerby word attack cannot be replaced by aggression).

The meanings of two quasi-synonyms can have a common part, and the meaning of each of them differs in some feature, in which case their meanings “intersect”. So, greedy means ‘obsessed with the passion to capture someone else’, stingy- ‘obsessed with passion not to give what is his’. Consider the following group of synonymous nouns: stillness, stillness, stillness. All of them mean ‘lack of wind’, but differ from each other in shades of their lexical meanings: the word calmness has the meaning ‘complete absence of wind, calm weather’; word silence– ‘calmness, absence of noise’; word calm– ‘weakening, temporary cessation of wind, noise’.

Stylistic synonyms, denoting the same phenomenon of reality, differ from each other stylistic affiliation. They also have differences in semantic expressiveness and emotional coloring. An example of stylistic synonyms is the words to sleep - to rest - to sleep. Verb sleep is neutral in stylistic terms and does not contain emotional overtones. Verb rest is obsolete, stylistically bookish; word sleep is vernacular with an emotional appraisal of disapproval.

Stylistic or multi-style synonyms also include the words: face - face - muzzle(neutral - bookish - vernacular), to die - to die - to die(neutral - bookish - colloquial), satisfactory - triple, tired - tired(neutral - colloquial), argument - argument, view - look(neutral - bookish).

Within the framework of stylistic synonyms, the following are also distinguished:

a) Synonyms that differ from each other in the degree of modernity. In such a synonymous series, one word refers to modern vocabulary, the other to obsolete: plane - airplane, minister - people's commissar, this - this, cinema - cinema;

b) Synonyms that differ in the scope of use. This includes, for example, series consisting of a national word and a term or professionalism : kitchen - galley, cook - cook(maritime), jaundice - hepatitis(honey.), page - strip(polygraph.); literary jargon : parents - ancestors, dining room - feeder, knife - pen, search - shmon;

Semantic-stylistic synonyms differ both in shades of lexical meanings and in stylistic coloring. An example of such synonyms are the verbs go and trail, which have a close but not identical meaning: go- "to move, stepping over your feet", and trail- "move slowly, sluggishly." Therefore, the verb trail has an additional semantic connotation - "to move with difficulty, barely stepping over." In addition, synonymous verbs go and trail differ in stylistic affiliation: verb go is neutral and the verb trail used in colloquial speech with an emotional assessment of disapproval. Thus the words go and trail are semantic-stylistic synonyms. Comp. Also: reserve - reserve: stock- a common word, means "everything that is prepared for the future"; reserve- bookish, special, meaning "what is left for a special, exceptional case." Semantic and stylistic differences are also characteristic of synonyms angry - angry(colloquial), hasty - hasty(colloquial), eat - eat(simple);

All the previously given synonyms are common language, i.e. they are characteristic of the lexical system of the Russian language, understandable to all or the vast majority of its speakers. It should be distinguished from general language contextual, or individual author's synonyms. These include words that enter into synonymous relations temporarily, only in this context. For example, between words showered and pasted over there are no synonymous relations in the lexical system of the Russian language. However, in the story "Chelkash" A.M. Gorky uses the word pasted over as a synonym for the word showered: He fell asleep with a vague smile on his face covered with flour dust. Let's compare more examples of the use of contextual synonyms : Ostap was about to take the pounds for the starched collar and show him the way, the way(collar- contextual synonym of the word collar); The whole plain is covered with loose and soft lime (lime – snow).

Polysemantic words can be included in several synonymous rows, participating in each of them with only one meaning. So, short in the meaning ‘small in height’ is synonymous with the word low; quasi-synonymous with words squat, stunted, undersized(about a human); in the meaning ‘relating to the lower sound register’ is a synonymous series with bassy, bassy(for example, about the voice); in the meaning of ‘unsatisfactory in quality’ is synonymous with the word bad; when designating a certain quality of a person short enters into synonymous relations with the words vile, dishonorable.

Synonyms can also differ in their compatibility with other words. So, Brown has free compatibility with many words: pencil, shoes, coat. Meaning brown is phraseologically related to the word eyes; chestnut can only be hair.

In everyday speech, synonyms perform two new functions for everyone who speaks Russian. First, this substitution function one word with another. It is caused by the desire to avoid unwanted repetitions of the same words in speech: The whole hall applauded. Clapping hands up. Secondly, refinement function. A person with a large weight can be called and complete, and thick, and overweight. Moreover, each of the synonyms has its own peculiarity of meaning, emphasizing the volume (full), shape ( thick), weight ( overweight). Such a person can sit down or about start I'm on a chair, maybe plop down; at the door he is not always included- in a narrow squeezed in or squeezes through; his voice may to sound, to roar, to rumble(if it's bass) hum, whine etc.

The clarification function is associated with the method of stringing synonyms to emphasize the identity or semantic similarity of words: Mind, reason, she agreed with Sergei in everything.« We will close the file cabinet, bury it,” Volodya said. In this case, in one synonymous row there may be words that are different in stylistic affiliation and emotional coloring: They shouted that it was sinful, even vile, that the old man was out of his mind, that the old man had been deceived, cheated, deceived(Dost.). Comp. also: And soon a crowd gathers near the wood warehouse ... Ochumelov makes a half turn to the left and steps towards the crowd(A. Chekhov.) - here in a synonymous pair crowd - gathering the second word in the meaning of "a large crowd of people" has the stylistic marks "disapproved." and “colloquial”, which “reduces” its meaning in the text and serves as an expression of a negative assessment.

The use of synonyms can create a comic effect and be a means of characterization:

-- Died Claudia Ivanovna, - said the customer.

“Well, the kingdom of heaven,” agreed Bezenchuk. -- passed away so old lady...

Old ladies, they always pass away... Or give your soul to god- it depends on what an old woman. Yours, for example, is small and in the body, which means it has passed away. And, for example, the one who is bigger and thinner is considered to give her soul to God ...

- So how is it considered? Who considers it?

- We count. At the masters. Here you are, for example, a prominent man, of lofty stature, although thin. You are considered, if, God forbid, die, what in box played. And who is a merchant, a former merchant guild, that means ordered to live long. And if someone is of a lower rank, a janitor, for example, or one of the peasants, they say about him: spread or legs stretched out. But the most powerful, when they die, railway conductors or someone from the authorities, it is believed that give oak. So they say about them: "But ours, they heard, gave oak."

Shocked by this strange classification of human deaths, Ippolit Matveyevich asked:

- Well, when you die, what will the masters say about you?

- It’s impossible to give me oak or play in the box: I have a small complexion ...(I. Ilf and E. Petrov. Twelve chairs)

Sometimes there is the use of synonyms in the so-called antonymic situation. for instance : this city is old but not old. Compare the following statement by K.S. Stanislavsky: Actors do not have hands, but hands, not fingers, but fingers ... They do not walk, but march, do not sit, but sit, do not lie, but recline ...

In the dictionaries of synonyms, synonymous rows are grouped. The first dictionary of synonyms D.I. Fonvizina appeared at the end of the 18th century. Then, during the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, dictionaries by P. Kalaidovich, A.I. Grecha, I.I. Davydova and other authors. From modern synonymous dictionaries, the “Concise Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” is known. V.N. Klyueva(1956, 2nd edition - 1961). The dictionary includes about 3000 words. The author gives the lexical meanings of each word included in the synonymic series, uses quotes from the works of writers.

In 1968, the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language was published. Z.E. Alexandrova. This dictionary includes about 9000 synonymous series. However, semantic differences between synonyms are minimized or absent altogether. The stylistic characteristic of synonyms is given with the help of marks bookish, colloquial, simple. and others. Phraseological phrases are widely introduced into synonymic rows. There are no examples of the use of words.

The first fairly complete dictionary of synonyms should be considered published in 1970-1971. two-volume Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, edited by A.E. Evgenieva. It clearly explains the meaning of each of the words - members of the synonymic series, shows their semantic and stylistic shades, provides illustration examples.

In 1976, the one-volume Dictionary of Synonyms was published. It, like the two-volume one, was prepared by the dictionary sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences, edited by A.P. Evgenieva. Despite the small volume, the dictionary contains a greater number of synonymic rows. Clarifications have been made to the composition of these series and the interpretation of synonyms. The dictionary adopts a general alphabetical order, and this makes it easier to find the right synonym word. The accent is consistently reflected, the shades of the meaning of the word are revealed, the boundaries of the lexical compatibility of synonyms of the Russian language are indicated.

Currently, dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms have appeared (see below).

Questions for self-examination

1. Can all words of the Russian language enter into synonymous relations?

2. What is the dominant of the synonymic series?

3. What are the reasons for the appearance of synonyms?

4. Name the types of synonyms.

5. How do contextual synonyms differ from common language ones?

6. Are lexical doublets useful for the language?

7. What functions do synonyms perform in speech?

Literature:

2. Bragina A.A. On the openness of synonymic series // Philological Sciences, 1974, No. 1.

3. Lexical synonymy (Collection of articles). - M., 1967.