Vocabulary is the vocabulary of any language, including Russian. The unit of vocabulary is the word.
The word serves to designate and / or name objects and features (relations, actions, qualities, quantities). The meaning of the word is a reflection in the word of the idea of those who speak about the phenomenon of reality (this phenomenon can be an object, quality, action, process, etc.) or about the relationship between objects or phenomena of reality.
There are lexical and grammatical meanings of words. The lexical meaning of a word is individual, peculiar to a particular word, it is contained in the basis of the word. The grammatical meaning of a word is contained in affixes (prefix, suffix).
You can find out the meaning of the word in the explanatory dictionary.
Explanatory dictionaries
Explanatory dictionaries serve to interpret, explain the meaning of words. The first explanatory dictionary of the Russian language was the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (1789-1794). It contained over 43,000 words.
"Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language" V.I. Dalia was published in 1863-1866, it already included about 200 thousand words.
Now there are many explanatory dictionaries, including for schoolchildren.
The number of words in the language is constantly increasing. “The Russian language is not as uniform and standardized as, for example, the French language. Thanks to those streams of live oral speech that rush into the literary language, its level is constantly changing, its vocabulary is diversified. These riches of lively speech give a realistic brilliance to the style of writers ”(V.V. Vinogradov).
Active and passive vocabulary
The active composition of the vocabulary includes words that are used daily in communication, the meaning of these words is known to everyone who speaks this language. For the Russian language, these are words ground, white, many etc. The active dictionary also includes professional words denoting relevant concepts: atom, anesthesia, ecology and etc.
Passive vocabulary consists of rarely used words. Their meanings are not always clear to everyone. Most often, such words include archaisms, historicisms, neologisms.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two large unequal groups: native and borrowed.
Original Russian vocabulary
The original Russian vocabulary is words that go back to the Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Slavic and Old Russian eras and inherited by the Russian language, as well as created in the Russian language according to its own models.
Proto-Indo-European vocabulary
Words belonging to the Proto-Indo-European era have correspondences in other Indo-European languages. These are words denoting kinship terms: son, brother, mother, sister; animal names: wolf, deer, goose; natural phenomena: water, moon, snow, rock; body parts: eye, ear; some actions: take, give, see; numbers: two three and etc.
Proto-Slavic vocabulary
Proto-Slavic vocabulary is more numerous than Proto-Indo-European. The words of the Proto-Slavic vocabulary have correspondences in Slavic languages and are absent in other Indo-European ones: heart, child, spring, rain, grass, snake, work, kind, yesterday and etc.
Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Slavic vocabulary make up about 2000 words in the vocabulary of the Russian language, but they are the most commonly used.
Old Russian vocabulary
This is a layer of vocabulary common to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages and absent in other Slavic languages: uncle, samovar, lark, forty, ninety and etc.
Proper Russian vocabulary
Words related to this layer of vocabulary arose from the end of the 16th century. These include almost all nouns with suffixes -shchik, -chik, -yatin (a), -lk (a), -ovk (a), -testimony (o), -sh (a), -ness, -ability, -tel: bricklayer, lighter, certificate, switch; compound nouns: salary; most compound adjectives: dark green, vibrant and etc.
Actually Russian are also words that arose in earlier eras, but then changed their meaning: for example, the word “red” in the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian language meant “good, beautiful”, and in Russian it began to denote color.
Borrowed vocabulary
Borrowings are one of the ways of modern language development. Language as a living phenomenon always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. In Russian, more than 10% of words are borrowed from other languages. The reasons for borrowing are known: trade, cultural, scientific ties between countries and the consequence of this - language contacts. In most cases, words are borrowed together with a thing or concept: school(Greek), Class(lat.), briefcase(fr.), knapsack(German), tea(whale.), candy(Italian), tundra(fin.).
The reason for borrowing may also be the desire to replace a descriptive expression or phrase with a single word. For example, instead of "marksman" - sniper (English); instead of "hotel for caravaners" - motel (English), etc.
Borrowings came to the Russian language at all times. Some of these words came from the Old Russian language, which, in turn, could get them from the Proto-Slavic language: prince, king, carp.
Words came from Scandinavian languages to Old Russian herring, hook; from Finnish - herring, salmon, fir, blizzard; from the Turkic armyak, hood, barn, chest; from Greek - bed, notebook, ship, sail, beets, lantern and etc.
Borrowing words may not occur directly, but through other languages. For example, many Greek borrowings penetrated into the Old Russian language through Old Slavonic, and words from other Eastern languages were borrowed through the Turkic languages: beads, dagger- from Arabic tub, turquoise- from Persian. Many words of Western European languages could be borrowed through Polish.
The vocabulary of the Russian language began to expand especially rapidly in the era of Peter I, mainly borrowings from Western European languages. The terms of maritime affairs were actively borrowed from the Dutch language: boatswain, harbor, storm, and also from English: boat, avral.
Later, sports terms began to be borrowed from English: boxing, volleyball, champion, start and etc.
Military terms are mostly borrowed from German: camp, parapet, officer, soldier, bayonet. But there were also borrowings from French: battalion, vanguard. From the German language, some borrowings related to mining: mine, adit, drift.
The terms of art were borrowed from the French language: ballet, parterre, landscape, still life, novel, essay, feuilleton and others. There are a lot of French borrowings in cooking ( dessert, puree, stew), as well as in the names of clothes ( jacket, scarf, suit, coat).
And the musical terms are mostly of Italian origin: aria,cello, serenade and etc.
At the beginning and middle of the XX century. borrowings were not very numerous due to the isolation of the country and a sharply negative attitude towards everything foreign. However, even at this time the words are borrowed:cinema, radio, taxi, jazz, conveyor, speedometer, trolleybus and etc.
But since the second half of the 50s of the XX century. the borrowing process is being activated, and it is very active at the moment. This was facilitated, among other things, by the collapse of the Soviet Union, the activation of business, scientific, trade, cultural ties, the flourishing of foreign tourism. First, in professional, and then in other areas, terms related to computer technology appeared: computer, display, file, interface, printer etc. Economic and financial terms are borrowed: barter, broker, voucher, dealer and etc.; sport names: windsurfing, skateboarding, arm wrestling and others. Some words have become so firmly established in our language that they are already perceived as common: image, presentation, present, nomination, sponsor, video, show.
Many of these words have already been fully assimilated into the Russian language.
Is it bad or good? Different people will give different answers to this question. But one thing is clear: in the modern world, the process of linguistic interchange is inevitable. Another thing is that here, as in any business, you need to know and feel the measure. No language is complete without borrowings. You can see in this the source of the development of the language, but you can also see the path to its death.
Apparently, there is a certain line beyond which enrichment turns into the destruction of the language.
Useful can be considered those borrowings that do not have a Russian counterpart. For example, vocabulary related to computer technology. But there are excessive borrowings, they are already beginning to compete with Russian words and displace them. Although a pure analogy is a very rare occurrence. When, for example, the word “killer” is used, it means not just a killer, but a professional killer.
But there are many borrowed words that can be completely replaced by Russian ones.
absolute - perfect
Abstract - abstract
Agrarian - farming
Adultery - adultery
active - active 
Topical - topical
The alternative is another possibility
Altruist - well-wisher
immoral - immoral
Analysis - parsing
similar - the same
Argument - argument
Assortment - Variety
Business is business
The verdict is the verdict
Dimensions - Dimensions
Hermetic - tight
hypothetical - conjectural
Goalkeeper - goalkeeper
Humanity - humanity
Diver - diver
Digest - Overview
Devaluation - depreciation
Demo - show
destructive - destructive
Discomfort - inconvenience
Discussion - discussion, dispute
disposition - location
Dominate - dominate, dominate
Duel - duel, etc. This list can go on and on.
There is another type of borrowing - international vocabulary.
International vocabulary
These are words that have the same meaning in many others, including unrelated languages. The main part of internationalisms are the terms of science, technology, socio-political life, economics, literature, art, sports: association, demonstration, communism, intellectual, culture, press, reform, telephone, utopia, civilization, etc.
We build all our statements from words-bricks. Despite the fact that everyone uses the same words, each of us has his own special vocabulary - a set of those words that we use in speech. It is no secret that the more words are stored in your language treasury, the more vivid and figuratively saturated our speech can be. Words, without which our communication is impossible, and studies vocabulary.
(from other Greek. "relating to the word", "word", "turn of speech") – e it is a set of words of a particular language, part of a language or words that a person or group of people knows. Vocabulary is the central part of the language; its purpose is to name, form and transfer knowledge about the objects of reality.
Russian vocabulary is one of the richest and most mysterious sections of the Russian language. Think about how many words are around us. See how many meanings can appear over time for an initially unambiguous word. Imagine how voluminous what the words of the language express.
The vocabulary of the Russian language, like morphology, etc., is a system - harmonious and strict: it has its own classifications and sections, but at the same time, vocabulary is the only section that is the least static, which is constantly in development. It depends on many reasons - the development of society, the emergence of new realities, the rethinking of "old" names. Let's remember the word gymnasium
or tutor
: they left the language, but in the 21st century they returned with a new meaning. 
The vocabulary of the Russian language is full of riddles. Sometimes the "name" of an object may not quite correspond to its essence: we say bird sitting on a branch(but she stands on it!) or take a pill(but we eat it!) etc. Remember how many words have several names: for example, northern peoples have more than two dozen names for snow. At the same time, there are realities that have not received their name. (gaps) , for example, what do we call the part of the face between the nose and the lip or part of the leg behind the knee? While these concepts do not have names, we can only describe them in a few words.
Russian vocabulary is divided into several classes: for example, according to the sphere of use - into commonly used and restricted vocabulary(professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms, etc.).
Remember that vocabulary is a very important section, responsible not only for communication in general, but also for its quality. There is no need to repeat that every person should study the vocabulary of their language.
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Lexicology- a branch of linguistics that studies the word as a unit of the vocabulary of the language (lexicon) and the entire lexical system (lexicon) of the language.
Vocabulary (from Greek - verbal, vocabulary) - vocabulary, a set of words of a language.
Phraseology- a set of stable turns of speech and expressions (phraseological units) characteristic of a particular language. Phraseology is also called a branch of the science of language that studies stable combinations of words.
The word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word
Word is a linguistic unit that serves to designate (name) objects and features (actions, relationships, qualities, quantities).
The meaning of a word is understood as a reflection in the word of the realities of reality (objects, features, relationships, processes, etc.).
The meanings of words are recorded in explanatory dictionaries.
Dictionary- a book containing a list of words or other language units (morphemes, phrases, phraseological units) placed in a certain order, most often alphabetically. Dictionaries are encyclopedic and linguistic.
Encyclopedic dictionaries describe the object of extralinguistic reality itself and try to present the maximum number of features of this object.
Linguistic dictionaries describe language units. Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into two groups: explanatory, describing the lexical meaning of words (in passing also reflecting its spelling, stress, part of speech, individual grammatical forms), and aspect, describing words in terms of their spelling (spelling), pronunciation (orthoepic), morphemic composition (morphemic), word-formation derivatives (word-formation), grammatical forms (grammatical), origin (etymological, foreign words), as well as in terms of their relationship with other words (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, compatibility, etc.).
single and multiple words. Direct and figurative meaning of the word
Words are unambiguous(having the same lexical meaning) and polysemantic(having multiple meanings).
Most of the terms, some names of tools, professions, varieties of trees, etc. are unambiguous words. For example, the words are unambiguous: stool, sugar bowl, huge, suffix.
A large number of words have several (two or more) meanings. So, for example, for the word head
in the Explanatory Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov there are 6 meanings:
1) part of the human or animal body,
2) mind, reason ( He is a man with a head),
3) a person as a carrier of ideas ( He's the head!),
4) the front of something ( column head, train),
5) livestock count unit ( herd of 100 head),
6) a food product in the form of a ball, cone ( head of cheese, sugar).
All meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected (although sometimes not all at once).
In a multi-valued word, the main (initial, primary) meaning of the word and the meanings derived from it are distinguished. New meanings arise in the word as a result of the transfer of the name (the outer shell of the word - sound and letter sequence) from one object of reality to other objects.
Different meanings of one word are placed in one dictionary entry of the explanatory dictionary.
The development of polysemy of words is associated with the ability of human thinking to establish connections between similar objects, phenomena or signs and transfer names from one object or phenomenon to others. Wed, for example: Golden ring and Golden heart, peak and pinnacle of success.
The primary meaning of a word, which arose to designate something and serves this purpose directly, is called the direct meaning. Other, secondary (derivative) meanings that have arisen as a result of the transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon, feature, etc. to another, are called figurative.
homonymy- this is a coincidence in the sound and spelling of language units, the meanings of which are not related to each other.
The main types of homonyms are lexical homonyms- words of the same part of speech that have the same sound, spelling and grammatical design, but different meanings. If between the meanings of a polysemantic word there are semantic connections based on different types of transfer of the name, then the meanings of homonyms are not related to each other, they do not have common semantic components (unlike different meanings of a polysemantic word). Homonyms are different words.
So, for example, homonyms are the words vulture (bird), vulture (print) and vulture (part of a stringed instrument); interfere (mix) and interfere (to be a hindrance).
The emergence of homonyms can be associated with a random coincidence in the language of the native Russian and the borrowed word ( puff of smoke – Russian and club - society– English) or several borrowings from different languages ( focus - trick- it. and focus optical - lat.), as well as with the features of word formation ( critical from a crisis and critical from criticism) and with the disintegration of polysemy ( syllable - part of a word and syllable - style).
Unlike the meanings of a polysemantic word, which are placed in explanatory dictionaries in one dictionary entry, homonyms, being different words, are allocated to different dictionary entries.
It is necessary to distinguish from lexical homonymy the phenomena adjacent to it - phonetic, grammatical and graphic homonymy.
Phonetic homonyms(Homophones) are words that are spelled differently, but pronounced the same way (due to reduction and stunning / voicing), for example: code - cat, pond - rod, weaken - weaken, stay - arrive.
Grammatical homonyms(homoforms) are different words that coincide in separate grammatical forms. So, for example, verbs fly and treat match in the form of the 1st person singular of the present tense - flying ; my - imperative form of the verb wash and possessive pronoun; bake - verb and noun.
Graphic homonyms(Homo? Graphs) - words that are spelled the same, but pronounced differently due to differences in stress: za? mok - lock? k, flour? ka - flour ?, soar - soar.
In works of art (especially in poetry), as well as in newspaper headlines, advertising, homonymy and related phenomena are often used as a means of language play to create a special expressiveness of the text (for example: Narrow chrome crushes your legs - In the day you will get calloused and become chrome. V. Mayakovsky; restaurant advertisement: There is time!).
Synonymy- the phenomenon of complete or partial coincidence of the meaning of language units with their different sound and spelling.
Lexical synonyms are words that sound different, but have similar or identical meanings. In most cases, synonyms, denoting the same thing, characterize it from different points of view.
For example: linguistics - linguistics, throw - throw, extinguish - extinguish, during - continue, hippopotamus - hippopotamus. The words denoting genus-species relations are not synonyms: flower - chamomile. The words denoting related concepts are not synonyms: house - apartment.
Synonyms are combined into synonymous series, for example: doctor - doctor - physician - doctor. As part of the synonymic series, a dominant is distinguished - a word that, in comparison with other members of the series, has the most general meaning, is stylistically neutral, and has the most free compatibility (in this synonymic series, this word doctor ).
Synonymic rows can be different in the number of words: from two or three to a dozen or more. Words can have stable combinations synonymous with them - phraseological units: die - give your soul to God. Phraseologisms can enter into synonymous relations not only with words, but also among themselves: give your soul to God - go to the other world - play in the box - discard the skates.
In addition to linguistic synonyms, which were discussed above, contextual synonyms are also distinguished - words that enter into synonymous relations only in a certain context (for example: to say - to lisp - to blurt out - to bark - to stutter).
The main functions of synonyms are clarification, substitution, euphemization and opposition.
Clarification is based on the incomplete coincidence of the meanings of synonymous words: synonyms allow you to “add” the missing meanings, to reveal new sides in the designated ( He ran, or rather rushed).
substitution is based on the fact that in a number of contexts the differences between synonyms are erased, and this makes it possible to avoid repetitions of the same words ( He made a mistake, but his mistake was not noticed).
euphemization is called a deliberately inaccurate designation of reality ( the boss is late (= being late), he is not far off (= stupid).
opposition synonyms emphasizes the differences between synonyms ( She didn't walk, she walked).
Synonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of synonyms.
Antonyms- words of the same part of speech that have opposite meanings correlative with each other, for example: young - old, friendship - enmity, good - bad, leave - come, from - to.
In this definition, it is important to note the following:
1) words of the same part of speech are called antonyms, therefore such words expressing opposite concepts as ugly– handsome;
2) antonyms must have meanings that are relative to each other; this means that antonyms are words denoting logically compatible concepts that have in their meanings a common part, with respect to which a number of features are opposed. For example, antonyms get up and to go down have a common element meaning ‘to move on an inclined or vertical plane’. These words are contrasted with elements of the meaning 'up' and 'down'.
The meanings of antonyms are opposite. It follows from this that antonyms mutually exclude each other when characterizing the same object: an object cannot simultaneously be, for example: hot and cold, big and small, true and false.
Some words can enter into antonymic relations only in a certain context, not being linguistic antonyms, not being recognized as words with the opposite meaning outside this context. Such antonyms are called contextual , for example: And we hate and we love by chance, / without sacrificing anything malice, nor love. / And reigns in the soul of some cold secret, / when the fire boils in blood(Lerm.); underlined words outside this context are not antonyms: the word love antonym hatred, at the word heat– cold; the words hate and love from the first cited line are linguistic antonyms.
Functions of using antonyms and antonymy in the text are:
1) antithesis
– opposition-contrast ( I'm stupid and you're smart. Alive and I'm dumbfounded M. I. Tsvetaeva) or in the title (“ Thick and thin» A. P. Chekhov, « Living and dead» K. M. Simonova).
2) oxymoron
- a combination into a whole of units of different parts of speech that are opposite in meaning (dead souls, a living corpse, adult children).
Antonyms are recorded in special dictionaries - dictionaries of antonyms.
Outdated vocabulary
Old vocabulary includes historicisms and archaisms.
historicisms- these are words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts, for example: chain mail, corvee, horse-drawn carriage; modern Saturday, Sunday; socialist competition, Politburo. These words have fallen out of use along with the objects and concepts they designate and have passed into passive vocabulary: we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech. Historicisms are used in texts that deal with the past (fiction, historical research).
Archaisms- these are obsolete names of phenomena and concepts that exist in modern times, for the designation of which other, modern names have arisen. For example: cheeks - cheeks, mirror - mirror, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman.
Word obsolescence is a process, and different words can be at different stages of it. Words that have not yet gone out of active use, but are already used less often than before, are called obsolete ( voucher).
Functions of Obsolete Words varied.
Firstly, they can be used directly for naming, designating the corresponding objects, phenomena. Thus, obsolete words are used, for example, in scientific and historical works. In works of art on historical themes, this vocabulary is used not only to refer to obsolete realities, obsolete concepts, but also to create a certain color of the era. Obsolete words can be used in a literary text to indicate the time at which the action takes place. Obsolete words (mainly archaisms) can also perform their own stylistic functions - they can be used to create the solemnity of the text.
Neologisms
Outdated words are opposed to neologisms - new words, the novelty of which is felt by the speakers.
Neologisms are divided into language and author's.
Language neologisms - these are words that arise as names for new objects, phenomena, concepts that do not yet have names in the language, or as new names for already existing objects or concepts.
Language neologisms arise in the following ways:
1) a new word, a new lexical unit appears in the language. It appears through borrowing ( shop tour, charter, shaping, image) or the emergence of a new word according to the word-formation models existing in the language from an “old” word or neologism-borrowing ( computer - computer, geek, computerization);
2) a word already existing in the language has a new meaning, for example, kettle- a non-specialist with weak skills in something, hatch- paste for correcting the text, pirate- unlicensed shell- garage. In the future, this meaning can come off and form a new homonym word.
Language neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech, are known and understood by many. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be recognized as a new word. However, the creation of new words, word creation is also possible in other situations: an artistic word, a situation of friendly communication, the speech of a child who has not yet fully mastered the vocabulary of the Russian language. An adult, poet, writer consciously resorts to word creation in order to make his speech more expressive or to play on the rich word-building possibilities of the language, the child does this unconsciously. The results of such word creation are called individual (contextual, author's) neologisms. So, we find the words of A. S. Pushkin: burnished, küchelbeckerno, from V. V. Mayakovsky: lyubenochek, hurry, turn blue, lightning.
Sometimes author's neologisms become real words, enter the literary language, as, for example, the words: pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, mine, blueprint, included in the Russian language from the works of M. V. Lomonosov, industry, love, distraction, touching- from the works of N. M. Karamzin, fade away- from F. I. Dostoevsky), mediocrity- from I. Severyanin.
Common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
To common vocabulary include words used (understood and used) in different linguistic areas by native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle: these are the majority of nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (white, apartment, speak, good), numerals, pronouns, most official words.
To restricted vocabulary include words whose use is limited by some locality (dialecticisms), profession (special vocabulary), occupation or interests (slang vocabulary).
Dialectisms (dialect words)- these are words that are used mainly by residents of one locality.
Yes, the word chicken
(house) is used in dialect
(dialect) Don Cossacks; rye shoots called in the north winter
, and in the south greenery
; winter boots in Siberia they call pims
.
Dialectisms are recorded in special dictionaries of various dialects, the most common of them can be reflected in the explanatory dictionary marked regional.
Special vocabulary associated with people's work. It includes terms and professionalisms.
Terms- these are the names of special concepts of science, art, technology, agriculture, etc. The terms are often artificially created using Latin and Greek roots and differ from the "ordinary" words of the language in that they, ideally, are unambiguous in this terminology and do not have synonyms , that is, each term should correspond to only one object of this science. Each word-term has a strict definition, fixed in special scientific studies or terminological dictionaries.
Distinguish terms generally understood and highly specialized. The meaning of commonly understood terms is also known to the non-specialist. Highly specialized terms are understood only by specialists.
Here are examples of linguistic terms of various types:
common terms: subject, predicate, suffix, verb;
highly specialized terms: predicate, phoneme.
The terms belong to the literary language and are recorded in special terminological dictionaries and explanatory dictionaries with a mark special.
It is necessary to distinguish from terms professionalism- words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with the professional, scientific, industrial activities of people.
Jargon professionalisms exist exclusively in the oral speech of people of this profession and are not included in the literary language (for example, among typographical workers: hat – large header, turn – square marriage; for drivers: bagel – steering wheel, brick – no-traffic sign). If professionalisms are included in dictionaries, they are accompanied by an indication of the scope of use ( in the speech of sailors, in the speech of fishermen etc.)
Limited vocabulary also includes jargon- words used by people of certain interests, occupations, habits.
So, for example, there are jargons of schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon tail – failed exam, test, hostel – hostel, spur , bomb – types of cheat sheets, in the jargon of schoolchildren laces , ancestors , rodaki – parents, cake , baby doll , mound , pepper , people , dude , cartilage , shnyaga – guy. Words included in different jargons form interjargon ( schmuck, funny, cool, party).
In addition to the term slang, there are also the terms "slang" and "slang".
Argo is a specially classified language. In previous centuries, in Russia there were slang of wandering merchants - peddlers, professional fundraisers, etc. Now we can talk about thieves' slang ( feather – knife, a gun – pistol).
Slang- this is a language environment of oral communication that is different from the norm of the literary language, uniting a large group of people. A significant difference between slang and jargon is the increased emotionality of slang and the lack of selectivity of objects for naming with the help of special words: slang is used in almost all speech situations in informal oral communication of people. So, we can talk about youth slang - a means of informal communication of young people aged approximately 12 to 30 years (Examples of slang: clave - keyboard, ancestors - parents).
Slang and slang vocabulary is outside the literary language and is recorded only in special dictionaries.
Borrowed vocabulary
In different eras, borrowings from other languages penetrated into the Russian vocabulary. For borrowing, a condition is necessary - the presence of language contacts of peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc.
Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.
The reasons for borrowing words are:
1) the need to name the new reality: leggings, grant, digest, skateboard, tape;
2) the need to distinguish between meaningfully close, but still different concepts: image– image
(the second word has a semantic component not contained in the first word ‘purposefully create’), killer– killer
(hitman);
3) the tendency to replace the phrase with a word: summit
– summit meeting, know-how
– Hi-tech, electorate
– constituency;
4) striving for homogeneity of terminology or jargon according to the source of origin (in Russian there were the words EVM, EVEM operator, but with the spread of personal computers and the emergence of a large number of computer terms borrowed from English, these words were replaced by words a computer, geek);
5) the desire to increase in the status of the called object; in certain periods, a great social prestige of a foreign word arises, as if raising the rank of the phenomenon called, cf. synonymous words: presentation
– performance, exclusive
– exceptional, consulting
– counseling, shop– score;
Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.
Phraseologisms
Phraseologism- a stable combination of words, constant in composition and meaning, reproduced in speech as a finished unit.
Phraseological units are studied in lexicology, and not in syntax, because in many respects phraseological units are closer to a word than to a phrase: in most cases, a phraseological unit is equal to a word in its meaning, is its equivalent ( order to live long = die
), phraseological units are a single member of the sentence (He came to the hat
- circumstance, cf .: He came late), and most importantly, as part of a free phrase, each word retains its meaning, the words in them can be rearranged or replaced with others, the phraseological unit is distinguished by the constancy of the composition, is reproduced in speech as a finished unit, the meaning of most phraseological units is not equal to the sum of the values of its components.
By structure of phraseological units can be phrases sit in a galosh, without a king in my head) or sentences ( grandmother said in two, when the cancer on the mountain whistles).
Phraseologisms, like words, can be characterized in terms of their meaning (single-valued and multi-valued), the relationships they enter into between themselves and with words, origin, stylistic coloring.
Most of the words of the Russian language, as already mentioned, are polysemantic; Most phraseological units, on the contrary, are unambiguous, while polysemantic ones are extremely rare, for example: gather strength : 1) relax, 2) overcome fear.
Phraseological units-homonyms are also rare, as an example, phraseological units-homonyms can be given:
let the rooster go
:
1) – fake,
2) – set fire to.
Both phraseological units belong to the second group, that is, their meaning is due to a metaphorical rethinking of the meaning of a free phrase; the same object is the initial one, however, its different features formed the basis of rethinking - voice in the first case and color in the second.
Phraseological units are sometimes homonymous with free combinations of words (cf .: He has money chickens don't peck. – Chickens don't peck this feed).
Like words, phraseological units can enter into synonymous and antonymous relations with each other, for example: nothing to see and gouge out your eye - very dark- synonyms, the cat cried - few and no end - a lot of- antonyms.
By origin, phraseological units can be native Russian ( neither fish is meat, nor zgi can not be seen) and borrowed ( byword- Old Church Slavonic; blue stocking- from English, word for word translation – tracing paper ; terra incognita- from Latin).
Most of the phraseological units are stylistically colored, and most of the phraseological units belong to colloquial ( bite your elbows, grated kalach, the first pancake is lumpy) and colloquial ( throw off the hooves, rage with fat, the gut is thin), however, there are also high-style phraseological units (no hesitation, give your soul to God, sink into oblivion).
Phraseologisms are reflected in special dictionaries that interpret their meaning and indicate the scope of use, as well as in explanatory dictionaries at the end of the dictionary entry after the sign?. The largest number of phraseological units is reflected in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V. I. Dahl.
Sometimes they allocate phraseological expressions. These are segmentable and decomposable phrases and sentences, the meaning of which is made up of the meanings of their constituent words, but they have one similarity with phraseological units - the constancy of the composition, reproducibility in speech as ready-made units. These are proverbs, sayings, "winged words", quotes from famous works of art, for example: " Happy hours don't watch”- from “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov.
Lexical analysis of the word
Lexical analysis of the word is carried out according to the following plan:
1. The lexical meaning of the word in this context.
2. One-valued or multi-valued.
3. Directly or figuratively used.
4. Does it have homonyms.
5. Does it have synonyms (if so, which ones).
6. Does it have antonyms (if so, which ones).
7. Native Russian or borrowed.
8. Common or not (dialect, special).
9. Included in the active or passive vocabulary.
10. What style of speech is predominantly used.
Parsing Sample
For therapeutic purposes, the roots and rhizomes of Eleutherococcus, collected in the fall (V. Yagodka), are used.
Root. In this sentence, the word root" has the meaning " the underground part of a plant, which serves to strengthen it in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from it". Polysemantic, in the sentence used in the direct meaning. There are no homonyms, synonyms, antonyms in this meaning. Originally Russian, commonly used, is included in the active vocabulary. Used in all styles of speech.
Having completed their operations, the fronts, one after another, stopped at the lines reached by the spring. (K. Simonov)
Operation. In this sentence, the word means " a series of strategic actions carried out during offensive or defensive battles". The word has many meanings:
a) a surgical operation;
b) trading operation;
c) a financial transaction;
d) postage.
The sentence is used in its direct meaning. Synonyms: operation, battle, battle, war. There are no homonyms, antonyms in this meaning. The word is borrowed from Latin. The word of professional vocabulary (military terminology). The word is not obsolete, it is included in the active dictionary of the Russian language.
Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.
LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.
The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.
That is, the vocabulary itself does not study anything. Vocabulary- this is the vocabulary of a language, a stylistic layer, a specific text or a set of texts. Studying vocabulary lexicology, and it is this section of linguistics that is meant when referring to scientific research in this area.
The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:
Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),
New words come into the Russian language from other languages due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.
Lexical meaning of the word
LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD - the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the mind of the speaker.
single and multiple words.
Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are
- scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
- proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
- recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
- words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).
Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.
Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic initially had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.
The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning of "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning of "piece of furniture".
A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.
For example, the word “sediment” has a direct meaning – ‘solid particles that are in a liquid and are deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling’, and a figurative meaning is ‘a heavy feeling that remains after something’.
Lexicology includes sections that study words and phrases in different aspects. So, semantics explores the semantic meanings of language units, phraseology- stable speech patterns, etymology- the origin of words and expressions, onomastics studies proper names, including the names and surnames of people, lexicography- the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, onomasiology- analyzes the processes of naming in the direction from the phenomenon or object to the word denoting it.
