Oratory and the art of speech, rhetoric exercises, video lessons in this discipline - all this, at first glance, may seem to you something unnecessary or even outdated.
It seems that parents and school taught to express their thoughts in childhood, there are no problems in communication with other people - that's great.
But speech is a very deep and interesting thing, which, in skillful lips, can work wonders.
Not just miracles, but very large-scale phenomena. For example, to change the world, to create, as well as to destroy.
You don't have to look far for examples: the great orators of the 20th century, including Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill, proved that the spoken word has tremendous power.
Life Reactor will tell you what the secret of oratory is and how it can serve you in all areas of life.
Origin of oratory
Most modern historians agree that the birthplace of the art of eloquence is Ancient Greece.
Although the ancient Romans also claimed their rights as discoverers and, to tell the truth, they had quite good reasons for this.
The spirit of cultural rivalry, which has always reigned between ancient Greece and ancient Rome, is especially aggravated on this issue.
The Hellenes succeeded a little more, because it was from their people that Demosthenes came out - the most skillful and famous speaker, whose skill was greatly revered by his contemporaries.
His speech was stunningly simple and beautiful.
Demosthenes voiced some thesis that was understandable to all his listeners, and then led the crowd along the winding paths of elegant and accurate metaphors, not forgetting to use logical conclusions.
Each speech of the famous Greek orator gathered thousands of onlookers who greedily caught every word, admiringwith an eloquence never seen before.
It is worth noting that the ancient era gave the world a whole galaxy of outstanding masters of eloquence.
Among them, the most notable are:
- Pericles (490-429 BC)
- Socrates (469-399 BC)
- Plato (427-347 BC)
- Mark Tullius Cicero ( 106–43 AD BC.)
The attitude of the ancient Greeks and Romans towards people who were fluent in the art of speech was so high that magical, and sometimes even divine, origins were attributed to their abilities.
Not everyone could master the most complex oratorical science. This required a lot of patience and a special attunement of consciousness.
It is not surprising that the training of the necessary skills took so much time that only those who had this time in abundance could do them.
As well as those who were ready to rely on oratory and give up other activities for a long time.
It is noteworthy that in the pagan pantheon of the ancient Greeks there was a place for the whole goddess of eloquence - Peyto, whose name in literal translation means" belief " .
It was the ability to convey one's thought to the listeners, to put a certain intention into their hearts and minds, that was considered the height of skill.
"The Death of Socrates" (fr. La Mort de Socrate) - a historical painting by Jacques-Louis David (1787) from the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, USA) And if the speaker accompanied his speech with skillful artistic turns and logic, then an epithet was often attached to his name"divine" - so great was the veneration of the adepts of oratory.
It is noteworthy that in ancient Rome, a person’s intellectual baggage and even his character traits were evaluated by rhetorical abilities. These things were inextricably linked.
So the expression that literate and structured speech is the first sign of a person's general culture has ancient roots.
Centuries have absolutely not deprived it of its relevance, as anyone can see just by going out into the street.
Great orators of our time
Despite the fact that it is the ancient era that is considered the most generous for speakers, the 20th century also gave the world outstanding masters of this art.
Most of them were involved in politics and were leaders of their countries in a terrible time for humanity of bloody revolutions and world wars.
Gestures in the ability to speak are no less important than words. The photo shows the hands of Demosthenes, an ancient Greek statue The great orators of the 20th and early 21st centuries are:
- Anatoly Koni
- Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin
- Joseph Stalin
- Leon Trotsky
- Adolf Gitler
- Joseph Goebbels
- Winston Churchill
- Sergey Shipunov
- Vladimir Putin
- Vladimir Zhirinovsky
- James Humes
Life Reactor will briefly talk about the greatest masters from the list above, as they absolutely deserve not only your attention, but also the highest praise as outstanding speakers.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni - the only person on the list who had nothing to do with politics.
An outstanding lawyer of the 20th century, Anatoly Koni gained fame as an unsurpassed master of persuasion with a word.
His speeches in court were not monotonous, but were lively, dynamic and full of meaning. This alone set him apart from the boring lawyers and public prosecutors of that time.
Anatoly Koni brilliantly wielded facts, not forgetting about.
He always knew how to find a middle ground: in his speeches there was no place for both excessive dryness, and eccentric cries and overly poetic speech turns.
The skill of the brilliant Russian lawyer was based on a personal conviction: judicial orators had to bring the truth, and for this it is necessary to be able to open human hearts.
Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin - this is not only the main ideologist, but also the voice of the Russian revolution, especially in its first years.
He earned people's love thanks to the simplicity and intelligibility of speech, as well as the ability to captivate with ideas.
Contemporaries of the main Russian revolutionary noted that he had a very strong energy.
Another important distinguishing feature of Lenin's oratorical skill was that he often entered into a dialogue with the audience.
Communication took place on a two-way basis, and this can leave few people indifferent.
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin adopted many rhetorical devices from his predecessor and mentor.
But unlike Lenin, who preferred to be extremely brief,
Stalin was not indifferent to long and complex lexical constructions, which, however, did not negate his success with the audience.
Vladimir Ulyanov-Lenin Experts in the field of oratory call Joseph Vissarionovich one of the brightest figures of the 20th century.
Trotsky was a very educated person, thanks to which he easily discussed any topic, delivering speeches without the slightest hesitation.
Ideological opponents feared him, and the people heeded every word.
Adolf Gitler is one of the most important orators of the 20th century. His speeches were distinguished by excessive emotional coloring, hypnotizing energy and liveliness.
The leader of the German people knew how to keep a crowd of thousands in suspense from the beginning to the end of the speech.
To do this, he used long pauses, speeding up speech, shouting, and so on.
The rhythm that he set to his speeches did not allow you to get bored for a second. In addition, Adolf Hitler actively used gestures - another important technique of oratory.
Eminent speaker Winston Churchill Winston Churchill - an example of a careful and thoughtful approach to public speaking.
Each text of the speech was polished to a dazzling brilliance. All ideas were thought out in advance, brought to perfection, inspired the speaker, and only then - the audience.
It is noteworthy that even taking into account the long preliminary preparation, Churchill held on very well, joked a lot and used metaphors, which attracted the attention of listeners.
How can I master the art of speaking and why do I need it?
Today, rhetoric is as necessary for a business person as it was centuries ago.
Despite a significant change in the methods of communication, among which the almighty Internet has taken the dominant position, nothing can replace live speech.
Only with direct contact between the speaker and the audience can a real relationship occur, the magic of persuasion can be created.
The speaker does not have to speak only in front of a large crowd.
You can use the art of rhetoric at work, during meetings with friends, as an auxiliary tool to achieve goals, or make it your hobby.
Possession of eloquence will definitely come in handy, so do not neglect the opportunities that the global network gives.
Today, there are three main ways to study rhetoric:
- Online courses
- Specialized literature
- Master classes
The first option is the most affordable. The Internet offers courses for every taste and among them you can easily find lectures and video tutorials on public speaking.
Not sure where to start, turn to online courses A nice bonus is that they are mostly free and at the same time quite high quality. youfind everything you need.
Specialized literature also became available.Look to the work of Dale Carnegie or James Humes.
How to compose a good speech and prove your thesis, you will certainly learn thanks to their work.
Master classes in rhetoric are quite rare, so if you have the opportunity to attend a speech by a specialist in this field, do not miss it!
Watching the master speak with explanations is the best experience for a novice speaker, which is no less important than the theoretical background.
People with oratory skills always easily acquire the status of a leader among friends, colleagues, and quickly achieve success in many matters. It is impossible to imagine a politician who cannot speak in a logical and structured way. Throughout the history of mankind, there have been people whose oratory skills have reached an outstanding level. Such people can rightly be called great orators.
Oratory began its development in ancient Greece, the secrets of which are still used today. There were already quite a lot of craftsmen to speak beautifully at that time. The list of prominent figures includes such great orators as Pericles, Cicero, Lysias, Demosthenes, Aristotle and others. In particular, Lysias and Demosthenes should be singled out, since it was precisely these great orators that all subsequent generations were equal to in the future.
Lysias was an excellent judicial orator of ancient times, whose speeches were always distinguished by originality, expressiveness and originality. He thought well and carefully worked out every detail of his text. Often in the speeches of this speaker there was irony, which caused great sympathy among the audience. At the same time, the speech was always short, did not contain anything superfluous. Lysias's speech is considered the standard for orators around the world. Many orators who spoke in court sessions took his example, borrowing his manner of eloquence.
Another great orator, whom many public figures looked up to, was Demosthenes. This person is considered a genius, because in order to become a speaker, he had to change a lot in himself. From birth, Demosthenes had a weak voice and short breathing.
Through long and rigorous training, in which various techniques were used, he was able to achieve brilliant results and became one of the best speakers of all time. His diction, beautiful and understandable speech could only be envied. The speeches of this famous speaker were bright, the expressions were short and concise.
Notable foreign speakers
In foreign countries, there are many famous great orators who have an excellent ability to build their speech during speeches so that people do not doubt their convictions. The most prominent personalities include two prominent political figures:
Adolf Gitler
Despite all his diabolical essence, this man was the strongest speaker, who, speaking, always kept the masses in suspense and full attention. In speeches, he used sharp hand gestures, spoke emotionally and even rudely. In his speeches, there was such a feature as the use of long pauses in order to emphasize something important and basic.
He prepared the speech in advance, writing down everything on paper. Hitler was not known for restraint, so he often gave vent to emotions, splashing them out on the audience. People were attracted by the fact that he spoke either slowly or quickly. Therefore, this technique was used by him in every speech. Despite the fact that his ideas were often evil and wrong, the people supported him. In this regard, Hitler is called the orator of evil. Despite all the black side of this man, he always makes it to the list - "The Greatest Speakers of the 20th-21st century."
Winston Churchill
This politician always prepared in advance for each of his speeches, even thinking over facial expressions and gestures. He worked out the text so that it was perfect. This man was distinguished by charisma, often used humor in his speech.
He was so inspired by his ideas that he could infect the whole people with them. When compiling the text, he actively used such artistic techniques as metaphor and comparison. In the process of communication, Churchill tried to be calm and behave naturally. From birth, he had such a speech defect as a lisp, however, over time, he managed to get rid of it.
Russian speakers
In Russia, too, there have always been well-known outstanding speakers, which include such famous personalities as Koni, Trotsky, Zhirinovsky, Putin and others.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni
Anatoly Fedorovich was engaged in legal and social activities in the late 19th - early 20th century. He urged everyone to observe morality in the trial. Koni's speech was always lively and dynamic, never monotonous.
He believed that speakers in court hearings should be fair, stand up for the truth. In his speeches, Koni was not distinguished by dryness, but gave vent to emotions. But he knew how to combine facts with feelings so that the text had a positive effect on the minds of the judges. This orator's defensive speech left no doubt that the verdict would be in his favour.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni possessed high individual and socially significant moral qualities, followed the rules of honor, always delivered a speech clearly, without using terminology unknown to others, and was fluent in eloquence.
Lev Davidovich Trotsky
Many people said that Lev Davidovich is the best speaker of the 20th century. He had a powerful timbre of voice, the words were pronounced clearly and understandably. He was an intelligent and active man, who was feared by many opponents. The great orator himself did not feel fear of any person, therefore he spoke everything to his face, concealing nothing.
Trotsky's speech was always built consistently, logically and concisely. He was good at convincing people, so he had a large number of associates. His gift for eloquence was clearly visible during political speeches.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
Great orators of the 20th century - this list, of course, should include Lenin. Vladimir Ilyich delivered such speeches that were accessible and understandable to every representative of the people. He perfectly felt what kind of mood people had, so he could lure them with almost any ideas. Most of all, he used dialogue, communicating with the people, answering their questions.
His speech was concise and specific. He also used guiding hand gestures, which only increased his influence on people. Lenin had a charisma that attracted all listening people. His phrases became winged, they were used by other people and printed in publications.
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich is perhaps the most famous Russian political orator of our time. He speaks easily, using a little humor in his speech. His speeches are always well thought out, do not contain anything superfluous. Hand gestures are smooth, which does not distract people's attention at all, once again emphasizes confidence.
This politician is distinguished by restraint and calmness while communicating with the people or colleagues, not allowing himself to say a harsh or rude word. He always answers people's questions clearly, as he is well versed in many areas of life.
Vladimir Volfovich Zhirinovsky
Vladimir Volfovich is distinguished by the fact that his speech is always accompanied by emotional coloring, it is unpredictable and even sometimes has some aggressiveness. His performances are more like shows. He often puts pressure on the interlocutor in his own words, uses energetic gestures.
Zhirinovsky has a strong charisma. But he is not just a great orator, but a very smart and fair politician. Vladimir Volfovich can easily develop a dispute, as he understands any topic. He does not differ in restraint, he always says what he thinks, expresses his emotions, he can often afford to say too much to draw attention to his person.
All the best orators of the world mentioned above are far from the whole list of outstanding masters of eloquence (let's not forget about such great speakers as: James Humes, Abraham Lincoln, Steve Jobs, etc.). It is difficult to answer the question of who is the best speaker of all time. Someone had the gift of eloquence from birth, and someone has come a long way, coping with their shortcomings in speech and acquiring the skills of oratory, becoming great. But one thing can be said for everyone, that thanks to their excellent eloquence, they were able to become famous figures in public and political life.
Oratory helps a person to convey his thoughts and beliefs to others clearly, beautifully, in an accessible form. This skill helps to be the leader of the company, to succeed in work, to achieve heights in public life. It is impossible to imagine a politician who cannot speak logically and constructively.
Oratory originates in Greece. The secrets of the great orators of that time have been preserved to this day. The long list of them starts with the inhabitants of Athens. These are the famous Pericles, Lysias, Demosthenes, Aristotle and others. They paid great attention to the postures of the arms and legs. The court orators were especially famous. One of the best was Lysias. During the trial, he was original, expressive and unique. His speeches were always thought out, built logically and worked out with the utmost care. In his statements, Lysias liked to use humor, arousing sympathy among those present. His speech is a standard for speakers of the world. Phrases Lysias uttered briefly, gracefully.
Lysias was a logographer. He composed speeches for speeches in court by his clients. Lysias could reflect the features of his wards in the stories. His style, the construction of the argument was adopted by other judicial orators. Critics noted that Foxy is refined and bright.
Representatives of national rhetoric
Russian personalities of our time are no less interesting. Orators of Russia in the 20th and 21st century who deserve attention are Anatoly Fedorovich Koni, Vladimir Putin, Trotsky, Zhirinovsky and others.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni - lawyer and public figure of the early 20th century. He stood up for the observance of morality in court, and with his personal qualities he set an example for others. The speech of Anatoly Fedorovich Koni was not distinguished by monotony, it was characterized by dynamism and liveliness.
Judicial orators, according to Koni, were supposed to bring justice. Anatoly Fedorovich was a defender of the truth. His speeches were not dry or overly emotional.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni knew how to combine facts with feelings in such a way that reasoning influenced the minds of judges in his favor. Defensive speeches left no doubt about the positive sentencing.
Anatoly Fedorovich Koni had high moral ideals, adhered to strict rules, spoke clearly, did not use incomprehensible terms, and was fluent in eloquence.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
Lenin spoke to the people in a language they understood. He felt the mood of the crowd well, he knew how to captivate with ideas. Lenin communicated more with the audience, conducted a dialogue. He was always concise, specific, used guiding hand gestures that intensified the impact. The posture of the legs is comfortable, they are widely spaced. Lenin had a special energy that was impossible not to adopt.
Spectacular and charismatic statements captivated everyone. Lenin always knew what he was talking about. His words are filled with clarity. And the statements that Lenin uttered became winged, they were repeated and printed.
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin
Stalin as a speaker is no less charismatic than his predecessor Lenin. These are the two brightest people of the 20th century. He often used the secrets of great orators. One of them is the numerous repetitions of words and lexical constructions. In contrast to the laconic phrases used by Lenin, Stalin more often used long sentences.
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin
Putin is one of the representatives of modern political orators of the 20th and 21st centuries. His speech is distinguished by a light shocking, with a share of humor. At the same time, Putin speaks without tension, all his words are thought out and weighed. Hand gestures are smooth, do not distract attention. Putin does not change the position of his legs during the conversation.
Putin is one of the well-known statesmen, who is distinguished by his style in conversation. This is celebrated by everyone. Restraint and calmness are the characteristics of the president's statements. Putin does not change himself and does not allow harsh or rude words. He always answers questions, understands the topic. Putin does not allow himself to start a conversation without prior preparation.
Vladimir Volfovich Zhirinovsky
Zhirinovsky's speech is always emotionally colored, unpredictable, aggressive. In a conversation, he can suddenly take defensive measures, putting pressure on the interlocutor. The performances are enchanting, like a show. Zhirinovsky actively gesticulates. The postures of the arms and legs during conversation emphasize the mood of the politician. Laying hands behind the back or pointing gestures, rare changes in the position of the legs. He is not only a charismatic speaker, but also intelligent.
Zhirinovsky understands the topic of conversation, easily argues. His speech is brightly colored, sensual. Zhirinovsky rarely restrains his emotions, he can allow too much.
Sergei Alexandrovich Shipunov
Sergey Shipunov began his activity in the 20th century and continues to this day. He not only owns the art of oratory, but also successfully teaches this to others. Sergey Shipunov conducts consultations and individual trainings. Large companies and politicians turn to him. Books on oratory by Sergei Shipunov are a great success. In them, he shares his experience, gives out the secrets of great speakers.
Lev Davidovich Trotsky
Trotsky is an outstanding orator. He was distinguished by a loud soulful voice, the words were heard from afar. Trotsky was educated and energetic. Opponents feared him. Trotsky spoke forcefully, without hesitation or pause.
Trotsky was not afraid of anyone, he spoke without concealment. His speeches were constructed concisely, consistently. Trotsky had the gift of persuasion. He had many followers. Trotsky possessed the gift of eloquence, this is clearly seen in his political statements.
Foreign speakers
There are many eloquent foreign figures in the 20th century. This is Hitler, Winston Churchill.
Adolf Gitler
Hitler is a strong orator who knows how to keep the audience in suspense. There are no leg movements. Hitler used hand gestures that were sharp and emotional. A noticeable feature of the speech is the strong pauses with which Hitler emphasized the important.
Hitler prepared a speech in advance, wrote on a piece of paper. His words are overly emotionally colored. Hitler was overwhelmed with feelings. Slowing down and speeding up speech attracted attention. Hitler used this technique in every speech.
His ideas are far from the ideas of the 20th century world, but people followed him. No wonder Hitler is called the orator of evil!
Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill carefully prepared for his speech. Facial expressions, hand gestures, the position of the legs were always thought out in advance. Winston Churchill polished the text to perfection. He was a charismatic politician who often used humor. The best sayings Winston Churchill came up with long before they were uttered.
Inspired by his ideas, Winston Churchill infected those around him with them. Churchill actively used metaphors and comparisons. Winston tried to be calm, natural. By nature, he suffered from a lisp, but Winston Churchill was able to cope with this defect.
James Humes
James Humes is the mentor of five American presidents. His lessons will help you achieve leadership through oratory. James Humes shows that almost anyone can master eloquence.
There are people who have a talent for eloquence given by nature. But even this gift can be mastered. For this you need to work a little. Famous and outstanding personalities of the world always have such a gift. They more often than others become heads of states, political parties.
Among the first outstanding representatives of ancient rhetoric are Gorgias (c. 480 - 380 BC), Lysias (435 - 380 BC), Demosthenes (c. 384 - 322 BC).
The greatest contribution to the theory of eloquence was made by the Greek philosophers Plato (427 - 347 BC) and Aristotle (384 - 322 BC).
Plato expressed the thoughts of his teacher Socrates in the famous dialogues "Gorgias", "Sophist", "Phaedrus", the central character of which is Socrates.
Plato defines sophistry as imaginary wisdom and contrasts the rhetoric of the sophists with genuine eloquence based on knowledge of the truth. The purpose of speech is the knowledge of truth, i.e. definition of the essence of the subject, for which it is first necessary to clearly define the subject of speech.
The dialogue "Phaedrus" refers to the construction of speech. According to Plato, in the first place should be introduction, on the second - exposition, on the third - proof of, on the fourth - plausible conclusions. Possible more confirmation and additional confirmation, refutation and additional refutation, side explanation and indirect praise.
Aristotle. Plato's student Aristotle wrote "Rhetoric", a work of three books.
In the first The book deals with the subject of rhetoric, which is defined as "the ability to find possible ways of persuading about any given subject ...".
- Aristotle identifies three types of such methods:
- "some of them depend on the character of the speaker";
- "others - from this or that mood of the listener";
- "third - from the speech itself."
In the second Aristotle's book "Rhetoric" speaks of "reasons that arouse confidence in the speaker." It is "reason, virtue and goodwill." Aristotle advises the speaker to remember the age, origin and social status of the listeners, teaches persuasion techniques and devotes a lot of space to logical proofs.
Third the book "Rhetorics" is devoted to speech itself. Much attention is paid to the style, which is made dependent on the subject of presentation.
Cicero. The pinnacle of oratory in ancient Rome is the activity of Mark Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC) - the largest orator, writer and politician.
- Of the rhetorical writings of Cicero, three books are of great importance first of all:
- "On the Orator", in which the author shows the ideal, comprehensively educated orator-philosopher;
- "Brutus, or About Famous Orators" - a book containing the history of eloquence;
- "Orator" - an essay in which the question of the best style is developed and Cicero's own ideal is theoretically substantiated.
Cicero believes that true eloquence is far from being a simple art, which is based primarily on a deep knowledge of the subject. In antiquity, philosophers and rhetoricians debated whether or not rhetoric was a science. Philosophers have argued that rhetoric is not a science. Rhetors thought otherwise. Cicero offered his own solution: rhetoric is not a true (speculative) science, but is a practically useful systematization of oratory experience.
Cicero adheres to the classical scheme of articulation of the rhetorical process. The rhetorical process is the whole path from a thought to a sound public word.
- Its classical scheme consists of five parts:
- find something to say;
- put the found in order;
- give it a verbal form;
- affirm all this in memory;
- pronounce.
Quintilian. Another representative of ancient Roman eloquence is the famous orator Mark Fabius Quintilian (35 - 96 AD) - the author of an extensive work in twelve books "Rhetorical Instructions". This work takes into account the experience of classical rhetoric and the author's own experience as a teacher of rhetoric and judicial orator. Quintilian talks about the upbringing of the future speaker, classes at the rhetorical school, talks about the study of grammar, philosophy, art, law, analyzes exemplary speakers, writers, poets, talks about the system of exercises, gives recommendations for reading works of art and brilliant speeches.
Rhetoric and Orators in Medieval Europe. In the Middle Ages, such orators as John Chrysostom (d. 407 AD) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274) became famous.
John Chrysostom was considered the ideal Byzantine preacher. Thomas Aquinas laid the foundations for the theory of church eloquence.
A significant contribution to the development of rhetoric was made by European writers and thinkers of modern times: B. Pascal, M. Montaigne, J. La Bruyère, F. Bacon, G. Lichtenberg.
The French writer of the 17th century J. La Bruyère wrote that "eloquence is a gift that allows us to master the mind and heart of the interlocutor, the ability to instill or inspire him with whatever we want."
Rhetoric and orators in Russia. The founders of rhetoric in Russia were M.V. Lomonosov, I.S. Rizhsky, A.F. Merzlyakov, M.M. Speransky.
The rector of Kharkov University, professor of eloquence and the Russian language, Ivan Stepanovich Rizhsky, was the author of the "Experience in Rhetoric", published in 1795, 1805 and 1822. Rizhsky sees the orator's task in influencing the mind and feelings of listeners with the power of the word, which, in his opinion, lies in expressiveness and pictoriality. Rizhsky singled out the genres of long speeches, identified cases of violation of the purity of speech.
"Short Rhetoric, or Rules Relating to All Kinds of Prose Works" by the Russian poet and translator Alexei Fedorovich Merzlyakov was intended for pupils of the Moscow University boarding school and was very popular in the first third of the 19th century. Merzlyakov names the following goals of the speaker: learning, persuasion and the art of touching the listener. Merzlyakov believes that eloquence must necessarily have a noble goal - the spread of knowledge, the discovery of new truths.
A. S. Nikolsky's book "Brief Logic and Rhetoric for Students in Russian Theological Schools" (1790) is devoted to the issue of genre-situational forms of speech, the characteristics of prose, oratorical and poetic speech.
Alexander Ivanovich Galich, one of the teachers of A.S. Pushkin, taught Russian and Latin literature at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. In 1830, his book The Theory of Eloquence for All Kinds of Prose Writings was published. According to Galich, "the theory of eloquence, rhetoric, teaches you to systematically process essays in writing and offer them orally so that they are both from the side of matter and from the side of form, i.e. both in content and in finishing, like the reader or listener, producing in his soul is convinced, touched and determined by a good choice and placement of thoughts, as well as a decent expression of thoughts with the help of words.
- Galich identifies four main points on which the science of eloquence is based:
- "a happy invention of thoughts appropriate to the subject";
- "a prudent disposition of thoughts and the ability to influence listeners so that they can easily perceive the idea as a whole and in parts";
- "exposition or expression of thoughts in words";
- "proclamation of oratorical speech".
Another teacher at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, Nikolai Fedorovich Koshansky, is the author of "Private Rhetoric" (1832) and "General Rhetoric" (1854). This spelling of the word rhetoric was used as a variant in the 19th century, it corresponds to the spelling of this word in Greek. General rhetoric contains the main, initial rules of all prose writings, private rhetoric, based on the general one, considers each prose work, its advantages and disadvantages.
A great contribution to the development of rhetoric in Russia was made posthumously published in 1844 by M. M. Speransky's book "The Rules of Higher Eloquence". Speransky was a famous statesman of the era of Alexander 1. In this work, the issues of the structure of public speaking, argumentation, composition, and expressiveness of speech are considered in detail.
Among the outstanding representatives of rhetoric as a practical art were such prominent court speakers as N.P. Karabchevsky, F.N. Plevako, P.A. Aleksandrov, S.A. .Powder workers. Porohovshchikov (pseudonym P. Sergeich) wrote an original work on the history of Russian judicial eloquence "The Art of Speech in Court", A.F. Koni - the book "Advice to Lecturers".
Prominent representatives of academic eloquence are famous Russian scientists: historians T.N. Granovsky and V.O. Klyuchevsky, chemist D.I. Mendeleev, biologist K.A. Timiryazev.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, new works appeared devoted to certain problems of rhetoric: "Essays on the history of eloquence by A.G. Timofeev (1899), "Principles of eloquence and preaching" by I.P. Triodin (1915).
The latest works on rhetoric, continuing the traditions of the 19th century, were associated with the activities of the Institute of the Living Word. In the "Notes of the Institute of the Living Word" (1919) were published "The program of lectures on the theory of eloquence (rhetoric)" by N.A. Engelgardt and the work of A.F. Koni "The living word and methods of handling it in various fields." In the 20s of the 20th century, rhetoric was excluded from school and university education.
In the 2nd half of the 20th century. there is a revival of interest in rhetoric. The works of S.S. Averintsev, Yu.M. Lotman, V.P. Vompersky, Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky appeared. "Neo-rhetoric" is developing in the USA and Europe. In the 90s of the 20th century in Russia there was a revival of rhetoric as a scientific direction and academic discipline, rhetoric became the subject of monographs and articles, the subject of study in universities and schools.
The eloquence of Ancient Russia, which adopted the high traditions of the oratory of antiquity, Byzantium and the South Slavic countries, was born in the 11th century.
In the historical aspect, the development of domestic rhetoric passed through certain stages:
1) oratory of Ancient Russia;
2) the doctrine of eloquence in the works of M. Lomonosov and his followers;
3) the rhetorical school of Russian academicians, and then the university school of eloquence, which developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries;
4) rhetorical works of 30-40 years. XIX century (works by A.I. Galich, A. Merzlyakov, K. Zelenetsky);
5) Russian judicial eloquence in the 60s of the XIX century. (works by A.F. Koni, P.S. Porokhoviky, V.D. Spasovich);
6) new forms of oratory in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, which developed in connection with the activities of the State Duma, legislative bodies, etc.
1) Russia became acquainted with the art of oratory already at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries, following the best examples of Byzantine and South Slavic culture. After the adoption of Christianity in the history of ancient Russian culture, the period of mastering the spiritual wealth of Christian countries begins. An important role in this was played by the genres of oratorical prose. It is important to emphasize that in the history of ancient Russian oratory there is no period of apprenticeship and already the works of the first Russian rhetors - Illarion, Theodosius of Pechersk, Kirill of Turov (XI-XII centuries), as researchers emphasize, amaze with the perfection of form, depth and originality of ideas, novelty of poetic finds. It is characteristic that in Russia the practice of oral public speaking was not widespread. The eloquence of Kievan Rus is a fact of literature, belongs to literature.
2) The golden age of Russian literature and the heyday of ancient Russian eloquence was the 12th century. Its pinnacle is the "Words" of Kirill Turovsky.
3) At the monasteries, which are centers of culture and literacy, in the XIV - ХУвв. rhetoric begins. European rhetoric written in Latin is used as textbooks.
4) The earliest domestic rhetoric that has come down to us dates back to the beginning of the 17th century, its author is Metropolitan Macarius.
5) The first original textbook in Russian belongs to M.V. Lomonosov. It is called A Brief Guide to Eloquence (1748). Here is how Lomonosov defines rhetoric: "Rhetoric is the science of any complicated mother to speak and write eloquently." Lomonosov's rhetoric consists of three parts: "On the Image", "On the Decoration", "On the Location". The main theoretical provisions in the book by M.V. Lomonosov are accompanied by quotations from the works of famous writers of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, the Middle Ages. Renaissance and new time, given in the author's translation. For eloquence, according to M.V. Lomonosov needs, first of all, spiritual (sharp mind and memory) and bodily (loud voice, "long breath", pleasant appearance and posture) talents. However, natural qualities alone are not enough to become a speaker. One of the most important requirements is knowledge of the laws of constructing public speech, as well as the ability to argue. All later Russian rhetoricians relied on the works of M.V. Lomonosov.
6) Generalized for its time at the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. became the "Experience of Rhetoric" by I.S. Rizhsky, who taught rhetoric in 1786-1796. in the St. Petersburg Mining Corps. The issues of purity and correctness of Russian speech are at the center of attention of I.S. Riga. “Speak and write correctly, i.e. pure Russian language is the duty of every well-bred Russian,” he wrote. Many of the general considerations of I.S. Riga and now have not lost their relevance. The purity of speech, according to Riga, can be violated if unmotivated foreign words are used instead of Russian, phrases that violate the rules of the Russian language, foreign expressions peculiar only to a foreign language, common people, regional (dialect) words, as well as neologisms that do not meet the laws of the Russian language.
7) Among other theoretical works, one should mention “Short Rhetoric” by A.F. Merzlyakova, textbooks on rhetoric N.F. Koshansky, A.I. Galich.
8) In Russia, the peak of the development of rhetoric occurred in the first half of the 19th century. The art of secular public speech in Russia is associated with the development of university eloquence, which originated in the 18th century. It was in the university audience that the living word had the opportunity to develop and improve freely. The founder is the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Dashkova E.R., who obtained permission to open public courses "in Russian" in the main branches of science for everyone. Every day for four months, prominent experts gave public lectures on the main branches of science: mathematics, chemistry, mineralogy, and physics. This innovation was supposed to contribute to the spread of education. 9) The heyday of academic eloquence in Russia falls on the 19th century. and is associated with the awakening of the socio-political life of the country. The most popular is the university lecture, which gradually turns into a public, public lecture. From the second half of the XIX century. lectures are already given by scientists specifically for a wide audience, i.e. there is a popular science lecture. Crowded audiences were gathered for their lectures by remarkable scientists and historians, professors of Moscow University Granovsky T.N. and Klyuchevsky V.O. In the second half of the XIX century. - early XX century. physicist I.M. Sechenov, chemist D.I. Mendeleev, biologist I.I. Mechnikov, anatomist P.F. Lesgaft, botanist K.A. Timiryazev, geochemist V.I. Vernadsky, mineralogist A.E. Fersman, biologist N.I. Vavilov, physicist L.D. Landau and others.
M. VLomonosov, naming three types of eloquence known in the ancient world (epideictic, deliberative, judicial), emphasized that judicial eloquence is absent in Russia. So it was until the reform of 1864, which laid down new principles of legal proceedings. The hearing of cases became open, the prosecutor, lawyer, jurors (non-professional judges) were introduced into the process of legal proceedings. The court became a place of public hearings, a field of verbal battles between officials of the prosecutor's office and defenders. The debate of the parties in open trials obliged the prosecutor, the lawyer, and the representative of the court to speak convincingly, intelligibly, and vividly. Thanks to these changes, in the second half of the 19th century, Russian judicial eloquence came to the fore and reached a high level of development, both in the practical sphere and in the development of the theory of oratory. A galaxy of brilliant judicial orators N.P. Karabchevsky, F.N. Plevako, S.A. Andreevsky. The original work on the history of Russian judicial eloquence "The Art of Speech in Court" was written by P.S. Porokhovshchikov (pseudonym - P. Sergeich).
The State Duma (1906-1917) became the school of political eloquence in Russia, where the foundations of parliamentary speech were born. During the years of the revolution and the civil war, propaganda and rally speeches became widespread. Famous orators of the revolution were V.I. Lenin, N.I. Bukharin, L.D. Trotsky, A.M. Kollontai, A.V. Lunacharsky, S.M. Kirov. An interesting phenomenon in the history of Russian rhetorical thought was the opening in Petrograd of the Institute of the Living Word (1918 - 1924). The origins of which were outstanding public and political figures: V.E. Meyerhold, N.A. Engelgard, A.F. Koni, L.V. Shcherba. The development of the theory of eloquence, the theory of dispute was started. However, by the beginning of the 1930s, the institute ceased to exist. The development of the theory of rhetoric was interrupted for several decades, and rhetoric as an academic discipline was excluded from school and university education. Only since the late 1970s (and especially in the late 1980s and early 1990s) did Russian linguistics reawaken interest in rhetoric, which was largely supported by the achievements of neo-rhetoric in Europe and the United States.
Patriotic tradition(according to the book: L.K. Graudina, G.I. Miskevich. “Theory and practice of Russian eloquence”).
The rules for using the word existed in Ancient Russia. Rhetorical knowledge spread along with the writings of Christian writers. Words were respected. Idle talk and idle talk is a sin. The first works appeared in monasteries. The first Russian rhetoric - Macarius, Metropolitan of Novgorod and Velikolutsky, refers to 17th century. Then the rhetorical traditions were continued in the Kiev-Mohyla and Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academies. In Kiev-Mohyla F. Prokopovich at the beginning of the 18th century, he read a course of lectures in Latin on the history of poetry and in Latin created a textbook on homiletics (creating sermons) "DeartepoeticaDearterhetorica". There was an instruction at the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy: to teach eloquence in Russian and Latin: on Mon, Wed, Fri, read Cicero’s speeches and “make imitations”, and on Tue, Thurs and Sat – Lomonosov’s speeches. " To greater success keep students in rhetorical exercises more often.
The role of M.V. Lomonosov. The Academy of Sciences rejected Lomonosov's first "Short Rhetoric" for the reason that it was written in Russian (1743). In 1747, Elizabeth approved Russian, along with Latin, as the official language of the Academy of Sciences. And in 1748 the following, “lengthy rhetoric” (“A short guide to eloquence”) was published. Another 10 years later, the book “On the Usefulness of Church Books” was published, where the theory of 3 calms was outlined. The main and new thing was that Lomonosov was guided by the structure of the Russian language and the language situation of his time.
Important milestones:
Turn of the 18th-19th centuries "The experience of rhetoric" acad. N.I. Riga. Rizhsky presciently formulates the "criteria of normativity": “The general opinion and consent of enlightened citizens should decide the lot of any speech” (usus + authority of the source). In 1802, the same idea was voiced at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences: "The general use gives the rule, and not the rule gives the general use."
1st floor The 19th century is the era of the formation of the norms of the national language and the development of functional styles. The laws of eloquence apply to conversations, letters, scientific writings and business papers. In rhetoric, theories of proportionality and conformity (content - expression) are developed. Content priority is asserted. The authors encourage simplicity and naturalness of the style. Proceedings: "General rhetoric" N.F. Koshansky (Professor of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum from 1811 to 1928); "General" and "private" rhetoric of K.P. Zelenetsky. Completely in the spirit of today, Zelenetsky writes: “Verbal expression depends on who, about what, when, for what purpose and for what circle he writes.”
In the 19th century, academic eloquence also emerged as an independent direction. Many bright figures (N.T. Granovsky, V.O. Klyuchevsky, D.I. Mendeleev). In the second floor. In the 19th century judicial eloquence develops powerfully.
But in general, by the middle of the 19th century, the decline of rhetoric is observed. As a theory, it has exhausted itself; as a practical activity, it has not found application. The authority of Belinsky had an effect (he responded negatively to the rhetoric of N.F. Koshansky). VV Vinogradov about this period: "rhetoric drags out a miserable, anonymous existence."
The issue of CR, mainly its normative aspect, was touched upon in the works of linguists. OH. Vostokov puts living colloquial language as the basis for the study of grammar (“Abbreviated Grammar for Lower Educational Institutions”, 1831). The same is said by F.I. Buslaev "On the teaching of the national language" (1844). In the second half of the 19th century, the monumental works of Ya.K. Grot according to the rules of spelling ("Russian spelling", St. Petersburg, 1885).
But linguists also move away from the problems of CR at the end of the 19th century. Philologists of this time share the point of view of Acad. A.A. Shakhmatova: not to impose norms, but to describe the facts. Against the background of ignoring the normalizing activity, a bright and major phenomenon was the publication in 1909 of Chernyshev's work “Correctness and purity of Russian speech. The experience of Russian stylistic grammar” (then there were reprints, the author made adjustments). The strengths of the work are historicism, the lack of categorical evaluation.
Then the fate of developments in the field of rhetoric, stylistics, and CR was largely decided by a social explosion. 1917
In the 20s. the term "rhetoric" was replaced by a new concept - CR. The reasons are both social and scientific. On the social: rhetoric was perceived as a cultural category of the old world and bourgeois science. What was taught in the gymnasiums, indeed, was far from the needs of the illiterate population. In the 20s. the main task was the education of an elementary culture of speech. And this required scientific development of literary and linguistic norms. Thus, the scientific prerequisite for changing the term for the name of the discipline of good speech is a change in the subject. In dictionaries, rhetoric began to be defined as speech that is outwardly beautiful, but has little content. The term KR, on the contrary, corresponded to the task of teaching the people to speak. IN AND. Annushkin: "The subject of the Kyrgyz Republic is purely Russian, which arose and developed on domestic soil in the Soviet era."
Until the end of the 50s. CR developed as a doctrine of the language norm. During this time, science has been enriched with valuable research. In order to propagate norms, it was necessary to study the flow of live speech. Expeditions... Dictionaries. From 1918 to 1962 9000 dictionaries were published.
60-70 years: a stylistic norm is being developed.
80s the doctrine of the communicative qualities of speech
90s: three-level structure of the CD.
By this point, CR is developing in close interaction with stylistics and rhetoric.
