health care

In 293 BC, during another epidemic in Rome, it was read in the Sibylline Books about the need to bring a snake from the city of Epidaurus, dedicated to the god Asclepius (Aesculapius). According to legend, already on the Tiber, the snake slipped out of the ship and swam to one of the islands. Therefore, a sanctuary was erected on it, which served at the same time as a hospital. Treatment at this temple became a custom in Rome for several centuries.

Aesculapius Island was also known to others. Claudius ordered that sick and malnourished slaves, taken out and left by their masters on the island, in case of recovery, would be forever free.

At the end of the 3rd c. BC. In Rome, whole groups of Greek doctors appear. They were mostly slaves, but later became freedmen. If they were freeborn in their homeland, Caesar granted them the rights of citizenship. The senators erected a monument to the doctor Anthony Muse, who cured Augustus of a serious illness, at his own expense, and the emperor freed doctors from taxes. Court physician 2nd c. Galen left over a hundred medical treatises.

Doctors were at the same time pharmacists. And among them there was their own specialization both in terms of types of diseases and depending on the profession of clients: healers of gladiators, firefighters, etc. But there were no pedators as such. The medical service in the army was especially carefully organized, at the end of the 2nd century. she established a special emblem for herself - the goblet and the snake of Asclepius.

The population of Rome treated doctors ambiguously. The rejection was caused primarily by the very principle of working for pay (as an actor or a craftsman). Secondly, they had the right to use poisons. And sometimes involved in palace intrigues, they provided abundant food for gossip and scandals. According to Tacitus, it was the court physician who provoked the death of Claudius. Thirdly, the tendency of some physicians to prescribe extremely expensive potions, exposure of pseudo-healers encroaching on high fees, further diminished the authority of the medical profession. And doctors are increasingly becoming heroes of jokes that make it easier for people to go to the next world.

Early in the morning at dawn, the first sounds of a new day were heard in Roman houses. Slaves polished the marble floors with beeswax, rattled the dishes in the dining room, lit the fire in the stove, opened the shutters and prepared the details of the gentlemen's daytime toilet. All Roman houses were happy in different ways, depending on the wealth of the owners. The owners themselves also woke up early, except for those cases when parties turned into night festivities with friends.

The Romans were in a hurry to get to work. True, they worked until noon and a day after two, since the holidays in ancient Rome prevailed over weekdays, and on weekdays after dinner, the Romans arranged holidays for themselves. How?

The pleasure principle 2000 years ago

In contrast to the principle of deprivation and suffering, legalized several centuries later by the Church, the pagans of ancient Rome followed the principle of pleasure. They discovered it long before Freud's theory. If there was no god who could become the patron of pleasure in all its forms, the Romans borrowed it or invented it themselves. They were in a hurry to live. This innate impulse was creative and destructive for those times, but no one really thought about it.

The morning washing ritual was performed over a basin or a bronze bowl, but without soap - the Romans did not know it. Instead, beech ash, crushed clay and lye, or bean flour were used. For smoothness, the skin was then softened with an oil balm. Dry off with a linen towel. Men shaved daily, the elderly, oddly enough, did not hesitate to dye their hair black, and the bald ones did not neglect wigs. Slaves and female slaves were responsible for ensuring that the men were clean-shaven, starched and dressed in a clean toga, and that the women were combed in fashion, made up and dressed in the best way. Wealthy Romans had barber slaves (tonsors) and ornatrices for matrons. Hair was twisted with a hot iron rod - an analogue of curlers.

The first breakfast the Romans made hastily, very often - on the way to work, having bought cold or warm snacks in one of the many shops. Women after that either proceeded to household chores, or visited friends and relatives. There were few working women in ancient Rome and they were mainly employed in craft workshops.

The Roman Forum 2000 years ago - the meeting place could not be changed

at first they were places of lively trade or, simply put, ordinary markets. During the imperial period, they became centers of attraction for the Romans. Basilicas were erected and senatorial curia appeared. There were solemn processions of the conquerors and demonstrations of the loot in the conquered territories. The most recent events could only be found on the forums. The former markets gradually turned into fairs, and then into the cultural and political centers of the city.

Ordinary Romans who lived in high-rise buildings insulakh, often in small rooms without sanitary facilities and water, rushed with pleasure in the mornings to the forums: it was a way to join the good and feel like a resident of a great empire. Here verbiage and oratory were allowed in unlimited quantities and for everyone. Anyone could address the crowd from a makeshift podium and push a speech on any topic, except for those that questioned the greatness of the empire and the status of the existing government.

There were at least eleven such forums in Rome during the imperial period. Both bread and circuses - everything could be given and received here to a resident of the ancient city in the rhythm of a rapidly changing daily routine. Trade agreements were concluded here, prices for salable and slow-moving goods were set, and the splendor of the colonnades and painted statues filled the hearts of the inhabitants and guests of Rome with pride and aesthetic satisfaction. After work (at about one in the afternoon), the Romans, having washed and changed their clothes, flocked to the squares in the hope of getting a chance, a good offer or buying overseas goods of the first quality at the best price.

Healthy :

Roman baths 2000 years ago

The ancient Romans believed that the truth was in the water. They even worshiped the goddess Veritas, daughter of Saturn, who was believed to live in the depths of wells. However, the Roman emperors, with the help of an army of thousands of slaves and noble masters, allowed the inhabitants of the ancient metropolis to literally bathe in the true moisture of bliss. Aqueducts and baths were built, which completely changed the idea of ​​the Romans about the properties of water and its political significance.

The famous baths of the emperors became the focus of a new culture and way of life in Ancient Rome. The baths of Diocletian and Caracalla were visited daily by thousands of Romans, young and old. Libraries, playgrounds, wellness procedures, following the example of the ancient Etruscans, alternated with relaxation and solar procedures, and the fate of the republic was decided "on the sidelines" of the thermal baths or directly in the pools.

Baths in the afternoon have become an alternative to forums and circuses. Especially after Agrippa's grand decision to make them free for everyone. You could see mimes, dancers, sellers of flowers and amulets, you could eat and drink plenty, you could bet on gladiators, spin a love affair, or simply choose one of the priestesses of love. You could go in for sports or read ancient manuscripts.

The sophisticated mechanism of water procedures today, for reasons of economy, has been preserved only partially. Meanwhile, the Roman baths had their own rules for enjoying water. At first, visitors entered thiepidarium- a spacious pool with slightly heated water, in which they stayed for about an hour. Then came the turn caldarium: here the water was heated to a temperature of approx. 40 ° C. Finally, the bather chose a laconicum (laconicum) - a pool of hot water in a room with heated air (a prototype of a sauna). For the final hardening served tonic frigidarium with cold water.

Colosseum and circuses 2000 years ago

Everything new is well forgotten old. Two thousand years before the advent of modern boxing, wrestling, swordsmanship, horse racing, and even football, Roman civilization enjoyed masculine combat at its most brutal in numerous arenas and stadiums. The sight and smell of blood excited and intoxicated crowds of thousands of spectators, and victorious gladiators became idols. Contrary to popular belief, the death of a gladiator in the arena of the Colosseum was not a frequent occurrence. The Romans were merciful in their own way, but at the same time practical: buying and training a gladiator cost a lot of money.

The Roman inhabitants, unfortunately, did not feel the same sense of compassion for the wild animals that were included in the performances of the Colosseum. According to contemporaries, it is known that at least 5,000 predatory animals were killed during the 100 days of the holiday in honor of the opening of the Colosseum.

Big Circus, or Chirko Massimo, which could accommodate up to 300 thousand spectators, shook with exclamations and roars of an enthusiastic audience Roman sky almost daily. According to the legend, the abduction of the Sabine women and the subsequent clash between the Latins and the Sabines, which miraculously ended in a strong alliance between the two tribes, happened just after one of the equestrian competitions in the arena of the Circus Maximus.

But this was only a small part of the entertainment industry in ancient Rome. There were stadiums - buildings with a purely sporting focus, among which is the famous stadium of Domitian, an exact copy of which is the current pearl of Rome - Piazza Navona. There were circuses in which battles were held on the water and on life-size ships. Among them is Naumachia Augusta in the area of ​​the current Trastevere quarter.

End of the day and dinner in Rome 2000 years ago

Tired of the sun and the celebrations, the Romans ran into taverns before going to bed (an analogue of the current fast food - fast food) or hurried home, where a dinner warmed up by slaves was waiting for them. They often dined in the presence of slaves clustered in a corner of the refectory. If guests were received, according to all the rules, dinner became a loose concept. The care of the slaves was to see off happy guests, light the way with a torch, or harness themselves to the wagon.

After dinner, the couple retired to their chambers. In Roman families, if there was such an opportunity, the spouses slept separately and only spent the night in a bedroom with a wide bed as needed. This is one of the mysteries of the Eternal City. But the morning is wiser than the evening.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Abstract in Latin

Topic: Life of the ancient Romans

Work completed:

Zakharova N.V

Checked work:

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Zubanova S.G.

Moscow 2011

Introduction

2. Marriage

3. The birth of a child

4. Education

5. Clothes. Hairstyles. Makeup

6. Daily routine

7. Slavery

8. Religion

9. Cult of the Dead

10. Leisure time of the Romans

11. Dwelling

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Ancient Rome (lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within the swampy plain, bounded by the Capitol, the Palatine and the Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and the ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of the ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached its peak of power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control was the area from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Armenia in the east to Portugal in the west.

The Roman Empire is the greatest empire of ancient times. The people who filled it are admirable, which is why I took the topic of my essay such as "Life of the Ancient Romans." I believe that this topic is very relevant today, because our life has many similarities with the life of the ancient Romans. Many laws have passed from them to us, jurisprudence began in ancient Rome. Many literary monuments became an inspiration for our writers. The way of life, the relationship between men and women, fathers and children in ancient Rome has much in common with relationships in our century.

And so, to achieve this goal, I had to solve the following tasks:

1. Find out how the wedding ceremony took place among the Romans;

2. What did the family mean in the life of an ancient Roman;

3. Learn about the relationship between parents and children

4. Consider education methods

5. Lifestyle: food, free time, housing

Family and upbringing in the early period of the history of Rome was considered the goal and the main essence of the life of a citizen - the presence of his own home and children, while family relations were not subject to the law, but were regulated by tradition. In what ancient state did such principles operate?

In ancient Rome, the family was highly respected as the basis of society. The family was supposed to be the guardian of high moral standards and what was called "fatherly mores."

The authority of the father of the family, his power over his wife and children were indisputable. He was a stern judge of all the offenses committed by the household and was considered the head of the family court. He had the right to take his son's life or sell him into slavery, but in practice this was an exceptional phenomenon. And although the woman was subordinate to the man, "belonged only to the family and did not exist for the community," in wealthy families she was given an honorary position, she was engaged in managing the household.

Unlike the Greek women, the Roman women could freely appear in society, travel to visit, attend solemn receptions, and, despite the fact that the father had the highest power in the family, they were protected from his arbitrariness. A man, a husband, was allowed to file for divorce in case of infidelity or infertility of his wife. Moreover, the fact that the spouse went out into the street with her head uncovered (usually a married woman used various ribbons and scarves) could already be infidelity, since by doing so (it was believed) she was specifically looking for male views.

A woman could be beaten to death or thirsty if she was caught drinking wine, as they were forbidden to drink it (so as not to harm the conception of a child). Adultery was severely punished in ancient Rome, but in connection with divorces and widowhood, and often a large difference in the age of the spouses, adultery and extramarital cohabitation occurred. In the case of the capture of a wife's lover, according to an unwritten law, the husband, along with his slaves, had the right to commit all kinds of violence against him, including sexual ones. Often the poor man's nose and ears were cut off, but this was nothing compared to the fate that awaited the delinquent wife. She was simply buried alive in the ground.

During the absence of the spouse, the wife should not have been locked up. Walking around the trading shops and gossip with sellers and counter acquaintances was considered a favorite female pastime. The wife was also always present next to her husband at all receptions.

The law prescribed humanity in relation to relatives and neighbors. Among the many maxims with which the Romans enriched us, there is this one: "He who beats his wife or child, he raises his hand to the highest shrine." The children were very devoted to their parents.

2. Marriage

The Romans distinguished between full marriage and incomplete marriage. The first was possible only between Roman citizens and allowed two forms: the wife either passed into the power of her husband and was called the "mother of the family", matron, or she still remained in the power of the father and was called only "uxor" (wife, wife). The fathers of families, as a rule, entered into marriages between their children, guided by prevailing moral standards and personal considerations. A father could marry a girl from the age of 12, and marry a young man from the age of 14.

The date of marriage was chosen taking into account religious traditions and holidays, beliefs in happy and unlucky days, therefore, it never took place on kalends, the first days of each month, nona, the 7th day of March, May, July, October and the 5th day of other months , ides, days in the middle of the month. The whole of March, dedicated to Mars, the god of war, was considered unfavorable, since "spouses should not fight", May, which fell on the Lemurian holiday, and the first half of June, busy with work to restore order and cleanliness in the temple of Vesta. The days of commemoration of the dead, like days of sadness and mourning, were also not suitable for a wedding, as were the days when the mundus was opened - the entrance to the underworld: August 24, September 5 and October 8. The second half of June was considered favorable.

On the evening before the wedding, the girl sacrificed her old toys and children's clothes to the larams (home gods), thereby saying goodbye to childhood. On the eve of the wedding, the bride tied her head with a red scarf and put on her a long straight white tunic with a woolen belt (Latin tunica recta), which was also intended for the wedding day. A belt made of sheep's wool (lat. cingillum) was tied with a double Hercules knot, which was supposed to prevent misfortune. The bride's hair was also styled the night before with a spear tip in 5 strands. It was the tip of the spear that was used, perhaps as a symbol of home and family law, or because the matrons were under the tutelage of Juno Kurita, "who was named so from the spear she carried, which is called curis in the language of the Sabines, or because it foreshadowed the birth of brave husbands ; or that, by virtue of marriage law, the bride is placed under the authority of her husband, since the spear is both the best kind of weapon and the symbol of supreme power. Then the hair was fastened with woolen threads and gathered in a cone shape.

The bride's wedding attire was a long dress - palla (lat. palla gelbeatica), bright red, worn over a tunic. A veil of fiery, yellow-red color was thrown over the head, lowering it a little over the face, and since the time of the late republic, they put on a wreath of flowers (vervain and marjoram, later from orange tree and myrtle flowers), collected by the bride herself. The shoes had to be the same color as the flammeum.

Jewelry was primarily a bracelet. There is no information about the special attire for the groom; perhaps he wore an ordinary white toga and a wreath (according to Greek tradition). The houses of the bride and groom were decorated with wreaths, green branches, ribbons and colored carpets. On the morning of the wedding day, the procession led by the steward (Latin pronuba), a woman who served as an example for the bride, since she was married only once, was heading to the temple or home atrium .

The couple was brought to the altar, on which a pig (rarely a sheep or an ox) was sacrificed in order to find out from the gods from the insides whether the marriage would be happy. If the prediction was successful, then the person conducting the auspices gave his consent to the marriage. After the marriage ceremony, a plentiful feast began. In the evening after the feast, the girl finally left her parents: the ceremony of "removal" began - seeing the bride to the groom's house. The bride was "kidnapped" in memory of ancient traditions: "pretend that the girl is kidnapped from the arms of her mother, and if the mother is not there, then the closest relative."

Wedding custom: the groom carries the bride over the threshold of his house, a custom dating back to the time of the abduction of the Sabine women. The bride was led by the hands of two boys, the third carried a torch of thorns in front of her, which was lit from the fire on the hearth of the bride's house. A spinning wheel and a spindle were carried behind the bride, as symbols of women's activities in the husband's house. Nuts were handed out (thrown) to passersby as a sign of fertility, which were supposed to provide the new family with plentiful offspring. The husband carried his wife over the threshold of the new house so that the wife would not stumble over him, which was considered a bad sign.

After that, the wife wrapped the doorframe in wool and greased it (according to Pliny the Elder, wolf fat was used, as a memory of the she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus) and oil, which, perhaps, was supposed to scare away evil spirits on the first night. The guests left and continued to celebrate elsewhere. The wife was undressed by women who had only been married once and taken to her husband's bed. The husband met his wife with fire and water (mainly with a torch and a goblet of water), the wife said the words: lat. Ubi tu Gaius, ego Gaia - "Where you are Gaius, I will be Gaia." Perhaps earlier this formula meant that the woman took the name of her husband, or became, as it were, a part of him.

The wife was seated on a chair in front of the door, then prayers were said again, this time to the deities of the house. Then the wife took over fire and water as the two main elements of the household and gave three coins for it. One of them was received by the husband, the other was left for home chests on the altar, and the third was left later for the communal chests at the crossroads. In bed, the husband symbolically untied the belt on his tunic, tied with a Hercules knot, so that he would have as many children as Hercules.

3. The birth of a child

The celebrations associated with the appearance of a new family member began on the eighth day after childbirth and lasted three days. Children at birth, according to the agreed ritual, descended to the ground, and then the father (if the newborn was recognized) raised him high to the sky if it was a boy or gave it to his mother if it was a girl. If the father did not recognize the child, he gave a sign to the midwife, and she cut the umbilical cord above the required place, which led to bleeding and death of the newborn. Sometimes he was put outside the gates of the house or simply drowned in the river. A similar treatment for people from the lower class was caused by the difficulty of feeding a large number of mouths. The rich Romans preferred to have one boy heir in order to provide him with the best education and avoid disputes when receiving an inheritance.

After that, the invited guests gave the baby gifts, usually amulets, the purpose of which was to protect the child from evil spirits. It was not necessary to register a child for a long time. Only when a Roman came of age and put on a white toga did he become a citizen of the Roman state. He was presented before officials and entered into the list of citizens. For the first time, registration of newborns was introduced at the dawn of a new era by Octavian August, obliging citizens to register a baby within 30 days from the moment of birth. Registration of children was carried out in the temple of Saturn, where the office of the governor and the archive were located. This confirmed the name of the child, his date of birth. His free origin and the right of citizenship were confirmed.

4. Education

Like the Greeks, the Romans affirmed the priority of upbringing and education. The spirit and history of Roman society demanded that the young Roman had a courageous, strong body, possessed the will and the habit of unquestioningly obeying the laws. In severe trials, a citizen should not lose heart.

Upbringing and education were private. Wealthy parents preferred homeschooling. At home, education was carried out by a slave, who was called a "teacher". And the poor used the services of schools. The heads of the family, taking care of the education of their children, tried to hire Greek teachers for their children or to get a Greek slave to teach. The vanity of parents forced them to send their children to Greece for higher education. Boys and girls began to be taught from the age of seven. School education was usually built on three main steps.

Primary School. At the first stages of education, children were mainly taught to write and count, they were given information about history, law and literary works. Here the teacher was often a freedman or citizen from the lower strata of society. At first, the students were offered passages from the laws, which were memorized mechanically.

The primary school was poor: it was a room in which there were only a table and benches. Sometimes the lesson was transferred to the open air, the teacher, along with the children, could go out of town or to the park. For writing, a tablet was used, smeared with wax, on which words and sentences were written with a stick with a pointed end, called a stylus.

School of Literacy. The second stage of schooling continued in the literacy school and covered children from about 12-13 to 16 years old. It was already a more well-equipped room, in which there were busts and bas-reliefs of famous poets, as well as paintings, mainly on the plots of Homer's poems. The main attention of this school was given to reading and interpretation of poetic texts. Teaching was conducted in Latin. Greek authors were read in translations, in many respects imperfect. When the Greek language was introduced in schools, Homer, Hesiod, Menander were read, albeit in extracts, but already in the original. We also met with Roman authors - Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Grammar, comments and criticism of the text, versification and literature proper were studied as philological subjects. biographies of writers, their works. In the classroom, most often the speech of the teacher sounded, the students tried only to write down what they heard. As for non-humanitarian subjects, such as mathematics and geometry, they were usually mastered in an insignificant and primitive volume.

Third level school. Having reached the age of 16, the young man entered the school of the third stage, to the rhetor, who was charged with preparing the student for the activities of a judicial or political speaker (although this did not apply to all students, because at the age of 17-18 the young man had to leave the teaching and pass military service). Usually students had to compose essays in the form of speeches, developing in them some famous literary or mythological episode. It could be the speech of Medea, who intended to kill her children, Achilles, pouring out anger at Agamemnon, who took away his captive Briseis.

The students were asked to compose an accusatory speech condemning any vice: stinginess, covetousness, sacrilege, etc. They were required to demonstrate the ability to convincingly pronounce what was written, show good diction and the art of gesticulation. A kind of tournaments were organized, competitions for novice speakers, which stimulated their zeal, striving for excellence.

The Romans also made sure that women were educated in connection with the role they had in the family: the organizer of family life and the educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl.

In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers in the estates and were engaged in trade, were placed overseers of other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucracy of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus. Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to make up a significant stratum in Rome. Having nothing in their souls but a thirst for power and profit, they sought to take the place of an employee, manager in the state apparatus, engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to manifest itself, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. In the end, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans out of government.

5. Clothes. Hairstyles. Makeup

The wives of noblemen devoted a lot of time to hair care and creating intricate hairstyles. And although in those days there were no hairdressing salons for women, they were successfully replaced by domestic slaves. For men, barber shops were open everywhere, where they could shave and cut their hair, as the etiquette of that time required. Roman women loved gold earrings, bracelets and necklaces with precious stones. Moreover, it was often possible to see several earrings at once in one ear, and even with huge stones. Thus, Roman matrons turned into mobile jewelry shops. The women carried a handbag, a fan and an umbrella. The Romans used a wide variety of cosmetics. They kept them in little pots and bottles. Especially at that time, strong pallor was fashionable. Women whitened their faces and hands with crushed chalk. Girls tinted their lips and blushed their cheeks with red wine sludge or a vegetable paint called focus, and Roman women lined their eyes and eyelids with soot or a special paint - antimony.

The clothes of the Romans were divided into two categories: upper ( amictus) and lower ( indutus). The main outerwear was the toga. She was the hallmark of a citizen; in view of this, during the time of the empire, exiles were forbidden to wear it; in the same way, a foreigner did not dare to put on a toga. The toga was also an obligatory costume in the theater, at public games, in court, during official ceremonies and at court. Initially, the toga fitted the body quite tightly, later it began to be worn much more freely. The toga worn by the children was bordered with a purple stripe, hence the name toga praetexta. The toga of a man, worn by a young man who had reached the age of majority, was pure white and without a border.

Paenula it was a sleeveless cloak that covered the body to the knees; a round hole was made in it at the neck, through which the paenula was put on. It was open on both sides, but sewn up at the front. It was both men's and women's clothing, which was sometimes worn even over a toga; it was usually made of woolen material.

Lacerna It was somewhat similar to the Greek chlamys: it was an oblong and open front robe, which was fastened with a clasp on the shoulder, and maybe on the chest. She was in great fashion during the empire; lacerna was often luxuriously finished. Sometimes, like paenula, a hood was attached to it in case of wind and rain.

The main undergarment was a tunic. It was light and comfortable and was worn under the toga in the days when the toga was worn only when leaving the house. The tunic was similar to a Greek chiton and reached the calves, but it was pulled together by a belt at the waist. At first it was sleeveless or short-sleeved; by the end of the second century AD, long-sleeved tunics began to be worn. Sometimes two, three and even four tunics were worn one on top of the other.

Women also wore a tunic: it was a tight-fitting shirt that reached to the knees, without sleeves and without a belt. At the height of the chest was placed a strip of thin and soft skin, which, like our corset, supported the chest. Pounced on the tunic stola, which can be compared with the long tunic of Greek women. When leaving the house, put on palla- a cloak like a himation. Previously, when they did not yet know palla, she was replaced by ricimum- a quadrangular cloak, shorter and with fewer folds.

The Romans usually went out with an open head, or else they were content to lift the toga on their heads. However, they had hats ( pileus and petasus), which were used not only by the common people, who spent most of their time working in the open, but also by people from high society. A hood was also used instead of a pileus ( cucullus), which was attached to the paenula or directly pounced on the shoulders.

The women did not wear hats; to cover their heads, they raised their palla, as the men with the toga did. The best cover for them was a veil fastened on the head and falling in folds on the back of the head and back. Mitra was a piece of matter that covered the head in the form of a cap; it usually reached only half of the head and left gracefully arranged hair open in front. Finally, the Roman women also used head nets ( reticulum).

Calceus shoes were called quite high and closed, like our shoes or boots. Together with the toga, she made up the national costume of a citizen, which he put on when going to the city. To show up in society otherwise shod was considered as indecent as, for example, to go out into the street in slippers. Calceus was also worn by women when leaving the house, as it was a common footwear for both sexes.

Solea and crepida are sandals, i.e. thick leather soles, sometimes with a slight rise in the back to protect the heel. They differed from each other, apparently, in that the solea straps covered only the foot, while the crepida straps rose above the ankle.

Pero coarse leather shoes, used mainly by peasants.

Finally, Caliga was the shoes of a warrior. It consisted of a thick sole, densely studded with sharp nails; a piece of leather, cut in stripes, was sewn to the sole, forming a kind of mesh around the heel and foot: the toes remained open.

6. Daily routine

The life of the Roman population was very diverse: the poor, enrolled in the lists of those receiving bread from the state, a praetorian or a fireman, an artisan, a client or a senator lived very differently. However, the daily routine was almost the same for the entire urban population: rising in the morning, busy time, rest in the middle of the day, hours spent in the bathhouse, entertainment.

Ancient Rome was on her feet with the dawn. Lamps gave more soot and fumes than light, so daylight was especially valued. To lie in bed when "the sun is high" was considered obscene (Seneca). The morning toilet for both the rich and the poor craftsman was equally simple: put on sandals on your feet, wash your face and hands, rinse your mouth and put on a raincoat if it's cold. For rich people who had their own barber, this was followed by a haircut and a shave.

Then the first breakfast was served, usually consisting of a piece of bread dipped in wine, smeared with honey or simply sprinkled with salt, olives and cheese. According to an old custom, all household members, including slaves, came to greet the owner. Then, according to the schedule, there were economic affairs, checking accounts and reports and issuing orders on current affairs. Then the reception of clients began, with a large number of them, it took about two hours. The clientele developed out of an ancient custom of placing oneself, a petty and powerless person, under the patronage of an influential person. By the 1st century AD, the "good tone" of society demanded: it was inconvenient for a noble person to appear on the street or in a public place without a crowd of customers surrounding him.

For all the services of the client, the patron paid sparingly, although at the same time everyone was informed that he showed a lot of care and attention towards the client. Clients most often could not get out of bitter need. The customer service gave, albeit meager, but still some means of livelihood. In Rome, for a man who did not own any trade and did not want to learn it, perhaps the only way to exist was the position of the client.

Back in the 1st century BC, the patron dined with his clients; later he invited only selected three or four people to the table, and paid the rest a very modest sum of 25 asses. And the client did not always receive this miserable amount, if the patron fell ill or pretended to be ill, the client left with nothing.

Dinner at the patron's, which every client dreamed of, often turned into a source of humiliation for him. As a rule, they arranged two very different dinners: one for themselves and their friends, the other for clients. The patron, according to Martial, eats oysters, champignons, flounder, fried turtle doves; the client is served edible shells, pork mushrooms, a small bream and a magpie that has died in a cage.

Noon was a line dividing the day into two parts: the time before it was considered the "best part of the day", which was devoted to studies, leaving, if possible, the second part for rest and entertainment. In the afternoon, a second breakfast is served. It is also modest: at Seneca it consisted of bread and dried figs, the emperor Marcus Aurelius added onions, beans and small salted fish to bread. Among the working people, beets served as a seasoning for bread; the son of wealthy parents, returning from school, received a slice of white bread, olives, cheese, dry figs and nuts. Then it was time for the afternoon rest.

After the midday rest, it was the turn of washing in the baths, gymnastic exercises, rest and walks. Baths opened in Rome at half past two in summer and half past one in winter.

Baths were a place of meetings and gatherings, fun games and sports joys. The rich turned their baths into real palaces. And the emperors not only strove for the artistic decoration of their baths, facing the walls with marble, covering the floors with mosaics and putting up magnificent columns: they collected works of art there. They came here not only to wash away the dirt. They rested here. Baths were of particular importance for the poor, crowded in dirty, stuffy rooms with a view of the dirty wall of the opposite house. The visitor found here a club, and a stadium, and a recreation garden, and a rich museum, and a library.

Then the whole family (not counting the small children who ate separately) gathered for dinner, to which one more friend was usually invited. Dinner was a small home feast. It was a time of friendly casual conversation, funny jokes and serious conversation. Reading at dinner in the circles of the Roman intelligentsia was a custom; for this, a special slave-reader was appointed. Sometimes in rich houses dinner was accompanied by music - these houses had their own musicians. Sometimes diners were entertained by dancers, but they were not allowed into strict houses.

During the day, food was usually taken three times: in the morning at about 9 o'clock there was ientaculum - a morning light snack; around noon prandium - breakfast and after 3 o'clock cena - dinner.

A more luxurious dinner, with invited guests, was called a convivium - a feast; religious feast - epulum, epilae.

Table

The dining room was called triclinium, from which it can be seen that they were reclining at the table. Initially, they ate in the atrium, sitting by the hearth. Only the father had the right to lie down; the mother sat at the foot of his bed, and the children were placed on the benches, sometimes at a special table, on which they were served small portions, and not from all the dishes; the slaves were in the same room on wooden benches, or they ate around the hearth; this was especially the case in the countryside. Later they began to organize special halls for dinner parties, in which, little by little, wives and children also took part. Since then, they began to interfere in the conversations of men, they were even allowed to eat lying down. In rich houses there were several canteens for different seasons. The winter triclinium was usually located on the lower floor; for the summer the dining room was moved to the upper floor, or the dining bed was placed under velum in the gazebo, under a canopy of greenery, in the yard or in the garden.

Tablecloths appeared only under the late empire. Treats were placed on the table in such a way that they could be put on a plate. The diner held the plate in his left hand; with his right he took the overlaid pieces, since there were no forks. Liquid food was eaten with spoons. Small pieces of shaggy linen cloth served as napkins, with which they wiped their hands and mouth, they were placed on the table for guests, but guests brought such napkins with them. It was customary to take home leftover treats from dinner, which they wrapped in their napkin.

The kitchen utensils were very varied and many of the kitchen utensils are similar to modern ones. The treat was served on the table in deep closed dishes or in bowls, individual dishes were placed on a large tray. Both dining room and kitchen utensils were earthenware. Even in the II century. BC. of silver at the table there was only a salt shaker, which was inherited from father to son. By the end of the period of the Republic, nothing remained of the ancient simplicity. Some even began to make kitchen utensils from silver. Guests came with their slaves, who stood or sat behind the host. He rendered various services to the owner and carried home a napkin with everything that the owner took from the table.

At the beginning of the meal, prayers were always offered to the gods. Immediately after dinner, during dessert, or a little later in the evening, there followed a drinking bout, during which they drank, talked and had fun. These drinking parties very soon took on the character of rough orgies. Rarely did any of its participants entertain themselves with a serious conversation. Usually at such a feast, singers, singers and all kinds of musicians appeared very soon. Sometimes the host read his poems or asked one of the guests to read his own poems. Comedians, mimes, jesters, conjurers, dancers and even gladiators were called in to amuse the audience; also played dice.

In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mostly thick, hard-cooked porridge made from spelt, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. Culinary art began to develop in the III century. BC e. and under the empire reached unprecedented heights.

In addition to grains and legumes, vegetables and fruits, fermented milk products were also used. Meat was rarely eaten here. Usually, sick or old domestic animals unsuitable for work in the fields were slaughtered for this. In any case, the meat was very hard, it was rarely fried, but boiled for a long time in the broth. Bread and cereals were staples in the ancient world. Soups and porridges were prepared from them, such as maza - a mixture of flour, honey, salt, olive oil and water; turon - a mixture of flour, grated cheese and honey. Many foods were sprinkled with barley flour before cooking. Beans and other leguminous plants were abundantly used.

The national soup of the ancient Romans was borscht - a lot of cabbage and beets were grown especially for it. Even the great poet Horace considered the cultivation of cabbage his main business. Subsequently, this wonderful soup spread among many peoples of the world.

Breakfast and lunch passed very quickly, and dinner was given great attention. The whole family came to him. Typically, bean soup, milk, cheeses, fresh fruits, as well as green olives in brine and black olive paste were served. Subsequently, bread appeared on Roman tables, and lobsters and oysters appeared in wealthy families. Since beef was a rarity, game, frogs and snails were used in abundance.

There were three types of bread in ancient Rome. The first is black bread or panis plebeius, for the poor, the second is panis secundarius, white bread, but of poor quality. Often grain, flour or already baked bread were distributed to the population. The third is panis candidus - high quality white bread for the Roman nobility.

It should be noted that the bulk of the inhabitants of ancient Rome did not have the opportunities that rich Roman nobles had, so the plebeians most often bought food from itinerant sellers. Usually it was olives, fish in brine, a kind of barbecue from wild birds, boiled octopus, fruit and cheese. The poor man's lunch consisted of a piece of bread, small pieces of salted fish, water, or very cheap low-quality wine.

Those who could afford dined during the day in numerous taverns. An important role on the table of the ancient Romans was played by wine, which usually completed dinner. Both red and white varieties were produced. At that time, there were already various cooperatives for the production of this popular drink. Rome had a port with a neighboring market, where only one wine was sold. When served, it was usually diluted with water and consumed warm or cool, depending on the season. Wine with the addition of honey was used as an aperitif.

Food was usually cooked in clay pots, in bronze or lead pans, and the following methods were usually used to store food: smoking for cheeses, drying for meats, covering with honey for fruits. Subsequently, brines began to be used. I would like to note that salt in that period was mainly used as money, and it would never have occurred to anyone to salt any dish solely for taste. Salt was valued dearly, as it was used to preserve food on long trips or sea expeditions.

7. Slavery

Rome was a huge slave state. The treatment of slaves was very cruel. He could be sold, castrated, rented out to a brothel, turned into a gladiator, given to be torn to pieces by wild animals. The main slave owner was the Roman emperor, sometimes he allowed himself to appoint his former freed slaves to high government positions.

Slavery had two sources:

The first is slavery by birth. Even if the father of a child born to a slave was free, the child still remained a slave and was deprived of civil rights.

The second - a prisoner of war or a sailor captured by pirates could become a slave. Slaves were equated with goods, they were traded in the markets, they were exhibited as a thing. Accordingly, the slaves had to look strong, youthful, well-groomed. The price depended on it.

Slaves were held in obedience under fear of severe punishment.

The owner used rods, sticks, a whip, a belt. There were special shackles for hands and feet. With these shackles he was sometimes forced to work.

8. Religion

Religion has always played a significant role in the life of the Romans, especially at an early historical stage. But the Romans are a pragmatic people, so rituals have always been stamped with practicality. Religion was focused on a specific life practice, regulated human behavior. In this regard, our Russian proverb can be applied to the Romans: "Trust in God, but don't make a mistake yourself."

Divine services were held in the house of a Roman. Almost any detail of the everyday life, starting with the morning awakening and ending with going to bed, was consecrated by a certain religious rite.

A huge number of rural holidays such as harvest, pruning of vines, ripening of ears - everything had to be specially marked, and accompanied by sacrifices. The Romans remembered all signs, prophetic dreams, sacramental words that he was not supposed to pronounce, vows and prohibitions, amulets, conspiracies that insure against fires, misfortunes and diseases. A bad omen could force a change in route or abandon a well-thought-out plan of action.

If a Roman addressed the sky with any request, he had to know exactly which god it was addressed to. In addition, there were rigidly fixed verbal formulations that determined the style of expressing the request. Otherwise, the deity could simply ignore the request. The Roman seemed to be addressing not to a deity, but to a specific official in the state instance, not offering a prayer, but addressing a petition drawn up according to a fixed canon.

Ritualism ignored the state of mind of the worshiper. The sincerity and truth of his faith were not taken into account. The main thing was strict adherence to the letter of the rite. The ideal of the Romans was "order in everything", and consequently, peace of mind. The Roman seemed to buy the blessing of heaven with prayers and sacrifices.

9. Cult of the Dead

Funeral rites clearly show that when lowering the dead into the tomb, the ancient Romans believed that they were putting something living there.

There was a custom at the end of the funeral to call the soul of the deceased by the name that he bore during his lifetime. They wished her a happy life underground. Three times they told her "be healthy" and added "may the earth be easy for you!" So great was the belief that the buried person continues to live underground and retains the ability to feel happiness and suffering. On the grave they wrote that such and such a person “rests” here; an expression that has outlived the beliefs that correspond to it and, passing from century to century, has survived to our time. We still use it, although no one now thinks that an immortal being rests in the grave. But in ancient times they so firmly believed that a person lives there that they never forgot to bury with him those items that, in their opinion, he needed: clothes, vessels, weapons. Wine was poured on the grave to quench his thirst, food was placed to satiate him. They killed horses and slaves, thinking that these creatures, imprisoned with the deceased, would serve him in the grave just as they did during his lifetime.

In order for the soul to be firmly established in this underground dwelling, which was adapted for its second life, it was necessary that the body with which it remained connected was covered with earth. At the same time, it was not enough to bury the corpse in the ground; it is also necessary to observe the rituals established by custom and pronounce certain formulas. In Plautus, we find the story of one native of the next world: this is a soul that is forced to wander, because its body was laid in the ground without observing rituals. Historians say that when the body of Caligula was buried, the funeral ceremony remained unfinished, and as a result, his soul began to wander and appear alive until they decided to take the corpse out of the ground and bury it again according to all the rules ...

The creature that lived underground was not so free from human nature as not to feel the need for food. In view of this, on certain days, food was brought annually to each grave. The dead were considered sacred beings. The ancients endowed them with the most respectful epithets they could find: they called them kind, happy, blessed. They treated the dead with all the respect that a person can feel for a deity that he loves or fears. In their opinion, every dead person was a god. And this deification was not the privilege of great people: no distinction was made between the dead. Cicero says: "Our ancestors wanted people who left this life to be considered among the gods." The Romans called the dead: gods of mana. "Pay tribute to the gods of the manes," continues Cicero, "these are the people who have left life; consider them as divine beings." The graves were the temples of these deities, so they had a sacred inscription on them: Dis Mambus. The buried god lived here. In front of the graves stood altars for sacrifices, as well as in front of the temples of the gods.

As soon as they stopped bringing food to the dead, they immediately left their graves: and people heard the cries of these wandering shadows in the silence of the night. They reproached the living for their negligence and tried to punish them; they sent sickness and afflicted the soil with barrenness. They did not leave the living alone until they again began to bring food to the graves. Sacrifices, bringing food and libations forced the shadows to return to the grave, restored their peace and divine quality. Then man was at peace with them.

On the other hand, the deceased, who was worshiped, was a patron deity. He loved those who brought him food. To help them, he continued to take part in human affairs and often played a prominent role in them. They turned to him with prayers, asked for his support and mercy.

10. Leisure time of the Romans

"Rest is after work" - said a Latin proverb. The Romans used their free time in different ways. Educated people with high spiritual interests devoted themselves to science or literature, not considering it "business", but considered it as leisure, as "rest of the spirit." So rest for the Romans did not mean doing nothing.

The choice of activities was wide: sports, hunting, conversations, and especially visiting spectacles. There were many spectacles, and everyone could find the one that he liked best: theater, gladiator fights, chariot races, acrobat performances or a display of exotic animals.

Attending various public spectacles was the main pleasure of the Roman; the Romans indulged in it with such passion that not only men, but even women and children were present at the spectacles; equestrians, senators and, finally, even emperors took an active part in them. Of all the stage performances, the Romans loved comedy most of all, but they were even more attracted to their games in the circus and in the amphitheater, which, with their terrible scenes, greatly contributed to the moral coarsening of the Roman population.

In addition to the public spectacles mentioned above, the Romans also loved various games, especially the game of ball, dice, and a game similar to modern checkers or chess. The ball game (pilaludere, lususpilarum) was the most beloved and was a good bodily exercise not only for children, but also for adults. It was played in public squares, especially on the Champ de Mars, in special halls located at the baths, as well as in other places. The game of dice (alealudere) has long been a favorite pastime. When it was used: tali - grandmas and tesserae cubes.

Public readings and then discussions of poetic works eventually became an integral part of cultural life during the period of the Roman Empire. Meetings of these listeners with poets took place in baths, in porticos, in the library at the temple of Apollo, or in private houses. They were arranged mainly in those months when there were many holidays associated with spectacles: in April, July or August. Later, speakers began to make speeches to the public. The recitation of a speech or poetry sometimes dragged on for several days.

A favorite place for recreation and entertainment of the Romans were public baths - terms. These were huge, luxuriously finished buildings with swimming pools, halls for games and conversations, gardens, libraries. The Romans often spent whole days here. They bathed, talked with friends. Important public affairs were also discussed in the baths, deals were made.

Emperors built baths for the Roman people. At the beginning of the IV century. in Rome there were twelve imperial baths and many baths owned by private individuals. Private baths were, of course, incomparably more modest than the imperial baths. The size of the imperial baths is at least evidenced by the fact that the baths of Emperor Diocletian look like a grandiose building even next to the modern Termini station in Rome - a large modern transport hub. More than one and a half thousand people could freely stay in the baths of the emperor Caracalla at the same time.

11. Dwelling

The device of a rich Roman house from the time of the empire was: atrium - a reception hall, tablinum - an office and peristylium - a courtyard surrounded by columns.

From the street in front of the house, there was often a vestibulum vestibule - a platform between the line of the facade and the outer door of the house, from where through the ianua door they entered the front ostium, and from here through an open or closed entrance with only one curtain - into the atrium.

Atrium - the reception hall, which is the main part of the house. From above, the atrium was protected by a roof, the slopes of which, facing the inside of the house, formed a large quadrangular opening - the compluvium. Opposite this hole in the floor was a recess of equal size - implivium for the drainage of rainwater (which ran from the roof through the compluvium). On both sides of the atrium were living and service rooms, which received light from the atrium. The rooms adjoining the atrium from the front side were usually given over to trade movements (tabernae), and they had an entrance only from the street. In the back of the atrium in the homes of nobles, wax images of the ancestors of the imagines were kept.

Atrium - made up a later cultural time a necessary part of every Roman house; the actual "family" meaning of the atrium has already receded into the background: the kitchen received a separate room, the dining room turned into a separate triclinium (triclinium), household gods were placed in a special sanctuary (sacrarium). Atrium turned into a front room, the decoration of which (columns, sculptures, frescoes, mosaics) cost a lot of money.

The atrium was followed by the tablinum - the owner's study - a room open from the side of the atrium and peistil. On one (or on two of its sides) there was a small corridor (fauces), through which they passed from the atrium to the peristyle.

Peristylium - peristyle - was an open courtyard surrounded by a colonnade and various outbuildings. In the middle of it there was often a small garden (veridarium) with a reservoir (piscine), on the sides there were bedrooms, a dining room (triclinium), a kitchen, work rooms, a home bath, servants' quarters, pantries, etc. In the peristyle there was usually a room for household gods - lararium, sacrarium - a goddess.

The roof of the house in ancient times was covered with straw, and later with tiles. The ceiling was originally simple, planked, but over time they began to give it an elegant shape, forming recesses of a beautiful shape on it; such a ceiling was called lacunar, laquear. It was supported by columns, often marble. The walls (parietes) were originally only whitewashed on plaster, and over time they began to decorate with colored marbles, expensive types of wood, but more often with paintings; the remains of such painting - (alfresco) have been perfectly preserved to our time; Pompeian wall paintings are especially famous.

The floor (solum) in ancient times was made of clay or stone (pavementum), and then, especially in rich houses, mosaic, often of highly artistic work. So, to our time, a highly artistic mosaic depicting the victory of Alexander over Darius at the battle of Issus has been preserved in Naples. Light entered the house partly through holes in the ceiling, partly through doors or through holes in the wall (windows - fenestrae), which were closed with curtains or shutters, subsequently sheets of mica were inserted into them and, finally, glass. In ancient times, a pine torch or pine torches (taeda, fax) were used for lighting, in addition, something like candles (candela), later oil lamps (lucerna) of artistic work came into use - made of clay and metal (bronze).

To make fire, they hit iron on flint or rubbed dry pieces of wood against each other. The house was heated by means of hearths (focus), braziers (caminus), portable stoves (fornax) or with the help of warm air carried through pipes under the floor, in the walls from an oven located under the floor (hypocaustum).

The upper floor (tabulatum) was sometimes arranged above the buildings of the peristyle, less often above the atrium, and contained various residential movements. Sometimes, in the form of a covered balcony, it protruded far into the street above the lower floor; It usually had a flat roof, which was often decorated with flowers or trees planted in pots or in earth poured here.

Country house - villa. The word villa originally meant only "estate", "estate". Subsequently, villarustica began to differ - an estate or a manor and villaurbana - a cottage arranged more according to the urban model.

Villas at the end of the era of the Republic and especially during the time of the emperors were real palaces, with beautiful parks, ponds, menageries and were distinguished by various amenities and great luxury. For the construction of villas, the most picturesque areas were chosen, most often on the seashore or near large rivers. There were especially many of them near Tusculum, Tibur and in Campania, which has a mild climate.

The dwelling of the ancient Roman was filled with much less furniture than our modern one: there were no desks, no bulky cupboards, no chests of drawers, no wardrobes. There were few items in the inventory of the Italian house, and, perhaps, the first place among the furniture belonged to the bed, since the ancients spent much more time in it than we do: they not only slept on the bed, but also dined, and studied - read and wrote.

The bed of the Roman is very similar to the modern one: - on four (rarely on six) legs. In addition to the headboard, sometimes it is also equipped with a footboard, which is an exact copy of the headboard. Each pair of legs is interconnected by a strong cross member; sometimes, for greater strength, two more longitudinal bars were added, inserting them closer to the frame. Instead of our metal mesh, a frequent belt binding was pulled over the frame.

The beds were made of wood (maple, beech, ash), and sometimes the frame was from one tree species, and the legs from another. Legs were sometimes carved from bones. In one of the most noble and wealthy Pompeian houses, in the house of a faun, ivory bed legs were found; more often, of course, they took cheaper material: horse bones and from cattle. It happened that the bone was covered with a carved pattern; wooden legs upholstered in bronze. The headboard, the graceful curve of which already had an ornamental value in itself, was also trimmed with bronze. On the Pompeii dining couch, a silver inlaid design curls along the bronze armrests; above and below them, on one side of the bed, there are figurines of cupids cast in bronze, and on the other side, swan heads. Very often, a donkey's head was placed on the headboard.

The lack of taste, characteristic of many layers of Roman society of that time, the substitution of simple and beautiful in its simplicity with abundant and not always harmonious ornamentation, respect not for a thing, but for its value - all this had an extremely bright effect on the example of beds with tortoiseshell inlay.

We do not know how much the beds cost and which of them were more expensive and which were cheaper, but that such furniture was available only to rich people, this is obvious. And they covered such a bed with fabrics that were also luxurious and expensive.

First of all, a mattress was placed on the belt cover, stuffed with good, specially treated wool for stuffing mattresses. The Levkons, a Gallic tribe that lived in present-day Belgium, were famous for its manufacture.

Mattress bedding and blankets (stragulae vestes) were both expensive and luxurious.

Tables were needed for different purposes: they ate at them, they put various objects on them; like the beds, they served a practical purpose and, like the beds, they were the decoration of the room.

It must be admitted that the Romans, who are usually reproached for their lack of taste, showed great artistic tact by placing in the center of the atrium in the most illuminated place such a table as a cartibulus. This heavy, bulky table with formidable grinning figures approached a huge, darkish, almost empty hall; it created a unified general impression, a basic general tone, which the rest of the furniture, lighter and more cheerful, could somewhat soften, but was no longer able to disturb.

Another type of table was portable tables with delicately curved legs that ended in goat's hooves. The same type of light tables also includes stand tables, several samples of which have come down to us from Pompeii. They are also from Greece. The same type of light tables, sometimes three-legged, sometimes four-legged, include sliding tables, which, with the help of hinged braces, could be made higher or lower. Several such tables have been found in Pompeii; one with a removable board in red Tenar marble with bronze trim around the edge; familiar already curved legs end in a flower cup, from which rise figures of satyrs, holding small rabbits tightly to their chests.

As for the seats, in the Italian house they were represented by stools, the legs of which were machined after the pattern of beds, and chairs with curved legs and a back folded back rather far. This comfortable furniture was considered generally intended for women.

The clothes of the ancient Italian - both rich and poor - consisted of such pieces of matter that could not be hung, but had to be folded: in household use, cabinets were required less than chests. They were made of wood and upholstered with bronze or copper plates; sometimes such a chest was decorated with some other cast figures. These chests were quite large.

Beds, a dining table, small tables, several stools and chairs, one or two chests, several candelabra - that's the whole atmosphere of an Italian house. It did not clutter up the old aristocratic mansion, in the atrium of which there was enough space for the largest cartibulum and in the front dining rooms of which large tables and boxes fit freely.

With the relocation from the mansion to a rented apartment, home life was radically rebuilt. In the five rooms of the spacious Ostian apartment, facing one side, one had to be content both in winter and in summer with the same dining room and bedroom: the custom of the mansion to arrange these rooms, one for winter and the other for summer, was not suitable for an insula. And here, however, the apartments were not crammed with furniture. The largest room was probably assigned to the dining room: guests were usually invited to dinner, and a table and at most three beds were set up here; the room at the opposite end of the apartment served as the owner's study and reception room - there was a bed for classes, a chest, two or three stools. The other three were bedrooms, each with a bed and a small table and chair.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I would like to say that the topics I have considered very clearly and clearly reflect the life of the ancient Roman. Trying not to miss even the smallest details, I tried to reflect many areas of the life of an ancient person. But I am sure that everything that was considered by me is only a hundredth or a thousandth of what actually happened! After all, the ancient era is very rich in its elements.

Looking at the family of an ancient Roman, I learned that the attitude towards a woman was much softer and more respectful than in Ancient Greece (despite the fact that Rome is the heir to Greece). Speaking about the education of children, I involuntarily drew attention to the fact that it was prestigious to send children to Greece there, just as it was in our country abroad. People were preoccupied with their inner spiritual world, they read a lot, studied and developed themselves, but not as much as was customary in Greece. Indeed, in Rome, the main feature of a person was courage and courage. Every Roman had to be able to stand up first for his homeland, and only then for himself. As for the free time of the ancient man, they were not as bored as it seemed to me. They had many "cafes" where you could go if you had money. There was an opportunity to go to the baths - baths, this occupation is one of the favorite among the ancients. They were very fond of reading.

Considering the achievements of ancient civilizations, we can only be surprised and admire the resourcefulness and aesthetics of our distant ancestors: their way of life and culture seems so modern today. And, it seems that the Europeans have not invented so much that is radically new since that time in the field of design and interior.

Bibliography

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In poor families sometimes healthy children were also abandoned. In this case, they were placed in baskets and brought to the market.

Traditions in the families of the ancient Romans

Father in ancient Rome was head of the family and had exclusive power over his family. He even knew how execute personally at their own discretion of the delinquent family members. Only with the arrival in Rome Christianity throwing out children was considered a crime in the city, and the execution of adult children was murder.

Parenting

When boy in Ancient Rome was seven years old, then he began to comprehend various sciences under the guidance of his father. The boys were taught to wield weapons, to ride, they were also hardened and taught to endure pain. In rich and wealthy families of the Romans, boys were also taught to read and write. Girls they continued to stay with their mothers.

Upon reaching a certain age boys in ancient Rome, they received an adult toga and gave them for training to a government official. In ancient Rome, such education was called elementary. school of the Roman Forum. After that, the young men passed military training on the marsovo m field in Rome and were sent without fail to serve in the army.

Artisans children grew in tight insulae. Unlike the children of aristocratic families, they received education only in elementary grades. Such training began at the age of seven and continued for five years. Study in Rome allowed constant beatings of students. Summer vacation were pretty long. In the city they lasted up to four months, and in the countryside up to six months.

Schedule

routine of life of the ancient Romans was the same, both for a simple Roman and for a senator. The Romans got up at dawn. Putting on his sandals, the Roman made his toilet, washing his face and hands.

Roman breakfast consisted of a piece of bread that was soaked in wine and sprinkled with salt. Sometimes this bread was smeared with honey.

The Roman usually completed all his affairs already by noon. After which he followed lunch who was also quite modest. Even the emperors did not allow themselves great excesses during the second breakfast.

After the second breakfast came afternoon rest period. After that, the Romans went to baths to chat with friends, to work out in gymnastic halls and, of course, wash.

Already By the evening the whole Roman family gathered for dinner. During the supper, which usually lasted several hours, the manners of the Romans were no longer so strict. Often the diners were entertained dancers. There was casual conversation around the table, and jokes were heard.

Except visits to the term The Romans had other entertainments as well. They loved different puzzles and riddles played dice and ball.

After the victorious wars, Rome began to arrive in an endless stream spoils of war and slaves. As a result, many noble Romans got themselves slaves of various categories. Among the mandatory categories were - slaves porters, stretcher-carrying slaves, slaves accompanying the master to visit, a cook slave.

Especially rich Romans allowed themselves to keep theaters where actors and singers were slaves. Usually such slaves cost in the slave market the biggest money.

Did the concept of fashion exist in pre-Christian times? Was there a fashion for clothes before? Look at the statues of emperors and gods that have been preserved in the Vatican Museums - this is how the ancient Romans looked and dressed. Their clothes were distinguished by the sophistication of draperies and the simplicity of the silhouette. Who designed these outfits? Has anyone been engaged in clothing in terms of class and financial situation? Did the attire of nobles and commoners have differences? Or maybe the ancients were engaged only in wars and philosophy and wore only simple panels of raw fabric on their bodies, because both the Romans and the Greeks had a cult of a beautiful body?

Interest in history will never fade

Already about eighteen centuries have passed since the great ancient civilizations sunk into oblivion, and we continue to be interested in what the clothes of the ancient Romans were like, how their life was arranged, how they conducted their business and what they did in their leisure time. Over the years, a lot has been forgotten and erased from the memory of mankind, however, the surviving works of philosophers, poets, mythology, frescoes, some utilitarian and ritual utensils, women's and men's jewelry, weapons, architectural and art monuments allow us to draw certain conclusions and make assumptions about life on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas - in Asia Minor, the Apennines and the Balkans.

Did fashion exist in antiquity?

Fashion, of course, was then. She did not bypass both Ancient Greece, and the clothes of the Romans and Greeks were by no means only a means to warm frozen bodies. She responded more than physical.

The ancients, which are largely borrowed from the Greeks, brought to it a share of asceticism and practicality. The Romans began to actively decorate their outfits with jewelry only at the decline of the empire, when debauchery and other carnal passions took precedence over the mind and patriarchal traditions of the fathers.

What are the Romans and Greeks? 2nd grade of high school introduced us to her as a child. These are tunics and togas that freely fit the body without restricting movement. Ancient amphoras for wine and olive oil, found during the excavations, preserved drawings with scenes on everyday and battle topics. Clay and metal proved to be more durable than fabrics. But, judging by the elegant draperies, the materials from which the clothes of the ancient Romans and Greeks were made were thin and plastic.

What were fabrics made from?

What raw materials were used in With a high degree of probability, we can say that these are cotton, linen and wool. The Romans did not know silk until the 1st century BC. Then a fabric made of wild silk was brought from China, but it did not take root. At the beginning of the 1st century AD, a new type of fabric appeared in Rome - from mixed fibers of silk with cotton, as well as from silk with linen. From the same China, they began to bring silk yarn, and Roman weavers began to make matter out of it. Perhaps, in addition to those listed, clothing fabrics were also made from other fibers, such as hemp, palm trees, nettles, etc. The threads from these plants are not very strong and beautiful in the product. Researchers have found beaver, camel and fibrous asbestos wool in fabrics made by the ancient Romans. Clothing, in the fabric of which asbestos fibers are woven, drapes in a special way and sparkles very beautifully in the sun.

Peculiarities of attitude to clothing among warriors of ancient victorious armies

From Egypt came the fashion for leather goods. Egyptian skins were distinguished by the fineness of the dressing and the durability of the paint. Roman soldiers dressed in leather armor, while the Greeks fought naked. Historians do not fully agree on this point. The frescoes depicting battles show warriors without clothes, however, during the excavations, bronze armor dating from the same period was found.

The Romans did not wear trousers, considering them to be barbaric clothing, however, during campaigns deep into Europe, where the weather conditions were more severe than in the Apennines, the Roman soldiers were forced to learn to wear trousers. The memory of this remained in the form of a drawing on the column of Trajan - on it are Roman legionnaires in narrow breeches, slightly below the knees.

About the name of the clothes of the ancient Romans, it is written in the writings of Virgil, Seneca, Cicero and others. In those days, fashion was not as changeable and fleeting as it is now. Since Rome was greatly influenced by the Etruscan and ancient Greek civilizations, the life and clothing of the ancient Romans and Greeks are in many ways similar.

Toga

The toga is a non-sewn garment. This is the outerwear of the ancient Romans. It is a canvas, straight on one side and rounded on the other - it looks like a cropped oval. They wrapped themselves in a toga during the day, using it as outerwear, and also at night, spreading it on a bed like a sheet, or covered it with a toga like a bedspread.

Until the 4th century BC, the toga was an accessory for both men's and women's wardrobes. Subsequently - only male. Non-citizens were not allowed to wear a toga. It should be noted that for dressing in an assistant was required, in those days - a slave. The men's clothing of the ancient Romans of the aristocratic class did not differ in the desire for asceticism. This mentality is closer to the Greek civilization. The Romans loved luxury and carnal pleasures. The togas of the Roman patricians were up to two meters wide and up to 6 meters long. A slave, who knew how to arrange the folds especially beautifully, was expensive. According to the rules, it was required that the right shoulder and part of the chest remain open, and a strip of ornament was located on the left side.

The emperor wore a purple toga. In addition to him, the victorious commander also had the right to dress in this color. Sometimes the toga was decorated with palm branches embroidered on it. A striped toga with a purple border was part of the wardrobe of augurs and sallies, that is, the clergy or priestly class.

A black toga was considered mourning and was worn as a symbol of grief for a deceased relative.

Tunic

I must say that the women's clothing of the ancient Romans did not differ in the complexity of the cut. She was as concise as the man's.

Difficult to wear and requiring a lot of expensive thin fabric, the toga fell out of fashion in the first centuries of our era, and the tunic survived the civilizations that created it, firmly entrenched in our wardrobes.

A tunic is a t-line dress worn by women and men of all classes. Women sewed themselves to the ankles, sometimes with long sleeves. Wealthy aristocrats wore several transparent tunics, one over the other. One of them could be made of pleated fabric.

Accessories

Belts embroidered with stones, coins or mother-of-pearl were used as accessories. A large necklace was put on the neck, which lay on the shoulders, back and chest like a coquette. Unlike the Greek women, the Roman women paid little attention to the decorative finishing of the fabric with embroidery. But they wore no less jewelry. In addition to neck necklaces and belts, they adorned themselves with bracelets, rings and earrings. Gold was a measure of wealth and position in society.

Underwear

Often, before putting on a tunic, the Romans wrapped the chest and hips with a cloth. One of the frescoes of the Villa del Casale depicts women in bikinis. It is assumed that these are the prototypes of modern underwear. However, at that time it was clothing for sports. Despite the warm climate, the change of seasons was still felt. The ancient Romans, whose clothes were made of wool, linen and cotton and did not differ in cut, wore several layers of woolen tunics during the cold season.

Chiton

It is strange that the Romans did not adopt from the Greeks the custom of wearing a very comfortable attire, which was not sewn together, but connected at the shoulders with brooches. For a long time it was believed that the Greeks wore only white clothes. This is not true. White color was indeed one of the favorite, but the bleaching of fabrics was time consuming and time consuming. For this reason, white chitons were classified as festive.

On ordinary days, the Greeks wore colorful and very bright outfits. Minerals, plants and sea mollusks were used as dyes. The latter served as a source for obtaining purple pigment. The Greeks before the Romans began to wear silk, although it was very expensive, as it was brought from the East. Purple silk chitons were worn only by very rich people.

Despite the fact that the clothes were not sewn, but only cut off, the bottom of the tunic should not have been shaggy. This was a sign of mourning or material need, which was considered shameful. The bottom edge was folded over and carefully fastened so that the threads did not stick out. Although this work was performed by slaves, from childhood they were trained in all kinds of needlework.

Even the richest and most noble Hellenes knew how to sew, embroider with satin stitch and cross stitch, cook food and take care of households.

Outerwear

It was indecent to walk outside the house in one chiton. A cloak was always worn over the top. The men's cloak - himation or chlamys was not as elegant as the women's, and was made of coarser fabric. Women's - peplos or hline - is always a work of art. Since the Hellenes rarely left their home, the peplos were trimmed with the most beautiful beads and braid, drapery and embroidery were carefully thought out. To make it heavier and create stable tails in certain places, weights - coins or pebbles - were sewn into the fabric and decorated with small tassels.

Hairdressing art of antiquity

Greece was famous for its hairdressing art. Hair done by professionals. They cut their hair beautifully, intricately braided and styled. Moreover, the Greeks dyed their hair. Courtesans were lightened, and family women, on the contrary, dyed their hair in darker shades. The hairstyle was a constituent element of the whole image and harmoniously fit into the ensemble. In Greece, the fashion for wigs originates. They were made from natural hair, and women of fashion had several different wigs.

Education as the main driving force of society

The Romans attached great importance to education. Upon reaching the age of seven, children were assigned to schools. Some of them practiced combined education for both sexes. The education of girls was considered as important as the education of boys. It was from the Roman tradition that the system of three-stage education came - primary, secondary and higher. At the age of 18, young men were called up for military service.

Wealthy families emphasized additional home schooling, for this purpose educated slaves, mainly from Greece, were acquired as teachers. Slaves were also sent to receive the education their masters needed. They often became administrators of their masters' estates, performed bureaucratic work in state bureaucratic institutions.

Subsequently, freed slaves occupied managerial posts in Rome, displacing titular citizens from their legal positions. The advantages of slaves over the Romans were expressed in the fact that they, having a good education, did not shy away from any work, and gradually began to understand the management system and legislation much better than the native Roman citizens.

This distortion of the democratic structure of society determined the further fate of the Empire.