Home Mushrooms What is rhetoric and its foundations. Development of rhetoric in Russia

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What is rhetoric and its foundations. Development of rhetoric in Russia

Achievement of redness. Sho take rhetoric

The history of the oratorical mystery takes care of the miracles and receptions of redness, which are rich in the revolutionary traditions of political propaganda and propaganda.

Skin epoch is characterized by its own style and method of redness, not talking about the divergence of these political straightforwardness. Along a line of epochs, especially in the period of revolutionary shocks and progressive development of the ages, in oratory, as in the other spheres of human culture, the actions of the basic principles were formed, which may be important for the values of socialism.

Achievement of redness

Krasnomovstvo - the whole thing is to say so, how about you, to whom our animals have heard not without difficulties, but because of satisfaction, and because of the drowning with pride and self-esteem, the stench wanted to penetrate more from her.

Krasnomstvo- the gift that permits us to be embraced by the rose and heart of the spyprosmovnik, the state of mind to bring you everything that we need.

Zavdyaki krasnostvo we can be full of people, for yaku mi zvychay not beastly respect. Rozum is not deprived of the spiritualizing calm, the crimson world of the same; Feeling the thoughts, like changing one thing, reviving the denunciations and making one or the other viraze; Reasonable promova nadovgo prikovuє respect to one kind of people.

The salvation of redness in the wisdom of the wisdom. Krasnomovstvo is, however, just like its own insecurity, so it is corny: everything is hidden from the victorian; it can be the shield of innocence, the sword of manhood, and the dagger of wickedness.

One word, spoken from a wide heart, is stronger than the strongest proofs and overconfidences, and especially, if it is said itself, if it is required ...

Nі, nіchim it is not possible to bring more shkodi, nіzh occasional nonsense. It’s the very same, if those people, in which the power of the country, doesn’t miss the truth, so it’s possible that the power can surely be taken care of by the power?

The orator is guilty of righteousness if it is of great importance and if it is pragmatic.

An orator is deprived of the one who, in the snake, speaks from the skin nutrition, garno, vyshukano and pervertedly, apparently to the importance of objects, to the corny of the clock and to please the hearing.

The greatest value of an orator is not only to say what is required, but not to say what is not required.

The most popular speaker is the one who, with his own word, is able to hear people, and to give them a bad feeling, and to keep them hostile.

Without the natural, it is unfortunate to be endowed with an orator, ale the theory will show you on the ear, as it follows that you are confused by such physical tricks, as nature gave you, as it should pour into the mind and heart of your listeners.

Toi hto bazhaє garno say or write, obov is guilty "good taste and good gusto.

Rhetoric- the whole science of public speaking about the ways of reconnecting, effective form of motivation in the audience with urahuvannya її features.

See more of the sleepyheads:

Academic redovstvo - the price of science additional education, abo promova (lecture, university, school)
Sudov redovstvo - prosecutors (zvinuvachuvalna), that advocates (zahisna) promovi, samozakhist.
Social and political red-dressing is a welcome addition at the conferences of the meetings, the meeting prom.
Sotsialno-pobutove redovstvo - juvelyna, vitalna, zastilna (toast), grave, memorial rose.
Church-theological - church sermon.

The course of rhetoric is formed from the following parts:

history of rhetoric; theoretical rhetoric (laws of rhetoric);
practical rhetoric;
public whistup.

Literature

Orlov B. Demosthenes I Cicero. Their life and work. - SPb., 1898 .-- P. 52.
Sagach G.M. Zolotosliv. - K., 1993 .-- P. 16.
Timofeev A. History of eloquence from ancient times. - M., 1893 .-- S. 65.
Gurevich E.S., Polrilko V.F., German M.A.Foundations of rhetoric. - K., 1978 Moldovan AM. A word about the law and grace of Hilarion. - K., 1984. -p. 240.
Turovsky Kirill. Word in the New Week after Easter // Ancient Russian Literature. 8. Reader. - M., 1980 .-- S. 7.
"Antique Literature", Moscow, near "Osvita", 1986 p.
M. Gasparova, V. Borukhovich "Oratory mystery of ancient Greece", Moscow, "Art Literature", 1985 p.
History of the ancient world. - K., 1989.
The history of redness. - K., 2000.
Kuzishin O. P., "History of Ancient Greece", M., 1986
Lectures on the history of light culture. Navch. view. / for zag. ed. Yartisya A.V., Shendrika S.M., Cherepanovoy S.O., - Lviv: Svit, 1994r.
S. I. Radtsig "History of Old Literature", Moscow, near the "Vishcha School", 1999 p.

The science of eloquence appeared in ancient times. Today, the question of what is rhetoric is considered from three sides:

3. An academic discipline that studies the basics of public speaking.

The subject of rhetoric is the special rules for constructing and delivering a speech in order to convince the audience that the speaker is right.

Russia has always had a rich rhetorical tradition. Oratory practice already in Ancient Russia was very diverse and stood out for its high level of skill. The XII century is recognized as the golden age in Ancient Russia for eloquence. The first textbooks in Russia about what rhetoric is, appeared in the 17th century. These were The Legend of the Seven Wisdoms and Rhetoric. They set out the foundations of rhetorical teaching: what is rhetoric, who is a rhetorician and his duties; how to prepare speech as it happens. In the 18th century, a number of textbooks were already published, among them the fundamental scientific work "Rhetoric" by Lomonosov.

3. Speech law.

4. The law of communication.

Speech is realized in different forms, such as monologue, dialogue and polylogue. Depending on what goal the speaker has set for himself, it is divided into types:

1. Informative - acquaintance of listeners with certain information, facts, which will make it possible to form an impression of its subject.

2. Persuasive - belief in the correctness of their position.

3. Arguing - proof of your point of view.

4. Emotional-evaluative - expresses its negative or positive assessment.

5. Incentive - through speech, listeners are encouraged to do something.

Is it possible to become a speaker

When the task of speaking to the audience arises, in which it is necessary to convince the audience of something, a person begins to think - what is rhetoric? Can you be a good speaker? Opinions differ on this point. Someone thinks that a talented speaker should have a natural gift. Others - that you can become a good speaker if you practice a lot and improve yourself. This dispute has been going on for many years, almost the entire history of oratory.

But in any case, the speaker must know the basics of rhetoric, its not only the most common techniques, but also individual findings, which will help to make the speech bright and at the same time accessible. How to prepare, how to present it, how to correctly conclude a speech - these are the questions that first of all arise before a novice master of words.

Rhetoric is the essence of shaping people. Building used, is it foldable? Yakshcho, zychayno, know the topic, the same auditorium of the speech of the speaker. The problem is that people like to talk and not like to hear. First of all, the stench brutalized respect for what was said, it is necessary to remember it. Grab your waste.

History of the oratory

The mastery of rhetoric is one of those who found it. As only people have come to talk, as only a signal system has been formulated for a friend, so at once the demand is victorious, as it can be more beautifully and more efficiently. Adzhe oratorske mystery - tse not just speak beautifully.

At the same time, it’s a matter of conquering, to persuade people to kill those that are needed by the orator, and not those who stink. Tse - vlada. In ancient Greece, oratorical mystery was introduced in a general order. Respected, that the person is illumined is guilty of speaking - so it is, as it is guilty of writing. Ancient Rome was respected that the nobleman was guilty of being a politician, or a warrior, or a lawyer. It’s impossible to do a job without cleverly speaking well and happily.

Who needs to speak beautifully?

Today, it is obvious that rhetoric should not be included in the list of obscure objects. Ale is a very rich profession, in which I will become a great teacher. Tі, hto pratsyuє with people, guilty in this way, explain it in an accessible way, change it and bring it up. Pedagogical rhetoric is the teacher's mystery to provide material, concentrate the respect of the scholars on the necessary moments. The lecture was competently prompted not only to forget about it more beautifully, it’s simpler for the speaker himself. No need to shout, no need to get angry and nervous. And even auditorіya і so to catch the teacher's word for skin, і not to those who are afraid of punishment, but to those who are not afraid of punishment. Pedagogical rhetoric, taught and taught in the world, to help both teachers and scholars.

Movi basis - plan

It is necessary to remember that rhetoric is not only smart to speak beautifully. It is a string of mystery that is logical, misleading.

Without a clever structure, without a clear plan, based on the last, sounding theses, it is impossible to speak overly and intelligently. Viviren is at the heart of whatever, the most emotional match, the concept is thought out. In general, the speaker is almost blindly repeating himself, taking in important facts and stammering.

Still one moment, without being tied to the minds, not tied to the audience, is dictation. The guilty listeners concentrate on speech, and do not admit to the need to pick up a non-viral lecturer.

It seems, Demosthenes, to achieve the ideal vimov by training in the oratorical mystery, putting a drop of stones in his mouth. Sounding coolly, alrightly, non-repudiation is a way of verifying dictations - like, viciously, a lot of serious problems, which require additional help from fahivts. Well, і, wickedly, squashers. Їх navit dictator vikoristovoit for trenuvan.

Publika - tse zovsim is not scary

Rhetoric is a conversation, and not reading the text from one sheet of paper. Movu needs to read the memory, and it’s easy to read, and it’s easy and without sound. There is not much more folding, not the back of the illusion of intimacy. The lightest grace of ballerinas is the result of a magnificent performance.

Trenuvatisya is necessary constantly. On old people, on friends, on loving dogs - you will definitely hear from the tsikavistyu, you will be able to find out about a dozen times. If a phone call appears, speak easily and smoothly, do not get overwhelmed, it’s easier to play in public.

For the bagatooh, the problem itself is to stand in front of people, vistupati is a process of horror, nerves. Practice can be helpful here. You can try to show up at Batkiv's zbora, at the narade in front of the team, say a little prom at the corporate party. Nearly there will be no relatives, but all the same, you know, good-hearted people. In such minds, it will be simpler to say the least of the publication.

Orientation on hearing

The foundations of rhetoric allow for a clearer structure of modernization and education for auditorium. So you will need to write a plan and write down the points in fragments of the text, which may not be of the essence.

Mova, rozrahovana on mines - zvsim are not the same as the match, which will be immobilized on a number of directors. The first to the right is not because something is more beautiful or more beautiful. It’s just that these audiences have a lot of interesting and interesting tastes. The orator is guilty of the price of vrahovuvati; With the same basics, there are different types of tools and stocks. Intelligent auditing is unlikely to assess the expressiveness of the orator, but from people who have sounded to express their sentiment, navpaki, will sympathize with the emotional orator.

Zatsikaviti and zhopiti

The entry may be guilty but we will be scared. Navigate as the main topic does not allow fantasies to unfold, the first phrases are guilty, get the audience, and respect the sponsor. Additional information about the oratorios can be victorious for the introduction of extravagant and risky ones - just for the sake of hearing rumors. And then, in the offensive part of the promotion, smooth out the enemy. Pochatkіvtsyam, zvychayno, do not go into such radical visits. But all the same, you need to try to break the ear of the "chіplyat", yaskravim. As soon as the ear itself does not go into the distance, win the respect of the listeners, all the work of writing is movable to appear as a marnim.

The strangleholds of those who enter are also an important moment. Lyudin can do without zusil fokusuvati respect only five-sheer khiliin. Yaksho mova is guilty of butti dovgoy - lecture, lecture explanation, - also, it is necessary to distribute it on logical segments. I break the theory with tsikavimy for the public with butts, maybe navіdnymi, if you want humor - velmy clean soil. Those who are confused by one, who are very rude or vulgar. Rhetoric - the whole mystery is not just zatsikaviti, ale and utrimati respect to the public.

Dialogue with publication

So, please, do not come back often, but not too often. The stench allows the auditorium to reread, the thoughts of the message are said and prepared to the onset of the part of the move, not so much alive and groaning.

If it’s important, if it’s nice to the hearers, the correct vibrational rate and tone, it’s necessary to know in the hall of people, wiklikak sympathy, and say "for the new one." Tsei priyom often vikoristovuyt actor-pochatkіvtsі, and the current rhetoric is very spilny with theatrical mystery. It’s easier, so it’s easier to forget about the halls and publications, as spostering behind the whistle. In a different way, spostering behind a specific human being, which leads to an illusion of dialogue. Win back emoticons, wicked promises, let’s say, if people are willing and ready to start nudguvati, and if, navpaki, we’ll help us with thoughts.

Mova is guilty of being literate

Russian rhetoric is characteristic. Vona is vimogliva to move, more precisely - to the style of moving.

This is an important factor behind how to evaluate the orator's message of the promotion. Transmitting that the orator is guilty of the classic literary style, does not use slang, jargon, or mistechkovy dialect. Svychayno, є vinyatki - for example, in the hands of the university middle school, or in front of a special viborts, if it is necessary to see "your own". Ale, most often, such a person will be able to take off as a manifestation of unreasonableness, low culture. І todі dovіr until promotions decrease.

It’s a pity, it’s a pity, you’ll be able to speak correctly. The best way is to read good literature and talk to smart people. Every hour for reading it is not, it is possible to add a collection of audiobooks, and rumors at the Vilna Khvilini. So if the name is formulated, speak the correct literary language.

The composition of which is unknown to us even by name. It is known from the texts of Aristotle himself and from other sources that the first treatise on rhetoric belonged to the student of Empedocles Coraxus, the favorite of the Syracuse tyrant Hieron I, a political orator and lawyer (judicial orator). He formulated a definition of eloquence, not devoid of interest: “eloquence is a worker of persuasion (ancient Greek. πειθοῦς δημιουργός ) ". He is the first to attempt to establish a clear division of oratorical speech into parts: introduction ( προοίμιον ), sentence ( κατάστασις ), presentation ( διήγησις ), proof or struggle ( ἀγῶν ), the fall ( παρέκβασις ) and conclusion. He also expressed the position that the main goal of the speaker is not to reveal the truth, but to be clear and convincing with the help of the probable ( εἰκός ), for which all sorts of sophisms are extremely useful. The work of Corax has not reached us, but ancient writers tell us examples of his sophisms, of which the so-called crocodile enjoyed particular fame. Corax's disciple, Tisias, developed the same system of sophistic evidence and considered the main means of teaching rhetoric to be memorizing the exemplary speeches of judicial orators.

Traditionally, Gorgias is also considered a student of Empedocles, who, according to Plato, “discovered that the probable is more important than the true, and was able in his speeches to present the small as great, and the great as small, to present the old as new and to recognize the new as old, to express the same subject conflicting opinions. "

Gorgias's method of teaching also consisted of the study of patterns; each of his students had to know excerpts from the works of the best orators in order to be able to answer the most often raised objections. Gorgius owned an interesting treatise "On a Decent Occasion" (ancient Greek. περὶ τοῦ καιροῦ ), which spoke about the dependence of speech on the subject, on the subjective properties of the speaker and the audience, and gave instructions on how to destroy serious arguments with the help of ridicule and, conversely, respond to ridicule with dignity. Beautiful speaking (beautiful speech, ancient Greek. εὐέπεια ) Gorgias contrasted the statement of truth (correct speech, ὀρθοέπεια ).

He put a lot of effort into creating rules regarding figures: metaphors, alliteration, parallelism of parts of a phrase. Many famous rhetoricians came out of the Gorgias school: Paul of Agrigent, Likimnius, Thrasimachus, Even of Paros, Theodore of Byzantium. In addition to the stylistic direction of rhetoric belonged the sophists Protagoras and Prodic and the famous orator Isocrates, who developed the doctrine of the period.

The direction of this school can be called practical, although it prepared a rich psychological material for the development of general theoretical provisions on the art of oratory and thus facilitated the task of Aristotle, who in his famous "Rhetoric" provides a scientific basis for the old dogmatic rules, using purely empirical methods.

Aristotle's rhetoric

From the definition of rhetoric, the goal pursued by Aristotle in his treatise becomes clear: he wanted, on the basis of observation, to give general forms of oratory, to indicate what the orator should be guided by or, in general, anyone who wants to convince someone of something. In line with this, he divided his treatise into three parts. First part is devoted to the analysis of those principles on the basis of which an orator (that is, anyone who talks about something) can encourage his listeners to do something or reject them from something, can praise or blame something. Second part talks about those personal qualities and characteristics of the speaker, with the help of which he can instill confidence in his listeners and thus more truly achieve his goal, that is, persuade or dissuade them. The third part concerns the special (technical) side of rhetoric: Aristotle speaks here about the ways of expression that should be used in speech (about style), and about the construction of oratorical speech.

Finding (in Latin terminology - invention) - systematization of the content of speeches and the evidence used in them.
Location (in Latin terminology - disposition) - dividing speech into introduction, presentation, development (proof of your view and refutation of the opposite) and conclusion.
Verbal expression (in Latin terminology - elocution) is the teaching about the selection of words, about the combination of words, about tropes and rhetorical figures, with the help of which the style of speech is formed.
Memorization (in Latin terminology - memorial).
Pronunciation (in Latin terminology - pronuncio).

The doctrine of verbal expression also included the doctrine of three styles: depending on the use of stylistic means - about a simple (low), medium and high style of speech. This theory retained its significance in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. After the disappearance of democracy, ancient rhetoric focused mainly on two types of speeches: court speeches and ceremonial speeches. According to these two goals (utilitarian and aesthetic), two directions are formed in the theory of style: atticism (atticism, Attic direction), who cared mainly about the accuracy of expression, and asianism (asianism, Asian direction), which aimed at entertaining presentation and developed a special high style based on contrasts, replete with comparisons and metaphors.

Ancient Roman rhetoric

The development of material in Roman rhetoric was subject to a special ultimate goal, a belief in which three aspects were distinguished - docere ("to teach", "to communicate"), movere("Induce", "arouse passions"), delectare("Entertain", "delight"). Each of them was inextricably linked with the rest, but, depending on the circumstances, could occupy a dominant position. The doctrine of the development of five stages of speech was also inherited.

With the fall of the republic, eloquence as such fell into decay (described by Tacitus in the "Dialogue on Orators"), but rhetorical techniques penetrate poetry. The pioneer here was Ovid, adding wit to his poems with the help of antitheses. On the contrary, Seneca and Lucan seek to achieve a tragic effect by whipping up pathos.

Late Antique and Medieval Rhetoric

In the era of the struggle of Christianity with ancient paganism, the science of Christian oratory was created, which reached a brilliant development in the centuries AD. e. ... An outstanding representative of this oratory is John Chrysostom. In a theoretical sense, medieval rhetoric adds almost nothing to ancient developments, it adheres to the rules of Aristotle and later theorists (in the West - Cicero) and only processes them, relying mainly on writing letters and sermons. Requirements for complying with these rules are increasing everywhere.

Already by the 4th century, the sphere of action of rhetorical norms coincided with the very concept of literature: in Latin literature of the Middle Ages, rhetoric replaces poetics, which had been completely forgotten by the medieval tradition. Theorists asked the question: is the material that can be discussed in a literary text limited? A variety of opinions were expressed on this score. On the whole, the maximalist tendency won out: any material was included in the competence of rhetoric at least until the 13th century. Following this art, the author, before creating a work, had to form a clear and rational idea for himself ( intellectio) about the alleged material. In medieval rhetoric, the doctrine of persuasion as the main task and three tasks ("teach, encourage, entertain" lat. docere, movere, delectare).

The creation of a work, in turn, was divided into three parts or stages (three main elements out of five in the ancient list).

Invention (lat. inventio), there is actually finding ideas as a creative process. She extracts from the subject all its ideological potential. It presupposes that the author has the appropriate talent, but in itself is a purely technical device. Its laws determine the attitude of the writer to his material; they imply that every object, every thought can be clearly expressed in a word, and they exclude all the inexpressible, as well as the pure impressionism of the form. In its main aspect, called "amplification" (lat. amplificatio), it describes ways to move from the implicit to the explicit. At first, amplification was understood as a qualitative shift, but in medieval theory and practice, it usually meant a quantitative expansion; Usually, various methods of variation were called so: the most developed of them, a description (lat. descriptio), repeatedly subjected to codification and occupying a central place in Latin literary aesthetics, in the 13th century without any changes moved into the genre of the novel, becoming one of its main features.

Disposition (lat. dispositio), prescribed the order of the parts. Here the general tendencies of the system were indicated with difficulty. Medieval rhetoric never seriously dealt with the problem of the organic combination of parts. It confines itself to a few empirical and most general prescriptions, defining a certain aesthetic ideal rather than ways of achieving it. In practice, it takes an extraordinary creative power from a medieval poet to overcome this obstacle and achieve harmony and balance in a long text. Often he gets out of the situation by arranging the available elements in accordance with certain numerical proportions: such a practice does not fit into ancient rhetoric, but in the eyes of a medieval cleric it was justified by the existence of numerical “arts”, especially music ( musica).

Elocution (lat. elocutio), clothe "ideas" found and explicated by means of invention and organized by means of disposition into linguistic form. It served as a kind of normative style and was subdivided into a number of parts; the most developed of them is the one that is dedicated to the decoration, the decorated syllable (lat. ornatus), that is, mainly the theory of rhetorical figures.

Taking over the ideas of ancient mentors, the creators of the rhetoric of the 11th-13th centuries focus on amplification and on the doctrine of the decorated syllable, in which they see the very essence of the written word: their activity is mainly reduced to the enumeration and ordering of those ways of expression that are in their original form already exist in everyday language; they describe them in functional terms, like a code of syllable types with a high degree of probability.

In 1920-1950 many medievalists, including E.R. Curtius, believed that the rhetorical model is applicable to all areas of literature, and drew far-reaching conclusions from this hypothesis. In fact, rhetoric reigned supreme in Latin literature, and its influence on poetry in the popular language was long-term, but very uneven.

Byzantium

The rhetoric of the Renaissance and modern times

A rigidly normative character is affirmed behind European rhetoric, especially in Italy, where, thanks to the meeting of the Latin language of scholars and the popular Italian language, the theory of three styles is best applied. In the history of Italian rhetoric, Bembo and Castiglione figure prominently as stylists. The legislative direction is especially pronounced in the activities of the Académie della Crusca, whose task is to preserve the purity of the language. In the works of, for example, Sperone Speroni, imitation of Gorgias' techniques in antitheses, the rhythmic structure of speech, the selection of consonances is noticeable, and the Florentine Davanzati notes the revival of Atticism.

Only in the Renaissance does Quintilian become known again, whose work was lost in the Middle Ages.

From Italy, this direction is transferred to France and other European countries. A new classicism is created in rhetoric, which finds its best expression in "Discourse on Eloquence" by Fenelon. Any speech, according to Fenelon's theory, should either prove (ordinary style), or paint (middle), or captivate (high). According to Cicero, the oratorical word should approach the poetic one; there is no need, however, to pile up artificial decorations. We must try to imitate the ancients in everything; the main thing is the clarity and correspondence of speech to feeling and thought. Interesting data for characterizing French rhetoric can be found in the history of the French Academy and other institutions that protected traditional rules.

Likewise, the development of rhetoric in England and Germany throughout the 18th century.

Rhetoric in the 19th and 20th centuries

In this form, rhetoric remained part of the liberal arts education in all European countries until the 19th century. The development of political and other types of eloquence and romantic literature leads to the abolition of the conventional rules of oratory. Traditionally, the most significant part - the doctrine of verbal expression - was dissolved in stylistics as part of the theory of literature, and the rest of the sections lost their practical meaning. It was then that the word "rhetoric" acquired an odious connotation of pompous idle talk.

The word rhetoric was used for newly created disciplines - prose theory (mainly fictional prose - XIX century, German philology), stylistics (XX century, French philology), argumentation theory (XX century, Belgian philosopher H. Perelman)

Rhetoric in Modern Russia

In Russia, in the pre-Petrine period of the development of literature, rhetoric could be applied only in the field of spiritual eloquence, and the number of its monuments is absolutely negligible: we have some stylistic remarks in Svyatoslav's Izbornik, a treatise of the 16th century: Speech of the subtleties of the Greek and Science of the addition of sermons ”by Ioannikiy Golyatovsky.

The systematic teaching of rhetoric has begun in the southwestern theological schools since the 17th century, and the textbooks are always Latin, so there is no need to look for original processing in them. The first serious Russian work is the Brief Guide to Lomonosov's Eloquence (Lomonosov's "Rhetoric"), compiled on the basis of classical authors and Western European manuals and giving a number of examples in Russian in support of general provisions - examples extracted partly from the works of new European writers. Lomonosov, in his Discourse on the Use of Church Books, applies the Western theory of three styles to the Russian language. In view of the fact that the field of eloquence in Russia was limited almost exclusively to church preaching, rhetoric here almost always coincided with homiletics. Very few works on secular rhetoric were created in Russia, and even those were not distinguished by independence, as, for example, the leadership of N.F.Koshansky. The scientific development of rhetoric in the sense that it is understood in the West did not begin in Russia at least until the 20th century.

Modern school rhetoric in Russia

The concept of school rhetoric as an academic subject is implemented in teaching aids for grades 1-11 by T.A. Ladyzhenskaya. The main goal of school rhetoric is to teach successful communication. The content of school rhetoric includes:

conceptual basis (communicative situation, types of communication, speech genres, their structural and style features, etc.)
instrumental knowledge about methods of activity (such as instructions, practical recommendations, etc.);
the ability to communicate (analyze and evaluate communication, implement a speech genre in accordance with the communication situation, including the communicative task, characteristics of the addressee, etc.);
moral and rhetorical ideas (responsibility for the spoken word, the importance of mastering the word in the modern world, etc.).

Notes (edit)

Literature

Antique theories of language and style / Ed. O. Freudenberg. M. - L., 1936.
Aristotle. Rhetoric / Per. N. Platonova // Antique rhetoric. M., 1978.
Michael Psell. Review of rhetorical ideas. // Antiquity and Byzantium: Sat. Art. - M., 1975. - S. 158-160.
Publius Cornelius Tacitus... Dialogue about speakers // Works. in 2 volumes. T 1.M .: Ladomir, 1993.
Cicero. Three treatises on oratory / Per. from Latin. F. A. Petrovsky and others - [Reprint. reproduction ed. 1972]. - M .: Scientific-ed. center "Ladomir", 1994. 470, p. ISBN 5-86218-097-4.
- Cicero. About the speaker // Three treatises ...
Cicero. Finding the material. Book one // Cicero. Aesthetics: Treatises. Speeches. Letters. M., 1994.
S. S. Averintsev. Rhetoric as an approach to the generalization of reality // Poetics of Ancient Greek Literature. - M .: Nauka, 1981 .-- S. 15-46
Lausberg N. Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik, Bd 1-2, Münch., 1960.
Martin J. Antike Rhetorik. Münch., 1974.

Much in life is determined by the ability to communicate. Academic, career, and personal success is built on communication skills. Whether you are reading a report in an audience, congratulating on a holiday or undergoing a job interview, a laconic, structured speech will convey information to the audience in a favorable light. The science that studies the subtleties of oratory is rhetoric. It helps to give clarity, specificity, and persuasiveness to speech.

From its inception in antiquity to the present day, rhetoric as a science has been understood in different ways. The founding sophists defined it as a discipline that teaches us to manipulate, prove the point of view of an orator, and dominate discussions.

Today, in the first place is harmonizing speech, the search for truth, the inducement to thought. In the modern sense, rhetoric is a discipline that studies ways to create a purposeful, impactful, harmonizing speech. The subject of rhetoric is thought-speech action.

Combining philosophy, sociology, psycholinguistics and philology, modern rhetoric allows you to achieve effective speech interaction with any society.

The subject and objectives of rhetoric

The subject in rhetoric is the ways of forming an appropriate word:

oral;
printed;
electronic;
the process of converting thought into speech.

The tasks of rhetoric are reduced to its direction. The first direction is logical: persuasiveness, efficiency of speech are the predominant parameters. The second is the literary direction: the dominant aspects are the splendor and beauty of words. Considering the combination of logical and literary trends in modern rhetoric, its tasks include the correctness, persuasiveness and expediency of speech.

Rhetoric and culture of speech

The culture of speech is a discipline that studies the norms of literary and national languages, as well as the rules for the expedient use of linguistic means of expression. Rhetoric and speech culture are interrelated concepts that ensure productive communication.

Private and general rhetoric

Rhetoric falls into two categories: general and specific. General rhetoric studies oratory in general and is useful to anyone.

Private rhetoric, based on canons and rules, studies the art of eloquence in various professional fields.

The general rhetoric is divided into sections:

rhetorical canon;
oratorio - the art of public speech;
dispute is the art of apodictic discussion (arguing for the sake of reaching the truth);
conversation - a section that teaches you to conduct a private, social or business conversation;
rhetoric of everyday communication, teaching to recognize emotional and speech signals sent by the interlocutor, to adapt to them;
an ethnorologist studying the features of speech behavior of different nationalities.

The rhetorical canon of antiquity consisted of five parts:

Invention (invention). Forming an idea for a speech. Searching for an answer to the question: What to say?
Location (disposition). Drawing up a text plan to achieve the transmission of the main idea.
Expression (elocution). Speech design with visual language means, text editing.
Memorization (memorio). The speaker's choice of the method of conveying information. Learning, taking notes.
Pronunciation (share). Speech by the speaker to the audience.

At the fifth stage, oratorical activity culminates and the antique rhetorical canon ends. For the sake of improving oratory skills, one more point has been added to the modern canon:

Reflection. It implies the author's reasoning over his speech, the search for weak formulations and the highlighting of successful speech techniques.

Three stages can be distinguished in the rhetorical canon:

precommunicative, including work on speech (invention, location, expression, memorization);
communicative, representing the interaction of the speaker with the audience (utterance);
postcommunicative stage, which is the analysis of the performance (reflection).

The oratorical activity is based on three concepts - ethos, logos, pathos.

Ethos implies the validity of speech by circumstances influencing the topic of the speech (place, time, duration of speech);
Logos is responsible for the logical component;
Paphos includes the emotional and mimicry color of the performance.

Types of eloquence

There are five main types of eloquence:

Socio-political type - diplomatic, socio-political, political-economic, parliamentary, rally and propaganda speeches.
Academic view - scientific lectures, reports, abstracts, seminars and reports.
Judicial form - speeches of the protagonists of trials: lawyers, prosecutors, judges.
Theological eloquence or spiritual appearance - parting words, sermons, solemn speeches of a church orientation.
Social and everyday types of eloquence - drinking, jubilee, festive or memorial speeches.

The origin of rhetoric as a scientific discipline takes place in ancient Greece as early as the fifth century BC. Due to the formation of a slave-owning democracy, the art of persuasive speech has gained a great demand in society. Any representative of the polis (city) could learn oratory from the teachers of rhetoric - the sophists (sages).

Possessing all the skills of eloquence, the sophists taught their wards through practical exercises. During heated discussions and subsequent analyzes of the speeches, the masters of the word prepared students for the professions of judicial defenders, prosecutors, and rhetoricians. Sophists taught the art of decorating words, creating convincing speeches. They argued that the art of speech is not in the search for truth, but in proving the correctness of the speaker.

Rhetoric was understood by the sophists as the science of persuasion, the goal of which is victory over the enemy. This served as the subsequent negative connotation of the meaning of the word "sophism". If at first it was understood as "skill, skill, wisdom", now it is "trick, invention."

Famous sophistic philosophers:

Protagoras (485-410 BC)

Considered the founder of the art of debate. The author of the thesis: "Man is the measure of all things."

Gorgias (483-375 BC)

Oratorical master, the first teacher of rhetoric in Athens. The founder of the use of tropes and figures of speech in rhetoric. Legacy: Praise to Elena, Protection of Palamed.

Lysias (445-380 BC)

The father of the art of the forensic word. His speeches stood out for their clarity and brevity, 34 of them have survived to this day, including: "Speech against Eratosthenes, a former member of the College of the Thirty" and "Acceptance speech in the case of the murder of Eratosthenes." Eratosthenes was one of thirty tyrants responsible for the death of his brother Lysias after the capture of Athens by Sparta.

Isocrates (436-338 BC)

One of the students of Gorgias, the founder of literary rhetoric. His speeches stood out for their simplicity, clear syllable for all Athenians. The most famous sayings are: "Panegyric" and "Panathenian" speech. Isocrates' understanding of why rhetoric is needed is reflected in the statement: "A true master of the word should not tinker with trifles and inspire listeners that it is useless for them, but something that will save them from poverty and bring great benefits to others." He also owns the expression: "Learning is the sweet fruit of a bitter root."

The Sophists extolled the art of speech over truth. Dialectics was understood as a competition for the sake of victory. The search for the truth seemed senseless, because, in the opinion of the sophists, such did not exist.

The teachings of Socrates makes you look at rhetoric in a new way. The search for truth and the acquisition of virtue become the main tasks. Through his dialogues, called "Socratic irony", the philosopher led the interlocutor to the knowledge of himself. He taught profundity, morality. Socrates did not write any works, but the works of his students, such as Plato and Xenophon, convey the sayings of the thinker. For example: "No one desires evil", "Virtue is knowledge."

Plato in the 380s BC e. founded the Academy, which taught astronomy, philosophy, mathematics, geometry, as well as techniques that develop the spiritual qualities of a person. His teaching called for abandoning passions in order to purify the mind for knowledge. The sciences were taught by the dialectical method, individualism developed.

Plato's rhetorical ideal is reflected in the statement: "Every speech should be composed like a living being." This meant a clear structure of speech, the ratio of the general to the particular. The philosopher especially appreciated the clarity of speech and truth.

Aristotle is an ancient Greek thinker, a disciple of Plato. He spent 20 years at the Academy, later founded Lyceum (after the name of the temple of Apollo of Lycea), in which he personally taught philosophy and rhetoric. With his treatise "Rhetoric", Aristotle singled out the art of words among other sciences, defined the principles of constructing speech and methods of proof. It is Aristotle who is considered the founder of rhetoric as a science.

In ancient Rome, the politician, philosopher and great orator Mark Tullius Cicero contributed to the development of rhetoric. In Brutus or the Famous Orators, Cicero conveyed the history of rhetoric in the names of famous orators. The treatise "On the Speaker" forms the image of a worthy rhetorician, combining knowledge in history, philosophy and law. The Orator is dedicated to the styles and rhythm of eloquence. Mark Tullius singled out rhetoric among other sciences, calling it the most difficult. In his understanding, the subject of rhetoric is as follows - the speaker must have deep knowledge in all areas in order to be able to support any dialogue.

Mark Fabius Quintilian, in his 12-book composition "Rhetorical Instruction", analyzed the rhetoric, supplementing his own conclusions regarding all its components. He appreciated the clarity of the style, the speaker's ability to awaken emotions in the audience. He defined rhetoric as "the science of speaking well." Quintilian also supplemented the teachings of rhetoric, indicating the importance of the non-verbal component.

Development of rhetoric in Russia

Russian rhetoric developed primarily on the basis of Roman. The need for rhetoric grew and fell with the change of political and social regimes.
How Russian rhetoric developed over the centuries:

Ancient Russia (XII-XVII centuries). Until the 17th century, the term "rhetoric" and textbooks on it did not exist in Russia. However, there were rules. Ethics of speech, indicated by the terms: "eloquence", "piety" or "rhetoric". They studied the art of speech, guided by the liturgical texts, the works of preachers. For example, the collection "Bee" (XIII century).
First half of the 17th century. "The Legend of the Seven Free Wisdoms"; the opening of Moscow advanced schools; Kiev Theological Academy; 1620 - the first textbook on rhetoric in Russian; Books "On the invention of affairs", "On decoration".
Late 17th - early and mid-18th centuries "Rhetoric" by Mikhail Usachev; Rhetoric by Andrey Belobotsky; "Old Believer Rhetoric"; treatises "Poetics", "Rhetoric", "Ethics, or the Science of Customs", as well as a number of lectures on the rhetorical art of Feofan Prokopovich.
XVIII century. Rhetoric as a science in Russia was formed by the works of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov: "A Brief Guide to Rhetoric" (1743), "Rhetoric" (1748). Lomonosov's "Rhetoric" is an anthology, a fundamental work in the development of this science.
The beginning and the middle of the XIX century. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, there was a rhetorical "boom" in Russia. The teachings of the word were published one after another. The works of I.S. Rizhsky, N.F. Koshanskiy, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky, M.M. Speransky. In the second half of the century, rhetoric is supplanted by literature. In Soviet times, stylistics, linguistics, and the culture of words are taught, while rhetoric is criticized.

The subject and objectives of rhetoric in the 21st century or why is rhetoric needed today

Our time is characterized by high technologies, versatile, accessible, tirelessly developing education system. This is the age of information and communication. The communicative abilities of an individual, her desire for development, determine success in all spheres of life.

First of all, public speaking is useful for people in non-production areas of activity - media workers, lawyers, psychologists, teachers, designers, salespeople, etc.

But why do locksmiths, doctors, drivers need rhetoric? The answer in the next question, each one can find for himself separately: What person does not need to be able to think and own his word?

Learning the basics of public speaking, psychology, body language will be useful to everyone who strives for a full, comfortable life in society.