Romanticism as a literary movement arose in Europe at the end of the 18th century. One of the main reasons for this was the fact that this era was a time of great upheaval both in Russia and throughout Europe. In 1789, the Great French Revolution occurred, which only ended completely in 1814. It consisted of a number of significant events, which ultimately led to a whole literary revolution, as the human mentality changed.
Prerequisites for the emergence of romanticism
Firstly, the French revolution was based on the ideas of the Enlightenment; the slogan Freedom, equality and fraternity was put forward! A person began to be valued as an individual, and not just as a member of society and a servant of the state, people believed that they themselves could control their own destiny. Secondly, many people who were apologists of classicism realized that the real course of history is sometimes beyond the control of reason - main value classicism, too many unexpected turns arose there. Also, in accordance with the new slogan, people began to understand that the world structure they were accustomed to could in fact be hostile to specific person, may interfere with his personal freedom.
Features and traits of romanticism
Thus, there is a need for a new, relevant direction in the literature. It became romanticism, the main conflict of which is the conflict between the individual and society. The romantic hero is strong, bright, independent and rebellious, but usually finds himself alone, because the surrounding society is unable to understand and accept him. He is one against everyone, he is always in a state of struggle. But this hero, despite his inconsistency with the world around him, is not negative.
Romantic writers do not set out to derive some kind of morality from their work, to determine where it is good and where it is bad. They describe reality very subjectively, their focus is on the rich inner world of the hero, which explains his actions.
The following features of romanticism can be distinguished:
- 1) Autobiography of the writer in the main character,
- 2) Attention to the hero’s inner world,
- 3) The personality of the main character contains many mysteries and secrets,
- 4) The hero is very bright, but at the same time, no one manages to understand him completely
Manifestations of Romanticism in Literature
The most striking manifestations of romanticism in literature were in two European countries, in England and Germany. German romanticism is usually called mystical; it describes the behavior of a hero defeated by society; the main writer here was Schiller. English romanticism was most actively used by Byron; this is freedom-loving romanticism, preaching the idea of the struggle of an misunderstood hero.
For Russia, such an impetus for the emergence of romanticism was the Patriotic War of 1812, when Russian soldiers went to Europe and saw with their own eyes the life of foreigners (for many this came as a shock), as well as the Decembrist uprising in 1825, which excited all Russian minds. However, this factor was rather final, since even before 1825 many writers followed the traditions of romanticism - for example, Pushkin in his Southern poems (this was created in 1820-24).
V. Zhukovsky and K. Batyushkov became apologists of romanticism in Russia, back in 1801 - 1815. This is the time of the dawn of romanticism in Russia and in the world. You may also be interested in learning about the topics and
Features of Russian romanticism
The main channel of Russian literary revolution in the first half of the century it was the same as in the West: sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. But the appearance of each of these stages was extremely unique, and this originality was determined by both the close interweaving and merging of already known elements, and the emergence of new ones - those that Western European literature did not know or almost did not know.
And for a long time, the Russian romanticism that developed later was characterized by interaction not only with the traditions of “Storm and Drang” or the “Gothic novel,” but also with the Enlightenment. The latter especially complicated the appearance of Russian romanticism, because, like Western European romanticism, it cultivated the idea of autonomous and original creativity and acted under the sign of anti-Enlightenment and anti-rationalism. In practice, he often crossed out or limited his original guidelines.
The density of artistic evolution also explains the fact that in Russian romanticism it is difficult to recognize clear chronological stages. Literary historians divide Russian romanticism into the following periods: the initial period (1801 - 1815), the period of maturity (1816 - 1825) and the period of its post-October development. This is an approximate diagram, because By at least two of these periods (the first and third) are qualitatively heterogeneous and they do not have at least the relative unity of principles that distinguished, for example, the periods of Jena and Heidelberg romanticism in Germany.
The initial period of Russian romanticism: the poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov. The fact that the mood of disappointment conveyed by them still remained within the framework of sentimental elegism and did not reach the stage of alienation, sharp hostility and break with reality allows us to see in their work the very first steps of romanticism. But the difference is undeniable - Zhukovsky has “complaints about unfulfilled hopes that had no name, sadness over lost happiness, which God knows what it was” (Belinsky), a languid desire “to go there!”, the charm of memories and vague visions - feelings, fluid and the elusive life of the heart, “romanticism of the Middle Ages,” as it was called; Batyushkov has epicureanism, the joy of being, the rapture of sensuality, plasticity and elegant definition of form - similarities with classical literature antiquity.
The next period of Russian romanticism is more integral and defined, because one person acts as the leader - Pushkin, primarily as the author of the “Southern Poems”. It was under the influence of Pushkin and mainly in the genre of poems that the main romantic values were developed and the leading type of conflict emerged. At the same time, original features of romanticism emerged, distinguishing it, for example, from the romanticism of Byron’s eastern poems: undermining the “unique power” (V. Zhirmunsky’s term) of the main character, extensiveness of descriptions, grounding and concretization of the motives of alienation.
The unity and integrity of the subsequent romantic evolution are so conditional that the very concept of “period” is problematic. At this time (late 20s - 40s) the romantic movement breaks up into many parallel streams: the philosophical poetry of the wise men, the philosophical prose of V.F. Odoevsky (cycle “Russian Nights”, 1844), the poetry of Yazykov, Baratynsky and Tyutchev, each original in its own way, and Gogol as the author of “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”, and Lermontov. It can be considered that in the lyrics, poems and drama “Masquerade” by Lermontov, Russian romanticism reached highest point of its development. This height is determined by the ultimate development of the romantic conflict, the deepening of its dialectics, in particular, the penetration of opposite principles (good and evil), and the acute formulation of substantial problems of existence.
Along with synchronic periodization, which is quite conventional, a diachronic division of romanticism into two branches is also common: active and passive romanticism, or civil and psychological. This division is also quite arbitrary in relation to the artistic aspects of the work, and not the ideological aspirations of the writer - for example, the poem by K.
Ryleev’s “Voinarovsky” is no less psychological than Zhukovsky’s lyrics, although Zhukovsky’s work is classified as psychological romanticism, and Ryleev’s as civil.
By the beginning of the second decade, romanticism occupied a key place in the dynamics of literary trends in Russia, revealing more or less fully its national identity. It is risky to reduce this uniqueness to any trait or even to the sum of traits; What we see is rather the direction of the process, as well as its pace, its acceleration - if we compare Russian romanticism with the “romanticisms” of European literature.
Chronology of Russian Romanticism:
1. 1801-1815 (Zhukovsky “Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Aeolian Harp”)
2. 1816-1825 - the mature period, or Pushkin (according to Belinsky); (freedom-loving poems by Pushkin + feelings of disappointment in Pushkin’s work)
3. 1826-1842 – post-Decembrist period.
2. The role of the “rendez-vous” situation in the novels and stories of I. S. Turgenev
Let's consider three works by Ivan Sergeevich based on Chernyshevsky’s article “Russian man on rendez-vous”:
The story "Asya"
There is a Russian literary tradition the first display is usually for girls, love feeling, which tests the strength, depth and sincerity of the feeling of a “Russian man at a rendezvous.”
In I. S. Turgenev’s “Asa”, with merciless truthfulness, the hero’s feeling of fear in front of a responsible situation of choice is reflected, because Asya is the first to confess her love, arranging a date for the hero.
A man whose heart is open to all high feelings, whose honesty is unshakable, whose thought has absorbed everything for which our age is called the century of noble aspirations, makes a scene that would put the last bribe-taker to shame. He feels the strongest and purest sympathy for the girl who loves him; he cannot live an hour without seeing this girl; his thoughts all day, all night draw him her beautiful image. This man comes to a meeting with his girlfriend and says:
You have gotten me into trouble, I am dissatisfied with you, you are compromising me, and I must end my relationship with you; It’s very unpleasant for me to part with you, but if you please, go away from here.
And this man, who acts so vilely, has been presented as noble until now! He deceived us, deceived the author. Yes, the poet made a very serious mistake in imagining that he was telling us about a decent person. This man is worse than a notorious scoundrel.
Such was the impression made on many by the completely unexpected turn of their relationship. We have heard from many that the whole story is spoiled by this outrageous scene, that the character of the main person is not sustained, that if this person is what he appears to be in the first half of the story, then he could not have acted with such vulgar rudeness, and if he could have acted like that, then From the very beginning he should have appeared to us as a completely crappy person.
The girl, cruelly deceived in her first feeling, leaves the unlucky hero-lover forever, this is her choice. And although the elderly narrator (and this story happened to him twenty years ago) told the reader about his bitter repentance, which made him, after a secret meeting, realize that he loved this girl and was ready to marry her, which is why he went to the artist the next morning Gagina asked for the hand of his sister, he no longer found his Russian acquaintances in their house, and fruitless attempts to find out their route no longer led to anything. After this story, the hero, in his words, “knew other women,” but the “burning, tender, deep feeling” aroused in him by Asya did not happen again. Asya's first fresh feeling left a beneficial indelible mark in the life of the hero, whose spiritual life changed radically after this story. A bored rich young man, as he was at the age of 25, traveling around Europe without any purpose, having already experienced female infidelity before meeting Asya and being disappointed in love (and this, to some extent, explains why he was not able to instantly rebuild his state), finally felt the meaning of life and true feeling, its fragility and the power of its lasting influence at the same time. And although he never again met the woman of his dreams, he remained without a family, but it seems that then, for the first time in his life, he experienced anxiety for a person, whether trouble had happened to Asya after their meeting, he found within himself a cleansing human ability to atone for guilt, literary talent and strength to be able to reflect on paper the subtle movements of the soul and the cause-and-effect relationships of human actions.
But was the author really wrong about his hero? If he made a mistake, this is not the first time he makes this mistake. No matter how many stories he had that led to a similar situation, each time his heroes emerged from these situations in no other way than being completely embarrassed in front of us.
The story "Faust"
The hero tries to cheer himself up by the fact that neither he nor Vera have serious feelings for each other; sitting with her, dreaming about her is his business, but
part of determination, even in words, he behaves in such a way that Vera herself must tell him that she loves him; For several minutes the conversation had been going on in such a way that he should definitely have said this, but he, you see, did not guess and did not dare to tell her this; and when the woman who must accept the explanation is finally forced to make the explanation herself, he, you see, “froze,” but felt that “a wave of bliss was running through his heart,” only, however, “from time to time,” but actually speaking, he “completely lost his head” - it’s only a pity that he didn’t faint, and even that would have happened if he hadn’t come across a tree to lean against. As soon as the man had time to recover, the woman he loves, who expressed her love for him, comes up to him and asks what he intends to do now? He... he was "embarrassed." It is not surprising that after such behavior of a loved one (otherwise, the image of this gentleman’s actions cannot be called “behavior”), the poor woman developed a nervous fever; It’s even more natural that he then began to cry about his fate.
Roman "Rudin"
Rudin at first behaves somewhat more decently for a man than the previous heroes: he is so decisive that he himself tells Natalya about his love (although he does not speak of his own free will, but because he is forced to this conversation); he himself asks her for a date. But when Natalya on this date tells him that she will marry him, with or without the consent of her mother, it doesn’t matter, as long as he only loves her, when she says the words: “Know, I will be yours,” Rudin only finds an answer exclamation: "Oh God!" - the exclamation is more embarrassed than enthusiastic - and then he acts so well, that is, to such an extent he is cowardly and lethargic, that Natalya is forced to invite him on a date herself to decide what to do. Having received the note, “he saw that the denouement was approaching, and was secretly troubled in spirit.” Natalya says that her mother told her that she would rather agree to see her daughter dead than to see Rudin’s wife, and again asks Rudin what he intends to do now. Rudin answers as before, “My God, my God,” and adds even more naively: “So soon! What do I intend to do? My head is spinning, I can’t figure out anything.” But then he realizes that he should “submit.” Called a coward, he begins to reproach Natalya, then lectures her about his honesty, and to the remark that this is not what she should hear from him now, he replies that he did not expect such decisiveness. The matter ends with the offended girl turning away from him, almost ashamed of her love for the coward.
Russian behavior young man at rendez-vous Chernyshevsky connects with their upbringing. We see the lack of independence of the nobility due to the excessive participation of serfs or servants in the life of the nobles. This gives rise to the problem of developing the young man’s will and leads to his indecision at crucial moments. Chernyshevsky clarifies that such behavior is inherent not only literary characters I. S. Turgenev, it is also found in other writers, for example, Nekrasov, which means it is a reflection of the society of that time.
EXAMINATION Ticket 11
As a more or less formalized phenomenon, romanticism appeared in Russian literature no earlier than the second half of the 10s. By this time, a socio-political situation had developed in Russia, in many ways similar to the state of affairs in a number of countries on the European continent.
During the years of the “Holy Alliance,” the international reaction he led could not but be accompanied by domestic political reaction in all European countries, including Russia. In the West, under the auspices of the “Holy Alliance,” feudal orders were restored, partially abolished or shaken in a number of countries during their occupation by Napoleon.
In Russia, the onset of international reaction was marked by the establishment of military settlements, increased censorship oppression, in particular the ban on discussing the situation of serfs in the press, persecution of university science, the mysticism of official ideology, which shed its liberal-educational veils, and finally the anti-national character of the international policy of Alexander I - one one of the most zealous figures and ideologists of the “Holy Alliance”.
However, all these government measures did not receive public support. The Patriotic War of 1812 caused a rise in Russian national liberation consciousness.
The serfdom of the people, who managed to defend their independence and free Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon, appeared more intolerable than ever. The people, the army, the society, proud of the victory they had just won over the conqueror of Europe, were offended by the unlimited feudal “arbitrary power” of Alexander I’s new favorite, the “temporary” Arakcheev, a stupid and rude martinet.
The Arakcheevshchina dealt a crushing blow to liberal hopes, but could not stop the growth of anti-serfdom sentiments among the masses of people and advanced, primarily military, circles of noble society, stimulated by the Patriotic War. With the rise of these sentiments and in opposition to the government reaction, first semi-legal, then strictly conspiratorial associations of noble revolutionaries arise and the ideology of noble revolutionism is formed.
At the same time, the ideology of noble liberalism is becoming more active. Her opposition to the reactionary course of the government is growing, but at the same time she is imbued with pessimism caused by disappointment in the possibility of any concessions by the government to the anti-serfdom public opinion. This is one of the national prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism and its characteristics.
Similar processes took place in the late 10s and early 20s. in the West - the national liberation struggle, the organization of communities of Italian and French carbonari, the activities of the German Tugenbund, the revolution of 1820 in Spain, the Greek uprising against Turkish rule - attracted the most close attention Russian noble revolutionaries and liberals, giving them reason to feel like participants in the pan-European liberation movement.
But, not having a single center and general program, pursuing its own national goals in each country, it resulted in scattered uprisings, mercilessly suppressed by the united and superior forces of international reaction.
The most profound and complete artistic reflection of this tragic for Western liberation movements the situation emerged in Byron's work, especially in the uncompromising love of freedom and philosophical pessimism of his lyric-epic hero.
Byron became the ruler of the thoughts of the first generation of Russian romantics, the generation of Pushkin and the Decembrists, who entered literature at the turn of the 10s and 20s. Already embraced by romantic trends, it at the same time remained faithful to the optimism of the Enlightenment ideals on which it was brought up.
Therefore, civil, revolutionary romanticism early creativity Pushkin, as well as the creativity of the Decembrists themselves, combines quite organically with the civil-patriotic traditions of the “high” style of Russian classicism. As a result, being, like all other national modifications of romantic consciousness, “the poetry of feeling,” “the life of the heart,” romantic creativity Decembrists and Pushkin of the pre-December years becomes the poetry of revolutionary civil thoughts and feelings.
In this aspect, the ideological, aesthetic and psychological structure a Byronic protesting hero doomed to wandering and tragic spiritual loneliness.
The lyric-epic hero of the Decembrist poets inherits from the Byronic hero the energy of his freedom-loving soul, but is free from its tragic disappointment and philosophical skepticism. He is not alone, he has, although few in number, like-minded people who are strong in spirit, just like him, “faithful sons of the fatherland.”
Tragic disappointment and philosophical skepticism form the main, elegiac tonality of another current of Russian romanticism of the 1810-1820s: the romanticism of Zhukovsky and the young poets of his school, the largest of whom was Baratynsky. Usually this movement, in contrast to Decembrist, revolutionary romanticism, is called “passive.”
It would be more correct and logical to call it liberal - in the meaning of the word that it had in the language of the era, in the meaning of the spiritual and moral opposition to the autocratic-serf reaction, but an opposition expressed under the conditions of reaction in the form of not political, but psychological free-thinking and love of freedom , imbued with disbelief in the possibility of revolutionary changes.
The mainly political divergence between the two currents of Russian romanticism of the pre-Decembrist era, which sometimes took the form of rather fierce polemics, prevented a clear self-determination of its general, actually romantic program and gave rise to very different and generally vague opinions about its artistic specificity among the adherents of romanticism. It still remains not fully clarified.
But the words of Victor Hugo are quite applicable to the Russian romanticism of the era in question. According to Hugo’s definition, referring to French romanticism of the late 20s, its “militant side” is “liberalism in literature,” “literary freedom is the daughter of political freedom.”
Freedom is by no means real, but the one to which all progressive humanity, dissatisfied with this revolution, irresistibly and irreversibly strives after the Great French Revolution. “Freedom of art, freedom of society,” Hugo explains, “this is the double goal to which all consistent and logical minds should strive...”
Russian romantics thought so too, not only the Decembrists, but also Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Baratynsky and other poets of the same orientation. However, Zhukovsky, unlike the Decembrists, was more convinced than his followers that it was impossible to win political freedom through a revolutionary coup, that the only true path to it was the path of gradual enlightenment and civic education of Russian society and the government apparatus, including the monarch himself. In other words, the political ideal of Zhukovsky, like Karamzin, remains “enlightened absolutism.”
This enlightenment illusion, coming from Karamzin and shared by Gogol, was inspired by the enthusiasm with which Zhukovsky performed his “court”, as it is usually ironically called, duties of an educator and teacher. book Alexander Nikolaevich, the future Alexander II. Contemporaries who belonged to the closest circle of Pushkin and Zhukovsky understood him well.
In September 1824, A. A. Delvig wrote to Pushkin: “Zhukovsky, I think, has [already] died irrevocably for poetry... How can you blame him! He is filled with a great idea: to create, perhaps, a king. The benefit and glory of the Russian people comforts his heart unspeakably.”
For all that, the political limitations of Zhukovsky’s romanticism are undeniable. But narrow-mindedness does not mean reactionary.
In the history of Russian literature, Zhukovsky and the poets of his school, and of them, first of all, Batyushkov, have no less place than the civil poetry of the Decembrists.
Continuing what was started by Karamzin the prose writer, the founder of the “new syllable”, the author of the first experiments in psychological prose in Russian literature (“My Confession”, 1802; “Sensitive and Cold”, 1803; “Knight of Our Time”, 1803), Zhukovsky was the first Russian poet created a poetic style of self-expression of a romantic personality, the subtlest emotional shades and states of its inner world, purely subjective, in many ways still conditional, but psychologically real and previously not having the means for their expression in the Russian poetic language.35
Moving away from the classicist canon of the objective rational word, Zhukovsky created a style (“syllable”) of unusually precise and rich emotional expressiveness, following Karamzin’s principle of finding “new meaning” and “new connections” of “old words”, turning their usual meanings into complex polysemantic metaphors - symbols current conditions and reflections of individualized human character.
For Zhukovsky and his followers, this is the character of a romantic personality, who does not accept social reality and is powerless to fight its evil, but is spiritually independent of it, invariably yearning for the ideal of goodness and beauty contained in his own soul and all the more beautiful, beautiful in his spiritual irreconcilability with the reigning evil .
At the same time, K. N. Batyushkov made a great contribution to the creation of a psychologized and individualized poetic style. And this determines his place in the history of Russian poetry.
Both versions of Russian romanticism of the 1800-1820s. met resistance and were attacked by various kinds literary “Old Believers”, adherents of classicism. Nevertheless, it is incorrect to reduce the entire content of the literary life of these years to the struggle of romanticism with classicism.
It is not true because Russian romanticism, especially of the civil, Decembrist sense, not only fought against classicism, but also in many ways opposed it as an art (more precisely, a style) of a high social, patriotic sound. In this sense, that is, primarily in terms of the stylistic texture of their work, Katenin, Kuchelbecker, Ryleev, Griboyedov were both romantics and classics.
The actual content and general path of romantic self-affirmation of Russian literature, mainly poetry, of the pre-December years are characterized by the struggle of its liberation aspirations, romantic in their artistic forms, with the dominant official autocratic-serf ideology.
This applies equally to both romantic movements, manifesting itself in each in its own way, predominantly in one or the other aspect - psychological or civil in the proper sense of the word. But they find their artistic synthesis in the pre-December work of Pushkin.
Therefore, it was the pinnacle of Russian romanticism of the 1800-1820s, and such a pinnacle from which genius poet the prospect of a different, already realistic understanding of reality, both Russian and Western European, opened up.
History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983.
Romanticism is an artistic movement that emerged in early XIXin Europe and continues until the 40s of the 19th century
The immediate cause that caused the emergence of romanticism was the Great French bourgeois revolution. How did this become possible? Before the revolution, the world was orderly, there was a clear hierarchy in it, each person took his place. The revolution overturned the “pyramid” of society; a new one had not yet been created, so individual person there was a feeling of loneliness. Life is a flow, life is a game in which some are lucky, others are not. During this era, gambling appeared and became extremely popular, gambling houses appeared all over the world and in Russia in particular, manuals for playing cards were published. In literature, images of players appeared - people who play with fate. One can recall such works of European writers as “The Gambler” by Hoffmann, “Red and Black” by Stendhal (and red and black are the colors of roulette!), and in Russian literature it is “ Queen of Spades” Pushkin, “Players” by Gogol, “Masquerade” by Lermontov. A ROMANTIC HERO is a player, he plays with life and fate, because only in a game can a person feel the power of fate.
First half of the 19th century in Russia is marked by a powerful rise in culture in all its multinational diversity. It finds its manifestation primarily in the successful development of philosophy, literature and scientific thought. The reasons for the rise are in the progressive influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, in the events Patriotic War 1812, in the bold, patriotically inspired speech of the noble Decembrist revolutionaries. The severity of the situation in public life encouraged the progressive intelligentsia to fight for democratic changes, for freedom of labor, thought and creativity.
The cultural upsurge is also highly dependent on many economic changes in the country. Russia has taken the path of developing bourgeois relations. It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russians often refer to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism poetic works 1790-1800s). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad and romantic drama are created. A new idea is being established about the essence and meaning of poetry, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the previous view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty fun, something completely serviceable, turns out to be no longer possible. The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. Poetry can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. Yu. Lermontov, “Russian Byron”. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and overcoming of romanticism in Russia.
In Russia, it was associated with the struggle of defenders of the feudal-serf system with representatives of the emerging revolutionary liberation movement. At such moments of exacerbation class struggle The dissatisfaction with the present, modern reality is especially acute. This dissatisfaction gives rise to dreams of what should be, what is desired. The romantic writer sought to escape from modernity into the past or future, or, if he depicted the present, he contrasted it with his idea of the desired reality. But this desired thing, what one would like to see in life, was presented to romantic writers (depending on their beliefs) differently. Therefore, in romanticism, first of all, two main movements are distinguished - conservative (reactionary) and progressive. Romanticism progressive focused on the future, full of liberation ideas, associated with the struggle for freedom and happiness of people. In our country, the ideological content of progressive romanticism was most fully expressed in the Decembrist poets (Kondraty Ryleeva, A. Odoevsky, A. Bestuzhev, etc.), in the early poems of Pushkin and Lermontov (in England - Byron, in France - Hugo, in Germany - Schiller, Heine). Representatives conservative romanticism took the plots of their works mainly from the past, turned to antiquity, with its way of life and legends, especially to the Middle Ages (when they believed in everything miraculous), or indulged in dreams about some the afterlife. Conservative romantics clearly spoke about the personality of the poet, his experiences; 3. Romantics took the reader away from social struggle into the world of imagination, daydreaming. Our representative of such romanticism was Zhukovsky. The main features of romanticism: 1. the struggle against classicism, for freedom of creativity; 2. the works are characterized by an interest in folk art (in it they see the free poetic creativity of the people); 4. romantic works They are distinguished by the colorfulness of their language (means of artistic expression are widely used). Lotman showed that the main features of romanticism are characterized by action combined with “floridity” and “talkativeness”; sharpness and directness of judgments, peremptory sentences; the merging of a “playful” and “serious” attitude to life, independence of actions from circumstances, “literary” and “theatrical” communication, disdain for conspiracy, high chivalry. Very exact description Russian romanticism was given by V.G. Belinsky: “Romanticism is a desire, aspiration, impulse, feeling, sigh, groan, a complaint about unfulfilled hopes that had no name, sadness for lost happiness, which God knows what it consisted of.” A new stage The development of romanticism in Russia begins after the Decembrist uprising. A special role in Russian romantic poetry is played by M.Yu. Lermontov - the direct heir of Pushkin and the Decembrists, the poet of his generation, “awakened by cannon shots in Senate Square"(A.I. Herzen). His lyrics are distinguished by a rebellious, rebellious character. His works are characterized by the hero’s sharply critical view of modernity, longing for the ideal and “fiery defense of human rights to freedom” (V.G. Belinsky). Western European and Russian romanticism interpenetrated into each other and mutually enriched in this process.The development of literary translation and the significance of Zhukovsky’s activities as a translator and popularizer of masterpieces of European literature became especially significant at this time.
The evolution of art in countries proceeds differently of Eastern Europe engulfed in the national liberation struggle. For Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Croatia, etc. The 19th century is a century of revival and rapidly rapid growth national culture, the formation of which was interrupted for centuries due to foreign yoke. The process of bourgeois development that began in these countries coincides with the intensification of the struggle for independence and creates favorable conditions for the flourishing of national culture. The formation of romanticism in these countries occurs not so much in the fight against various artistic movements XVIII century, in a complex interweaving with them: advanced figures are attracted by both the heroic spirit of classicism and the social-critical anti-feudal sentiments of educational art. Therefore on early stages It is difficult to identify a predominant direction of development here, although ultimately romanticism makes its way everywhere. Furthermore, where there was a struggle for independence, the formation of a national culture in a number of cases was entirely associated with romanticism. This determined the long existence of romanticism in some countries of Eastern Europe and the birth of critical realism in them only in the last third of the 19th century. The ideological soil that gave rise to romanticism in Europe and the United States was deep dissatisfaction with feudal conditions, national enslavement, political reaction, the results of the bourgeois revolution - and the passionate rejection of existing reality arising on this basis. Romanticism played huge role in the development of literature, art, theater, and in many areas of artistic life, bringing radical renewal.
The collapse of the feudal-class society led to the fact that reality appeared before the eyes of contemporaries in all the diversity of its complex interrelations, the interdependence of phenomena that previously seemed dismembered, existing in isolation. The rapid change of events clearly demonstrated the fluid, changeable nature of life and led to the collapse of metaphysical ideas about the immutability of the world. In France, the mighty impulse of the nation destroyed the centuries-old foundations of feudalism. Napoleonic campaigns redrew the map of Europe. The peoples rose up for liberation, overcoming the fierce resistance of the feudal reaction, which was trying to turn history back. Europe was filled with a stormy atmosphere of uprisings. And through all this grandiose disruption, history consistently and inexorably paved the way for bourgeois development, victory and establishment of capitalism. It was extremely difficult for thinkers and artists of this era to understand the rapid flow of events, to grasp the pattern of the process, which painfully affected everyone and seemed to them a chaotic interweaving of contradictory, incomprehensible phenomena and facts, often suggesting the fatal essence of existence, the mysterious and incomprehensible forces governing life. But at the same time, it was this era that laid the foundation for two great scientific achievements. thoughts XIX century - the principle of historicism and awareness of the dialectical essence of the world.
The desire of artists to express this new worldview in art, to capture the life process in its continuous changeability, was faced with the impossibility of doing this by means of art, which the 19th century inherited from the past. Classicism, with its aesthetics of “ennobled nature”, the principle of distinguishing genres into high and low, with its unshakable rules based on metaphysical ideas about the eternity of the ideal of beauty, and its refusal to reproduce in art the entire wealth of motley, changing, contradictory reality, turned out to be unsuitable for solving new tasks. Even in France during the revolution of 1789-1794, classicism could express the heroic spirit of the people who rose up to fight. But under the conditions of the victorious bourgeois system, class normativity and the rationalistic dogmatism of classicism are used primarily by reactionary ideologists who are afraid of the penetration into art of an alarming and rebellious spirit of quest, calls for the destruction of age-old canons. In a number of countries, classicism is saturated with official ideology (empire classicism in France, English classicism of the late 18th and early 19th centuries).
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