, herbaceous plants (flowers) of ponds and swamps, aquatic invertebrates, freshwater and migratory fish, amphibians and reptiles
4
pocket field determinant, including: inhabitants of reservoirs
65
methodological benefits, among which 10 manuals are devoted aquatic ecology and hydrobiology, and 40
educational and methodological films By methods carrying out research work in nature (in the field).
Small crustaceans: water burro, barnacle crustaceans, daphnia, cyclops
Water donkey
The water donkey (Asellus aquaticus L.) is a representative of the class of crustaceans, belongs to the order of isopods (Isopoda), to the family of burros (Asellidae).
The water donkey is constantly encountered on excursions, especially in polluted ponds, replete with plant debris, rotting leaves that have fallen into the water from trees, etc. This is an inconspicuous animal with a flat, jointed body, dirty gray in color, somewhat similar to well-known terrestrial animals. woodlice Donkeys hold on at the bottom of reservoirs, where they crawl between dead parts of plants and are carried out with a net. During the excursion you should pay attention to the following biological features this animal.
Protective coloring donkeys perfectly harmonizes with the general tone of the bottom of stagnant polluted reservoirs. Donkeys are readily eaten by fish, predatory insect larvae, smoothies, water scorpions, etc. Being completely unarmed (lack of defense organs, slow method of movement), they are saved by remaining motionless among rotting plant debris, where they are difficult to notice. Another method of defense is autotomy: when captured, the animal quite easily throws off its limbs, which is not difficult to demonstrate on a tour. Severed limbs subsequently grow back (regenerate).
Water burro (Asellus aquaticus). Increased
Way movement donkeys also deserve attention. Let the animal crawl in a flat cup of water, and then, taking it out into the palm of your hand, notice its movement on land. Moving quite deftly in the water, it barely “drags its feet” in the air, since its long thin limbs are not able to support the weight of the body in the air (it is useful to recall Archimedes’ law).
Eating donkeys use dead parts of plants among which they live. In this regard, they do not have the attack organs characteristic of predators.
Breath Donkeys can be easily observed on excursions by placing the animal in a glass of water. The oscillatory movement of thin gill plates under the abdomen, in the back of the body, is clearly visible to the naked eye. Gill plates are rear pairs of legs transformed into a respiratory apparatus. Each leg consists of two blades: the upper, more delicate, serves for the exchange of gases, the lower, more durable, forms a protective cap.
Some phenomena reproduction can also be shown on excursions and deserve a lot of attention. Donkeys begin to breed with the onset of warm weather. In the central zone of the European part of Russia, for example, in the Moscow region, the maximum reproduction falls in May-June, and by the end of August reproduction stops. In summer, donkeys are constantly found in the copulation position, and males differ from females in being larger in size. Copulation continues long time. After fertilization, the males and females separate, and the female develops a brood pouch on the ventral side, filled with eggs and looking like a greenish swelling. In these bags, clearly visible to the naked eye, the eggs develop and juveniles are formed in the form of fully formed crustaceans, generally similar to adults. They can move independently and exit the brood pouch through a gap. The development of the juveniles in the female's body lasts different time, depending on the water temperature, but on average - from 2 to 3 weeks. The number of eggs in one female varies greatly - from several dozen to a hundred or more. A young donkey reaches maturity on average within two months.
Shell crustaceans
Shelly crustaceans belong to the lower crustaceans and form the order Ostracoda. Their characteristic feature, which determines the name, is the bivalve shell, shaped like a bean and covering the outside of the crustacean’s body. This shell gives ostracods an external resemblance to mollusks; however, the branched limbs protruding through the crack of the shell immediately tell us that we are dealing with a more highly organized animal.
To examine the crustacean, you need to open its shell, both halves of which are tightened by the adductor muscle. Under the valves an organism resembling a water flea is discovered, with seven pairs of jointed limbs. Of these, the first two pairs are called rowing antennae, or antennae, and are used for movement. Like water fleas, there is a well-developed eye on the head, which shines through the thin flap of the shell. In addition to two pairs of antennae, with the help of which the crustaceans swim quite quickly, a pair of limbs protrude into the crack of the shell, which are used for crawling along the substrate. Sometimes, with rapid movements of the crustacean, you can notice a branched fork protruding from under the valves at the rear end of the body. Everything else is hidden under the sink. In size, our freshwater ostracods are close to daphnia (from 0.5 to 2.5 mm).
Observing the movement of ostracods, you will notice that they swim differently than water fleas. We won't notice any jerky jumping movements here. Barnacle crustaceans swim evenly. This depends on small frequent impacts of both pairs of antennas on the water, and the impacts of each pair are directed towards different sides. In general, this resembles the movements of a swimming person, bringing his arms together and spreading them out.
On the left is a barnacle swimming. The arrows indicate the convergence and separation of the antennas. The double arrow indicates the direction of movement; on the right is a crustacean crawling along the bottom. The action of the antennae and walking legs is visible. He took it a lot.
At crawling a pair of legs equipped with claws plays the role of a pair of legs along the substrate, and a second pair of antennae is also used. With the help of these limbs, the crustacean quite successfully climbs between aquatic plants.
Ostracodes, being weak swimmers, prefer small calm overgrown ponds. In larger basins they stay in the shoreline. Some species have completely lost the ability to swim and are exclusively bottom dwellers.
Eating Ostracods feed on small organisms found in mud and very readily eat the carcasses of small animals. In captivity, they can be successfully fed with the meat of various snails, after first crushing the shell.
Like water fleas, barnacle crustaceans are capable of multiply parthenogenetically, and such reproduction alternates with sexual reproduction. Unlike daphnia, ostracods do not carry eggs, but lay them on various aquatic objects. The larvae emerging from the eggs pass through the nauplius stage and, after multiple molts, reach their final form.
Ostracodes are highly resistant to unfavorable living conditions; when small bodies of water dry out, they do not die, but rest for a long time in dry silt in a state of suspended animation. When the sludge is wetted with water, the crustaceans come to life again. Their larvae have the same ability.
Daphnia
Daphnia, or water fleas, belong to the lower crustaceans, namely the cladocerans (suborder Cladocera in the order Phyllopoda).
These are relatively small organisms, however, clearly visible to the naked eye, especially larger species that can reach the size of a small pea. In such forms you can see many structural details even without the help of a magnifying glass.
The body of the water flea (in most species) is enclosed in a transparent bivalve chitinous membrane. sink, both halves of which are fastened on the dorsal side and half-opened on the ventral side. The head remains free. Branched rowing antennae, or antennae, extend from the head; hence the name “cladocera”. On the ventral side, under the protection of the shell, there are several pairs (from 4 to 6) of short widened thoracic legs. Clearly visible on the head big eye black color. From the internal organs, the digestive canal, curved in the shape of a hook, is quite clearly visible to the naked eye.
Water flea (Simocephalus vetulus). He took it a lot.
1 - eye; 2 - rowing antennae; 3 - first thoracic leg; 4 - gill pouch of the third pair of legs; 6 - anus; 6 - intestine; 7 - shell; 8 eggs in the brood chamber; 9 - heart; 10 - ovary; 11 - brain.
Water fleas can be meet in a wide variety of reservoirs, but especially they abound in small ponds, puddles, ditches, pits filled with water, where they sometimes multiply in huge quantities, so that they color the water reddish. Under these conditions, larger species are found (from the genus Daphnia, Simocephalos, etc.). Water fleas do not stay in reservoirs all the time: they periodically appear and disappear again. They should be caught with a net made of fine mesh fabric. It is recommended to move the net along clean water without touching the bottom and without collecting a net in the bag aquatic plants. If there are sufficient quantities of water fleas in a given reservoir, then at the bottom of the net, when the water drains, there appears a reddish or grayish mass, which must be washed into a wide-necked jar of water, turning the net bag inside out for this purpose.
Using the described method, benthic forms are caught, i.e., those that stay near the coast and lead a benthic lifestyle. However, many aquatic fleas belong to free-swimming, or planktonic, organisms that float in the water and never touch the bottom; they are characteristic of larger bodies of water (large ponds, lakes).
Water fleas. 1 - daphnia (Daphnia pulex) Increased, 40 times; 2 - simocephalus (Simocephalus vetulus). Greatly increased; 3 - Moina. Greatly increased; 4 - sida (Sida crystallina). Greatly increased; 5 - bosmina (Bosmina longirostrls). Increased 100 times; 6 - chydor (Chydorus sphaerlcus). Took away, 79 times; 7 - diaphanosona (Diaphanosona). Increased 60 times; 8 - Lynceus affinls. Increased 56 times; 9 - leptodora (Leptodora kindtii). Increased 10 times; 10 - hyalodaphnia (Hyalodapbnia cucullata). Increased 75 times.
It should be noted that during the excursion you can only get acquainted with the caught water fleas in general terms. For this purpose, it is recommended to pour the water into which the catch is emptied into small test tubes, which the excursionists examine in the light, using a magnifying glass if possible. A more detailed acquaintance with water fleas requires laboratory study using a microscope and is the topic of post-excursion study.
Several hundred species of water fleas are known. One of the most common are representatives of the genus Daphnia (Fig. 196, 1), after which all water fleas in general are sometimes called “daphnia”. This includes the largest forms, up to 5 mm. Many species of this genus have a high cone-shaped head and carry a long spine at the posterior end of the body.
In stagnant waters, Simocephalus (2) are very common everywhere - large flat crustaceans, often colored reddish. Round-headed moina (Moina) (3) and beautiful transparent sida (Sida crystallina) (4) are also widespread. Of the smaller forms, Bosminia (5) with a long beak-like appendage on the head are found in huge numbers, which are typical of freshwater plankton, just like Diaphanosoma (7) and completely round Chydorus (6) ). Of the large planktonic forms, the huge (up to 12 mm), completely transparent Leptodora kindtii (9) with an elongated body shape, living in large bodies of water, sometimes at considerable depth, is especially remarkable. Catching Leptodora is the hope and hope of every novice hydrobiologist. In our country this form is found in many lakes of the northern and middle zone Russia.
Movements water fleas can be observed even with the naked eye. The crustaceans swim with characteristic thrusts, which they produce by striking the water with their rowing antennae. Each stroke of these branched “oars” throws the crustacean’s body forward, and then the swimmer begins to slowly descend until a new push occurs. The result is a series of successive jumps, which, indeed, bear some resemblance to the movement of a flea (hence the name “water flea”). It is interesting that planktonic crustaceans, which do not sink to the bottom throughout their lives, soar in the water with similar active movements of their limbs.
Eating cladocerans living in fresh waters the smallest living organisms: algae, ciliates, etc. Some of them are herbivores, others, and these are probably the majority, lead a predatory lifestyle.
Breath gill. The gills are placed at the base of the thoracic legs in the form of small pouches. They can only be seen through a microscope.
From sense organs Water fleas have remarkably developed eyes, which, due to their significant size and black color, are clearly visible without any optical devices. Each crustacean has only one unpaired eye, which is surrounded by a chain of transparent crystal bodies. Water fleas are very sensitive to light and constantly move in the water depending on the intensity of the light (so-called phototaxis). When the lighting weakens, they float to the surface; when light stimulation is too strong, they plunge into the water column; as they say, they migrate in the water in a vertical direction.
Reproduction. In large water fleas, even with the naked eye you can discern a closed space on the dorsal side in which the eggs are visible. This is the so-called brood chamber, in which females (cladocerans are dioecious) bear eggs and in which juveniles develop from the eggs. It is remarkable that the eggs of water fleas develop without fertilization (parthenogenetically), and only females hatch from such unfertilized eggs.
This continues for several generations until the eggs hatch into males by the end of summer. The latter fertilize the females, which after fertilization form eggs of a special kind (usually no more than two), completely opaque and rich in yolk. Such eggs are called resting because they require a break for further development. They separate from the body of the females, being enclosed in a special shell (the so-called saddle), and float freely in the water or sink into the silt. Resting eggs are very stable: they do not die when they freeze into ice or dry out when mixed with dust. Heat and moisture awaken such an egg to life, and a crustacean emerges from it, which is again capable of reproducing parthenogenetically for a certain time.
Cyclops
In the same conditions as water fleas, representatives of the order of copepods (Copepoda), which are sometimes collectively called Cyclops (from the very widespread genus Cyclops) (Fig. 197), are constantly found.
Cyclops (Cyclops coronatus). He took it a lot.
Unlike water fleas, cyclops do not have a shell, and their body is clearly divided into a cephalothorax and abdomen. The abdomen bears six pairs of swimming legs and ends with two processes - the fork. In females, paired egg sacs can often be seen on the sides of the body.
Copepods are found in a wide variety of water bodies, where they sometimes develop in huge numbers, especially in spring and autumn. Just like water fleas, they serve as a favorite food for aquarium animals, especially in winter, since many cyclops are found in water bodies all year round.
What does a person imagine when he hears a word? "Cyclops"? As a rule, there are two options: if he is far from biology and aquarium hobby, then, most likely, he will decide that we're talking about about the mythical one-eyed giant who threw stones at the ships of Odysseus. If the subject in question has an aquarium or carefully read biology at school, then for him the Cyclops, first of all, will look like a tiny crustacean, upon closer examination, much more mysterious and terrible than the mythical giant.
Several times I came across cyclops while studying silt from an aquarium, however, these crustaceans are rare guests in an aquarium. The real dominance of cyclops was discovered in water from stagnant shallow waters. These crustaceans stood out among the other zooplankton swarming in the bowl with their striking bright green (almost fluorescent) color. What they ate to achieve such an effect remains a mystery to us.
Who are the Cyclops?
Well, Firstly, this is a popular fish food, along with gammarus, but this aspect of their life (more precisely, death) is of little interest, so we will not dwell on it.
Secondly, these are small (0.6-6 mm) crustaceans belonging to the order copepods.
Classification of Cyclops
Not everything is clear with the classification of Cyclops. So, according to Wikipedia it looks like this:
- Type: Arthropods
- Subtype: Crustaceans
- Class: Maxillopods
- Subclass: Copepods
- Squad: Cyclops
- Family: Cyclops
That is, here, shaking the foundations of my worldview, crustaceans are not a class, but a subtype. Copepods are classified as a subclass maxillopods. In general, perhaps it is more correct and more modern, but for simple amateurs who do not go into the taxonomic jungle, it is easier to rely on the old classification (TSB), so at least there is a chance to remember:
- Type: Arthropods(Arthropoda)
- Class: Crustaceans(Crustacea)
- Squad: Copepods(Copepoda)
- Family: Cyclops(Cyclopidae)
- Genus: Cyclops
- View: Cyclops coronatus
The structure of the Cyclops
Where did the name come from "Cyclops" It’s not difficult to guess - our hero has only one eye, but he has enough.
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The body of the Cyclops is divided into a cephalothorax and abdomen. In front there are two pairs of branched antennae (of course, not nearly as branched as those of). On the underside of the abdomen there are 4 pairs of developed rowing legs. The fifth pair in males is transformed into a special grip for holding the female during mating. The female has paired egg sacs on the sides of her abdomen.
In comparison with, the internal structure of the Cyclops looks simplified. It has neither a heart nor gills. Circulatory system absent: the organs are washed by hemolymph, moving due to the pulsation of the intestines. Absorption of oxygen from water occurs over the entire surface of the body.
Unlike Daphnia, Cyclops reproduce sexually. Most sources say that parthenogenesis is not observed in copepods.
Cyclops habitats
Cyclops are ubiquitous and have proven themselves to be one of the most hardcore survivalists. They live in winter reservoirs under a crust of ice, in acidic and hot springs, in waters with an insignificant oxygen content and lethal amounts of hydrogen sulfide, in general, almost everywhere.
When a body of water freezes through or dries out, cyclops “preserve” themselves by secreting a special substance that forms a kind of cocoon around the crustacean. In such a cocoon, Cyclops can freeze into ice or remain at the bottom of a dry puddle. Experiments were carried out in which cyclops were preserved in dry silt, which had lain without water for three years.
By nature of feeding, Cyclops is a predator. It feeds on rotifers, small crustaceans, in general, everything it can catch.
Cyclops is an extremely fast creature. Its movements are so rapid that it is almost impossible to catch it through the lens of a camera or microscope without first immobilizing it.
Cyclops (Cyclops coronatus), side view
When there comes a short moment of peace and focus on it, it still turns out that the restless crustacean takes off exactly 1/100 of a second before pressing the shutter button. Also, it is not always possible to suck it up with a syringe the first time, which turns the process of catching a Cyclops for study into a real safari.
In the following photos taken through microscope, Cyclops are shown from the side, covered with colonies of ciliates. Although the individuals were still alive, their end was not far off: such a number of sticks stuck to each other usually indicates the imminent end of the carrier.
Cyclops and the Suvoyki
The rowing legs are clearly visible here. Due to the shape of the Cyclops, most images (including textbooks) show the crustacean from the back.
Half-dead female cyclops, covered with souvoikas
That's probably all I can say about the Cyclops.
If you have read this article, I recommend that you also read it, because. Cyclops and Daphnia are almost always mentioned side by side as one of the most common inhabitants of our water bodies.
The largest breeds of bulls today include porcelain bull, or Chianina. This breed is Italian and its meat today is the best in the world. According to the name, most of the representatives here have a beautiful cream or completely white color.
Due to its size, biggest bull, belonging to this breed, and having the name Chelina, is quite good-natured, even abnormally kind for a bull family, which is usually distinguished by a stern disposition and often attacks others. Porcelain bulls rarely engage in fights with their brothers, however, if this happens, they can trample the enemy to death.
The Chianine breed to which it belongs biggest bull, dates back several thousand years. This type of hoofed cattle received its name from the name of the settlement where it was bred - this is the Tuscan Chiana Valley. Initially, representatives of this species were not particularly large.
Calves over 45 kilograms began to appear for the first time after crossing with the Podolsk breed of bulls. Today, porcelain bulls often reach 180 centimeters at the withers and weigh more than one ton. Even cows are quite large - up to 160 centimeters. By the way, bulls and cows of the porcelain breed have such impressive weight not at all due to fat, but due to large muscles. This speaks of their phenomenal power and strength.
The largest porcelain bull was a male Donneto, who weighed almost two tons: he lived in Switzerland in the middle of the last century (1950s) and was considered the kindest creature in the world. He weighed 1740 kilograms and had a height at the withers of 190 centimeters.
An outstanding specimen is also the bull Chile, belonging to the white Fresian breed: it weighs 1300 kilograms. Interestingly, he was found very small near the doors of an animal shelter in the UK (Fern, Somerset, 1999). Then the calf was only six days old, but today Chile is very popular: many tourists, children and adults. Every year Chile becomes heavier by one hundred kilograms, in a word, its record is not the limit. The bull is listed in the Guinness Book of Records with the individual title “ Largest Bovine in the World».
Today Chile is almost ten years old; It’s interesting that despite its great weight, it doesn’t look too massive and scary - if there’s no person standing next to it in the photo, then this cute bull can be mistaken for a cow. The only thing that gives it away is its thick, well-shaped legs. The character of this bull is surprisingly affectionate and gentle, however, if he becomes stubborn, it will not be so easy to move him!
The giant bull today is a British resident named Trigger— his height is 1.96 meters, and his weight is 1.2 tons. This bull has interesting fate: they wanted to kill him back in early age for meat, however, a neighbor stood up for the then calf - apparently, he saw great potential in the baby, which he was not deceived. As a result, Trigger is alive and well; today he is already nine years old, and his length from nose to tail is 4.3 meters. The bull is gradually gaining weight, which will probably soon secure himself a place in the Guinness Book of Records. Like all giants, Trigger is very calm. He lives in Hereforshire, on Kingswood Field. Here the animal eats its usual daily portion of food, consisting of fresh meadow grass, minerals, special feed for cows and truly huge amount ripe apples.
To prevent Trigger from inadvertently injuring anyone, his horns were cut off, because... His strength is unimaginable. This cute black and white animal is a real local attraction: people constantly come to look at it local residents and visitors. Like Chili, this creature belongs to the white Fresian bulls - one of the largest breeds cattle. Externally, these two giants, by the way, are very similar. The breed of white Fresian bulls was developed at one time from porcelain bulls.
Today the weight leader is a bull named Field Marshal. At the withers he is 190 centimeters tall, and his weight is 1700 kilograms. This animal lives on a private English farm. The owner of the bull is Arthur Dakketi: he purchased the bull several years ago at the breeding market, not yet suspecting that his future pet will grow so huge. It is surprising that with its impressive dimensions, Charolais eats less than a cow, however, it is on pasture almost all year round.
Today, Field Marshal, who belongs to a rare breed called Charolais, is more than eight years old and, apparently, with such weight, he is the informal leader among all the large bulls on the planet, however, his owner does not seek to apply to the Guinness Book of Records. The bull has such a calm and balanced character that they did not cut off his huge horns. By the way, they, shaggy ears and long milky hair make the Field Marshal a real handsome man.
The Charolais breed itself is distinguished not only by the large weight and good-natured disposition of its representatives, but also by very good maternal properties and excellent fattening ability. All animals have a beautiful cream color, without spots. Unlike, for example, Russian breeds, the head of a Charolais bull is much narrower and smaller, the body is deep and long. Another feature is the high survival rate and endurance of cows and bulls, which live up to fifteen years. The breed appeared and is bred in France, where on average bulls reach 1200 kilograms, and cows - 1000 kilograms. Charolais cows quite often give birth to twins, which is generally a very rare occurrence among large horned animals. One of the advantages of breeding such animals is that low content fat deposits and excellent .
Not only America and Europe are famous for their big bulls, but also the CIS, namely Ukraine. The largest inseminating bull named Repp lives here. Its weight is neither more nor less than one and a half tons, and this, of course, is not the limit, because... The bull is still only eleven years old. the main task Reppa is insemination, thanks to which about fifty thousand new calves are born every year. You should not be surprised at such an unimaginable number - the fact is that insemination is carried out artificially, and not naturally - as you can see, it is more effective. It is interesting that the huge Repp, who has a very scary and threatening appearance, compared, for example, with the cute Trigger and Chili, has never seen a live cow in his life.
Repp vaguely resembles a musk ox - he has the same curly head. His breed is Podolsk bulls. This animal’s horns were also removed for safety reasons - otherwise it would be very dangerous to approach it: despite its calm disposition, it is never possible to reliably guess what is on such a giant’s mind. Repp lives in the Cherkassy selection center. His workers say that they had no goal of fattening such a big bull - he grew up this way on his own, however, good care made itself known. As a calf, he weighed, like everyone else, 45 kilograms, however, then he gained two and a half kilograms every day.
Today, every day Repp eats ten kilograms of hay, 150 grams of sugar and one kilogram of soy. This giant also has disadvantages - he is touchy, vindictive and, like himself, enormously laziness. Employees of the center say that if you pet another bull in front of Reppa, he will begin to rake his foot and moo with displeasure - he is so jealous and demands attention. If the bull is offended, he can take revenge even through for a long time, lightly kicking the offender. At the same time, this giant’s relations with his relatives are normal; he never fights with other bulls, and as for conflicting individuals, he always avoids them.
Despite the fact that most domestic bulls have their horns cut off, they are still their main asset and decoration. Speaking about the largest bulls with long and sharp horns, we can highlight two interesting looking- these are yaks and buffaloes. Yak(in Latin Bos mutus) has a long body, a low-set head and rather short limbs; it has a large hump in the front of its body. The length of an adult yak can reach 3.8 meters, and its weight can be from one ton or more. The main difference between a yak and ordinary domestic bulls is not only the shape of the horns, but also the long wool, like that of a sheep. Yaks are also called Mongolian or long-haired bulls.
They are bred mainly in Turkmenistan, Mongolia and Tibet. Despite their bulk and massiveness, these animals can climb to dizzying heights. The fact is that in places located lower than sea level, at 2500 meters, these creatures feel uncomfortable. Let's say, at an altitude of 6500 meters such a bull will feel just fine, while a person here begins to feel dizzy, because... there is not enough oxygen there. Yaks are amazing animals that can find food on their own where there is solid snow, stones and ice. Although the yak is a bull, its voice is more reminiscent of the grunt of a boar than the moo of a cow. These animals are used not only as food, but also for riding.
Buffalo it also reaches more than three meters in length, and its height at the shoulders is up to two meters. Buffaloes have the largest horns - they often grow up to two meters; the weight of adult individuals is more than one ton. Buffaloes are bred in more warm countries, as can be seen by their short and sparse coat - in Vietnam, Thailand, India and Laos. The largest individuals belong to African(Syncerus caffer) - at the withers they reach 180 centimeters, and animals with the longest horns - Indian(Asian, Bubalus bubalis). U different types the shape of the horns is different: Indian individuals have moon-shaped horns, twisted back, and in representatives living in Africa, they are twisted upward and cover the top of the head, like a hat. Compared to domestic bulls, the largest of which are distinguished by their good-natured disposition, buffaloes are very quarrelsome and aggressive, especially old ones. In the countries where they live, tigers are known to be found, however, they rarely attack these formidable giants - such fights often end in the death of the latter. If a herd of buffalo senses the trail of a tiger, they begin to pursue it in a tight formation until they overtake it or the trail is lost.
Domesticated Asian buffalo are often called the “living tractors of the East” because they are often used as draft power for plowing land or transporting goods. This animal was domesticated about five thousand years ago; Today, local residents survive on their meat, milk and butterfat. Often the Indian species is called water buffalo - due to the fact that wild individuals prefer most spend time climbing into dirty water forests of the tropics and subtropics. These animals are prevented from plunging too deeply into the swampy bottom by their wide and cloven hooves. In the swamps the bulls take refuge from possible danger, and also feed on nutritious algae. As for domesticated individuals, pastures with ordinary meadow grass are quite enough for them.
African buffalos live in savannas and woodlands. These animals, unlike their Indian relatives, gather in huge herds, while the latter graze in small groups or even alone. In case of danger, the inhabitants of Africa gather in a semicircle, covering the youngest and most helpless members of the herd, and await the pursuer.
