Thinking as a process is carried out through mental operations, including modern psychology and logic* include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction and concretization. With their help, one penetrates into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, examines the properties of the elements that make up this problem, and finds a solution to the problem. The leading ones are analysis and synthesis.
* Logic as a science studies universal human forms of thinking (concepts, judgments and inferences), its laws (identities, contradictions, excluded middle, sufficient grounds) and the rules for operating concepts, judgments and inferences (for example, the rule for drawing conclusions, evidence, refutations, etc.). d.).
Analysis is the mental division of objects and phenomena into parts. For example, when starting to solve a problem, we analyze its condition; When mastering a car, we study its constituent parts. Great place analysis takes place when teaching children to read and write: a sentence is divided into words, words into syllables and sounds. Its role is great in the perception and understanding of native and foreign speech: we divide the entire speech flow into phrases, sentences, highlight words, find individual grammatical constructions, etc. Analysis also manifests itself in the mental selection of the properties of objects and phenomena. For example, when characterizing politician or literary hero We highlight character traits, views, abilities and other features.
Synthesis is the mental combination of parts or properties into a single whole. First of all, it manifests itself in the unification of parts of objects and phenomena. Yes, from individual parts We mentally construct a complete mechanism, make syllables from sounds and letters, words from syllables, sentences from words, etc. Synthesis also appears in the mental unification of the properties of individual objects and phenomena. So, having examined individual properties, we then give a holistic description of the literary hero, historical person, various events.
Analysis and synthesis are closely interrelated. They always flow in unity. F. Engels emphasized that “thinking consists as much in the decomposition of objects of consciousness into their elements as in the unification of interconnected elements into some unity. Without analysis there is no synthesis.”*
* Engels F. Anti-Dühring // Marx K., Engels F. Soch. T.20. P. 41.
Mental analysis and synthesis arise on the basis of practical action with objects and phenomena. This is especially pronounced in children. Before mentally analyzing and synthesizing something, they do it practically, acting with objects or their visual images.
High level mental activity is associated with a high level of analysis. One of the signs of a high level of analysis is a comprehensive consideration of an object or phenomenon; At the same time, not only external, obvious, but also hidden sides and properties are highlighted. Thus, when looking at a picture, the student not only names what is depicted on it, but also indicates what era is reflected here, what the characters of the characters depicted are, and much more that is not directly given to us. Such a comprehensive analysis is achieved through the correlation (synthesis) of various elements of the picture: clothing, furnishings, facial expressions, etc. This is analysis through synthesis. Through analysis through synthesis, an object in the process of thinking “is included in ever new connections and, because of this, appears in ever new qualities, which are fixed in new concepts; From the object, in this way, all new content is, as it were, drawn out, it turns each time with its other side, all new properties are highlighted in it.”*
* Rubinstein S.L. About thinking and ways of its research. M, 1958. P. 99.
Especially important role In this case, it plays a role in highlighting such essential aspects of reality as connections and relationships. For example, a student divided the educational text into semantic parts, highlighted in each of them main idea; at a high level of mental activity, he must also highlight the logical connections between these semantic parts.
Synthesis at a high level does not lead to a simple reproduction of the source material, but to its transformation. So, instead of a large, extended text, the student draws up his plan or theses, when solving arithmetic problem Instead of one complex problem, children receive and solve a system of simple problems, etc.
Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena, finding similarities and differences between them. As observations and experiments show, students penetrate much deeper into the essence, for example, of the slave system after studying feudal society, it is easier to identify the essential features of the subject after studying the predicate. This is explained by the fact that in both the first and second cases they have the opportunity to compare the concepts being studied.
K.D. Ushinsky believed that “comparison is the basis of all understanding and all thinking. We learn everything in the world only through comparison, and if some new object were presented to us, which we could not equate to anything and distinguish from anything... then we could not formulate anything about this object. one thought and could not say a single word about him.”*
* Ushinsky K.D. Guide to teaching " Native word» // Collection op. M., 1949. T. 7. P. 332.
Sometimes schoolchildren find it difficult to make comparisons because they do not know by what criteria they should compare. After all, objects and phenomena can be compared according to a wide variety of characteristics. For example, you can compare rivers by length, depth, full flow, navigability, nature of the banks, abundance of fish; minerals - by origin, appearance, practical value, etc. In this regard, the teacher’s question itself must clearly indicate the attribute that is the basis for comparison. One of the mistakes that children make when comparing is the placement of objects next to each other. For example, a student, comparing the images of Onegin and Pechorin, first tells everything he knows about Onegin, and then, using the conjunction “a,” about Pechorin, being sure that he gave comparative characteristics images This usually happens when students do not have a comparison plan. Experience shows that such a plan greatly simplifies the comparison process.
Psychologists have long noted that differences are identified much earlier than similarities. This is explained by the fact that in these conditions the operation of distinction is an operation of describing visual features, and the operation of similarity is a logical operation, assignment to a certain category. No matter how much you teach a mentally retarded child, you will not get from him a genuine logical operation of assigning a named object to a known category, and instead of the logical operation of similarity, he will always have a description of individual characteristics, a description of differences.
An indicator of a high level of comparison development in children is the ability to find signs of similarity in very different objects and signs of difference in very similar objects.
Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics. It is made on the basis of analysis and comparison. When comparing objects and phenomena, we first find only their common and various properties, and then we combine these objects and phenomena according to their common, essential properties. But this unification is possible because we are distracted from unimportant signs. Such mental distraction from non-essentials (in in this case) features with the simultaneous selection of essential ones is called abstraction. So, for example, when looking at flowers, we can distract ourselves from the shape, smell and other properties and concentrate only on the color.
Depending on which feature is highlighted, objects may fall into different groups. For example, we are talking about isosceles, equilateral, scalene triangles, when we combine them based on their sides, and about rectangular, obtuse-angled and acute-angled, when we combine them based on their angles. In this case, generalization appears in the form of classification, or systematization. In psychology, classification tasks are often used as a method for studying the mental characteristics of a child. The classification technique is constructed in this way: the subject is given a number of objects and is asked to put together those that have something in common with each other, that belong to the same group. It is possible by at least identify three main types of generalizations on the basis of which objects are classified into the same group: by similarity of characteristics, commonality of practical use or purpose, common origin.
Generalization proceeds in unity with specification. Concretization is the thought of the particular, which corresponds to a certain general and is manifested in illustrating the general (generalized, theoretical knowledge) with individual, particular facts and examples. Concretization has great importance when acquiring knowledge. The more specific specific cases are considered, the deeper the assimilation of general provisions, rules, and laws. The ability to give examples and facts is an indicator of understanding certain patterns. It is necessary to constantly demand from students that they not only generalize individual and particular facts and draw conclusions, but also confirm general provisions relevant facts and examples.
A high level of mental operations (analysis, synthesis, comparison, etc.) is characterized by consistency. So, if a student analyzes a sentence haphazardly (for example, starts with a secondary one - conjunctions or additions), then this reduces the level of analysis. Or another example: a student compares images “ extra people" V different works. It is important whether he does this according to plan, in a certain system, or haphazardly. A high level of mental operations makes it possible to penetrate into the essence of objects and phenomena, i.e. understand them. Understanding - in the generally accepted sense - is a unique result of mental activity. Most often, understanding is expressed in revealing the causes of a phenomenon, as well as in finding the consequences to which it leads. For example, to understand the operation of a mechanism, you should know its structure and operating principle; to understand a historical phenomenon, you need to reveal its cause and effect; To understand a student’s behavior, it is necessary to find out what prompted him to commit the appropriate actions.
The main criterion for understanding is the application of knowledge in practice. For example, if a student not only gives the correct definition of a grammatical rule, physical or chemical law, but also writes competently, successfully solves problems, performs experiments, gives examples from life, this means that he correctly understands the essence of the relevant phenomena. Another criterion for understanding is retelling verbal material in your own words, the ability to highlight the main idea in the text. By teaching schoolchildren the ability to explain phenomena, express thoughts in their own words, and highlight the main thing, we thereby contribute to their comprehensive and deep knowledge of reality.
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Mental operations.
In psychology, the following operations of thinking are distinguished (see Fig. 11): analysis, comparison, abstraction, synthesis, concretization, generalization, classification and categorization. With the help of these thinking operations, one penetrates into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, examines the properties of the elements that make up this problem, and finds a solution to the problem.
Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis - this is the selection of certain aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc. in an object; This is the division of a cognizable object into various components. For example, a schoolboy in a circle class young technicians When trying to understand the method of operation of a mechanism or machine, first of all, he identifies various elements, parts of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So in the simplest case, he analyzes and dismembers the cognizable object.
With the help of analysis, the most significant signs are revealed. During the analysis of any object, its properties that are the most important, significant, significant, interesting, turn out to be especially strong irritants and therefore come to the fore. Such stimuli cause an active process of excitation (primarily in the cerebral cortex) and, according to the physiological law of induction, inhibit the differentiation of other properties of the same object, which are weak stimuli. Thus, the physiological basis mental process analysis there will be a certain ratio of excitation and inhibition in the higher parts of the brain.
Rice. 11. Mental operations
Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Unlike analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually appear in unity. They are inseparable and cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected.
The inextricable unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such cognitive process, as a comparison. Comparison is a mental operation consisting of comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or differences between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process from which cognition, as a rule, begins. At the initial stages of acquaintance with the world around us, various objects are learned primarily through comparison. Any comparison of two or more objects begins with a comparison or correlation of them with each other, i.e. begins with synthesis. During this synthetic act, an analysis of the compared phenomena, objects, events, etc. occurs. - highlighting what is common and what is different. For example, a child compares different representatives class of mammals and, with the help of the teacher, gradually identifies the most general signs these animals. Thus comparison leads to generalization.
Generalization- this is a mental operation consisting of combining many objects or phenomena according to some common characteristic. In the course of generalization, something common stands out in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis. These properties common to different objects are of two types: 1) common as similar features and 2) common as essential features.
For example, you can find something similar between the most dissimilar objects; in particular, you can combine cherry, peony, blood, raw meat, boiled crayfish, etc. into one group, into one class of color commonality. However, this similarity (commonality) between them does not in any way express the truly essential properties of the listed objects. In this case, the similarity is based on their purely external, only very superficial, insignificant characteristics. Generalizations that are made as a result of such a superficial, shallow analysis of objects are of little value and, moreover, constantly lead to errors. A generalization based on a superficial analysis of purely external properties, for example, of a whale, leads to the deeply erroneous conclusion that a whale is not a mammal, but a fish. In this case, a comparison of these objects identifies among their common features only similar but insignificant ones ( appearance, fish-like body shape). And vice versa, when, as a result of analysis, general properties are isolated as essential, it becomes clear that the whale does not belong to fish, but to mammals. Consequently, every essential property is at the same time common to a given group of homogeneous objects, but not vice versa: not every common (similar) property is essential to a given group of objects. Common essential features are identified during and as a result of in-depth analysis and synthesis.
By finding similar, identical or general properties and signs of things, the subject discovers the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar features are then abstracted (allocated, separated) from a set of other properties and designated by a word, then they become the content of a person’s corresponding ideas about a certain set of objects or phenomena. Abstraction- a mental operation based on abstracting from unimportant signs of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them. Abstraction- an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from unimportant aspects, properties of objects and relationships between them in order to identify essential features.
Isolation (abstraction) of common properties different levels allows a person to establish generic relations in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby build a certain classification. ClassificationCategorization– the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and nonverbal meanings, symbols, etc. – systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish connections between these concepts or classes of objects. It is necessary to distinguish classification from categorization.
Specification- this is the movement of thought from the general to the specific. One of the tasks of theoretical thinking is to determine a way to derive particular manifestations of a system object from its general (essential) basis, from a certain initial relationship in the system. Mental tracing of the process of transformation of the initial relationship in an object into its diverse concrete manifestations is carried out by the method of “ascending from the abstract to the concrete.”
The laws of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the main internal, specific laws of thinking. Only on their basis can all external manifestations of mental activity be explained.
In the process of mental activity, a person learns the world using special mental operations. These operations constitute various interconnected aspects of thinking that transform into each other. The main mental operations are analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, specification and generalization.
Analysis- this is the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental isolation of its sides, actions and relationships from the whole. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts.
Synthesis- this is the mental unification of parts, properties, actions into a single whole. The operation of synthesis is the opposite of analysis. In its process, the relationship of individual objects or parts to their complex whole is established. Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. What is analyzed is what includes something common, a whole. Synthesis also presupposes analysis: in order to combine some parts or elements into a single whole, these parts and characteristics must be obtained as a result of analysis.
Comparison- this is the establishment of similarities or differences between objects and phenomena or their individual characteristics. In practice, comparison is observed when applying one object to another, for example, one pencil to another.
Abstraction consists in the fact that the subject, isolating any properties, signs of the object being studied, is distracted from the rest. In this process, a feature separated from an object is thought independently of other features of the object and becomes an independent subject of thought. Abstraction is usually done during the analysis process. It was through abstraction that abstract, abstract concepts of length, breadth, quantity, equality, and value were created.
Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. Concretization is turned to in the event that the expressed thought turns out to be incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the general in the individual. When we are asked to give an example, then, in essence, the request is to specify the previous statements.
Generalization– mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features, for example, identifying similar features found in apples, pears, etc. The simplest generalizations involve combining objects based on individual, random features. More complex is complex generalization, in which objects are combined on different grounds.
All of these operations cannot occur in isolation, without connection with each other. On their basis, more complex thinking operations arise.
In addition to operations, there are also thinking processes: 1) judgment– is a statement containing a certain thought; 2) inference– is a series of logically related statements from which new knowledge is derived; 3) definition of concepts is considered as a system of judgments about a certain class of objects (phenomena), highlighting the most general characteristics; 4) induction and deduction- these are ways of producing inferences that reflect the direction of thought. Induction involves the derivation of a particular judgment from a general one, and deduction presupposes the derivation of a general judgment from a particular one.
Unlike others, it is performed in accordance with a certain logic.
In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished:
- comparison;
- analysis;
- synthesis;
- abstraction;
- generalization.
Comparison- mental operations based on
Analysis- a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.
Synthesis- an operation opposite to analysis, allowing Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper knowledge of reality.
Abstraction — highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from others, insignificant.
Generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.
Forms of logical thinking
Main forms logical thinking are:
- concepts;
- judgments;
- inferences.
Concept
Concept - form of thinking that reflects in a word concrete and abstract.
Judgment
Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications approval form or denial.
Inference
Conclusion - conclusion.
The conclusions differ:
- inductive;
- deductive;
- Similarly.
Induction — logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general.
Deduction- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.
Analogy- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private
Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling will give tension, sharpness, purposefulness and perseverance to thinking. According to , without sublime feelings, productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, skills, and abilities.
Logic and emotions in the thinking process
Unlike other processes, it is carried out in accordance with a certain logic. In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished: comparison, analysis, synthesis. abstraction and generalization.
Comparison - mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects. The result of the comparison can be a classification, which acts as primary form theoretical knowledge.
Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.
Synthesis - an operation inverse to analysis that allows mentally recreate a whole from analytically given parts. Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper Knowledge of reality.
Abstraction - mental operation based on you divide the essential properties and connections of an object and abstract from others, insignificant. These highlighted characteristics do not actually exist as independent objects. Abstraction facilitates a more thorough study of them. The result of abstraction is the formation of concepts.
Generalization is a mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.
Basic forms of logical thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences.
Concept - form of thinking that reflects essential properties, connections and relationships objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or a group of words. Concepts can be concrete and abstract.
Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications between objects and phenomena in approval form or denial. Propositions can be true or false.
Conclusion - a form of thinking in which, based on several judgments, a certain one is made conclusion. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive and analogical.
Induction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.
Analogy - logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private based on some similarities.
Although thinking is carried out on the basis logical operations, it does not always act as a process in which only logic and reason act. Emotions very often interfere with the thinking process, changing it. Emotions subordinate thought to feeling, forcing one to select arguments that speak in favor of the desired decision.
Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling gives tension, sharpness, purposefulness and persistence to thinking. According to psychology, without sublime feelings, productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, knowledge, skills.
A person can come to a solution to a problem through logical reasoning, building the entire chain of reasoning. This thinking is called discursive.
12.5. Operational composition of thinking
Thinking is accomplished through various mental operations. They are the basic mechanisms of thinking. Such operations are comparison. analysis, synthesis, abstraction (distraction) and generalization.
Comparison- a mental operation that consists of comparing objects and phenomena, finding similarities, differences and identities between them.
Analysis- mental dismemberment, division of objects and phenomena into parts, elements, moments.
Synthesis- mental combination of parts of elements into a single whole. Analysis dismembers, synthesis unites in a new way.
Analysis and synthesis exist in indissoluble unity. When solving a problem, thinking acts as a process. As the decision progresses, more and more new conditions arise that determine the further course of the thought process. The unknown is not some kind of absolute emptiness; it is always connected with something known. Coming into contact with other objects, the cognizable object appears before us with ever new sides and properties. It is as if more and more new content is being drawn out of the object. For example, a straight line can act as a bisector of a given angle. like hypotenuse, etc. Thus, through interaction with other objects (synthesis), new qualities are identified (analysis). Analysis through synthesis, according to S.L. Rubinstein, is the main mechanism of thinking.
Abstraction- highlighting some features and abstracting from others (carried out on the basis of analysis).
Generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their general and essential features of knowledge regarding a given subject area:
§ individual facts, provisions, definitions are recognized as the most important, decisive for its understanding);
