The Victorian era, like any other, is characterized by its own peculiarities. When people talk about it, there is usually a feeling of sadness, because it was a time of high moral principles, which is unlikely to return.
This period was characterized by the flourishing of the middle class, and high standards of relations were established. For example, such qualities as: punctuality, sobriety, diligence, hard work, thriftiness and frugality have become a model for all residents of the country.
The most significant thing for England at that time was the absence of military action. The country did not wage wars at that time and could concentrate its funds for internal development, but this is not the only characteristic feature of that time; it was also distinguished by the fact that it was during this era that the rapid growth of English industry began.
During this period, a young woman ascended the throne. She was not only wise, but also very beautiful woman, as her contemporaries noted. Unfortunately, we mostly know of her portraits, where she is in mourning and no longer young. She wore lifelong mourning for her husband, Prince Albert, with whom she lived happy years. Their subjects called their marriage ideal, but they revered it. dreamed of being like the queen, respected by everyone.
An interesting fact is that during the reign of Queen Victoria, the custom arose at Christmas to decorate the Christmas tree and give gifts to children. The initiator of this innovation was the queen's husband.
What is the Victorian era famous for, why do we often remember it, what was so special about it? First of all, this is the industrial boom that began in England and led to rapid changes in the country. The Victorian era in England forever destroyed the previous, familiar, old and very stable way of life. There was literally no trace left of it before our eyes; it was uncontrollably disintegrating, changing the attitude of the inhabitants. At this time, mass production was developing in the country, the first photography studios, the first postcards and souvenirs in the form of porcelain dogs appeared.
The Victorian era also saw the rapid development of education. For example, in 1837, 43% of the population in England was illiterate, but in 1894 only 3% remained. Printing was also developing at a rapid pace at that time. It is known that the growth of popular periodicals has increased 60 times. The Victorian era was characterized by turbulent social progress, she made the people of her country feel like they were in the very center of world events.
It is noteworthy that at this time writers were the most respected people in the country. For example, Charles Dickens, a typical Victorian writer, left a huge number of works in which moral principles were subtly noted. Many of his works depict defenseless children and always demonstrate retribution for those who treated them unfairly. Vice is always punishable - this is the main direction of social thought of that time. This is what the Victorian era was like in England.
This time was characterized not only by the flourishing of science and art, but also special style in clothing and architecture. In society, everything is subject to the rules of “decency”. Suits and dresses for both men and women were strict, but sophisticated. Women, going to the ball, could wear jewelry, but they could not afford to put on makeup, since this was considered the lot of women of easy virtue.
Victorian architecture is a special asset of that time. This style is loved and popular to this day. It has luxury and variety decorative elements, it is attractive to modern designers. The furniture of that time was formal, with molded curvy shapes, and many chairs with high backs and curved legs are still called “Victorian”.
Many small tables with oddly shaped ottomans and, of course, paintings and photographs were an indispensable attribute of every decent home. Long lace tablecloths were always present on the tables, and heavy, multi-layered curtains covered the windows. It was a style of luxury and comfort. This is how a stable and prosperous person lived in the Victorian era. middle class, which ensured the prosperity of England for many years.
Victorian architecture is, first of all, a successful mixture of styles such as neo-Gothic, styles, and it also contains elements. The architects gladly used rich details and used bright decorative techniques. This style is characterized by very tall windows that resemble an inverted shield, graceful wood paneling, traditional granite fireplaces, and fences with majestic Gothic spiers.
The cheerful 19-year-old girl, who ascended the British throne in 1837, could hardly have imagined what associations her name would evoke a hundred years later. And the Victorian era was far from worst time in British history, literature flourished, economics and science developed rapidly, the colonial empire reached the peak of its power... However, perhaps the first thing that comes to mind when you hear the name of this queen is “Victorian morality.”
The current attitude towards this phenomenon is at best ironic, more often - outright negative. IN English language the word "Victorian" is still a synonym for the concepts of "sanctimonious", "hypocritical". Although the era named after the queen had little to do with her personality. The social symbol “Her Majesty Queen Victoria” did not denote her personal views, but the basic values of the time - the monarchy, the church, the family. And these values were postulated even before the crown was placed on Victoria.
The period of her reign (1837-1901) for inner life England was a time of quiet digestion after a grandiose gluttony. Previous centuries were filled with revolutions, riots, Napoleonic wars, colonial conquests... And regarding morality itself, British society in previous times was by no means distinguished by excessive strictness of morals and stiffness of behavior. The British understood the joys of life and indulged in them quite unbridled - with the exception of the not too long period of existence in the country of a powerful Puritan movement (which temporarily turned England into a republic). But with the restoration of the monarchy, a long period of considerable relaxation of morals began.
The generations of Hanoverians preceding Victoria led a very dissolute lifestyle. For example, King William IV, Victoria's uncle, did not hide the fact that he had ten illegitimate children. George IV was also known as a womanizer (despite the fact that his waist circumference reached 1.5 meters), an alcoholic, and also drove the royal house into enormous debts.
The monarch, as we know, is a hostage to her position... But there were reasons to believe that she inherited the extremely passionate Hanoverian temperament. For example, she collected images of naked men... She even gave one painting to her husband, Prince Albert - and never did anything like that again...
She got a husband who was completely in line with the trends of the times. Albert was so puritanical that he “felt physically ill at the mere thought of adultery.” In this he was the direct opposite of his immediate family: his parents were divorced; his father, Duke Ernst I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was simply an enchanting womanizer who never missed a skirt - as was Albert’s brother, Duke Ernst II.
Hard work, punctuality, moderation, thriftiness et cetera... In fact, no one has calculated or formulated all these principles. The most summary their essence is contained, oddly enough, in the novel by the American Margaret Mitchell “Gone with the Wind”: “They demand that you do a thousand unnecessary things just because that’s how it’s always been done”...
Of course, the idea that “it’s always been done this way” was a lie. But in any society suddenly gripped by a struggle for morality, the view of the past takes on a “Chinese accent”: history is presented not as it was, but as it should have been.
Victorianism traced its particularly cruel persecution to sensuality. Men and women were forced to forget that they had a body. The only parts of him that were allowed to be exposed in the house were his hands and face. On the street, a man without a high stand-up collar and tie and a woman without gloves were considered naked. All of Europe had long been fastening their pants with buttons, and only in England they used ropes and laces.
There were a huge number of euphemisms; for example, calling arms and legs other than “limbs” was very indecent. They wrote and spoke about feelings and emotions mainly in the language of flowers. The curve of the neck of a shot bird in a still life was perceived in the same way as a candid photograph is now (it is not surprising that offering a woman a bird’s leg at dinner was considered rude)…
At the feast, the principle of “separation of the sexes” was observed: at the end of the meal, the women left, the men remained to smoke a cigar, drink a glass of port and talk. By the way, the custom of leaving a company without saying goodbye (“leaving in English”) did exist, but in England it was called “leaving in Scots” (in Scotland - “leaving in French”, and in France - “leaving in Russian” ).
Open displays of sympathy between a man and a woman were strictly prohibited. Rules everyday communication They recommended that spouses address each other formally in front of strangers (Mr. so-and-so, Mrs. so-and-so), so that the morality of those around them would not suffer from the playfulness of the tone. The height of cheekiness was considered to be an attempt to speak to stranger.
The word “love” was completely taboo. The limit of frankness in explanations was the password “Can I hope?” with the response “I have to think.” Courtship consisted of ritual conversations and symbolic gestures. For example, a sign of affection was gracious permission young man carry the young lady's prayer book upon returning from Sunday service.
A girl was considered compromised if she was left alone with a man for a minute. The widower was forced to either separate from his adult unmarried daughter or hire a companion in the house - otherwise he would be suspected of incest.
Girls were not supposed to know anything about intimacy and childbirth. It is not surprising that the first wedding night often became a tragedy for a woman, even to the point of suicide attempts.
A pregnant woman was a spectacle that offended Victorian morality to no end. She locked herself within four walls, hiding the “shame” from herself with the help of a specially cut dress. God forbid you mention in a conversation that she is “pregnant” - only “in an interesting situation” or “in happy waiting”.
It was believed that a sick woman deserved to die rather than allow a male doctor to perform “shameful” medical procedures on her. Doctors' offices were equipped with blind screens with an opening for one hand, so that the doctor could feel the pulse or touch the patient's forehead to determine the fever.
Statistical fact
: Between 1830 and 1870, about 40% of English women remained unmarried, although there was no shortage of men. And the point here is not only the difficulties of courtship - it also rested on class and group prejudices: the concept of misalliance (unequal marriage) was brought to the point of absurdity.
Who is a mate for whom and not a mate was decided at the level of a complex algebraic problem. Thus, the conflict that occurred between their ancestors in the 15th century could have prevented the marriage of the offspring of two aristocratic families. A successful village merchant did not dare to marry his daughter to the butler’s son, because the representative of the “senior master’s servants,” even penniless on the social ladder, stood immeasurably higher than the shopkeeper.
However, the harsh Victorian rules were introduced into English society only to the level of the lower middle class. Ordinary people - peasants, factory workers, small traders, sailors and soldiers - lived completely differently. It was in high society that children were innocent angels who had to be protected from the world in every possible way - children from lower social strata began to work in mines or factories at the age of 5-6... What can we say about other aspects of life. Ordinary people have never even heard of any politeness in gender relations...
Born a little before the accession of Her Majesty, Victorianism died before her. This can be clearly seen in English literature. The three Bronte sisters are complete mature Victorians. Late Dickens recorded signs of the destruction of the Victorian code. And Shaw and Wells described only the “Canterville Ghost” of the Victorian era.
When people talk about the Victorian era, I personally have a feeling of sadness that this era will never repeat itself! After all, it was a time of high moral principles, a time of high standards of relationships. For example, at this time the qualities that really appeal to me - punctuality, sobriety, diligence, hard work, thriftiness and frugality - became a model for all residents of the country. It was a time of beautiful ladies and noble gentlemen, a time of great discoveries and technological progress, a time of industrial boom, quality things and lasting relationships.
During this period, the young Queen Victoria ascended the throne. She was not only wise, but also a very beautiful woman, as her contemporaries noted. Unfortunately, we mostly know of her portraits, where she is in mourning and no longer young. She wore lifelong mourning for her husband, Prince Albert, with whom she lived happy years. Their subjects called their marriage ideal, and the royal family was revered. The ladies of the court dreamed of being like the queen, respected by all.
In general, the Victorian era in my understanding is perfect time. But is it? Was everything so perfect? Was life really that good for people of that time?
It is easy to judge everything without knowing the details and details. But it is they who make life not contour and illusory, but clear and truthful. Books and magazine articles dedicated to this period will tell us about this.
The most factual guide "Queen Victoria and the Golden Age of Britain" from the series “Guides to the History of the World.” Here, in a brief, condensed form, the biography of Queen Victoria is given, the main directions of British policy during her reign, the main trends in the development of the country's economy, the directions of industrialization and the transformation of the state into the “workshop of the world” are revealed. The advantage of this small book is that it is richly equipped with illustrations that make the presentation of the material visible and understandable.
"In Britain and not so much in most of Ireland, - wrote the English historian D. Cannedine, - Victoria personified the image of the mother of the nation, a moral ideal rising above rough everyday life; V internationally she became the imperial matriarch who presided over the greater British family, spread over two hemispheres". Despite the fact that the guidebook was written by Russian authors, when reading it, you feel how proud the English nation was of its huge state, which managed to create such miracles of engineering as the London Underground network railways, Paddington station, etc.
However, industrialization also had a downside - difficult working conditions for workers in factories, poverty and appalling living conditions for the lower strata of the population, unsanitary conditions and poisonous smog in London, which became a breeding ground for dangerous diseases...
You can read more about this in the book by Tanya Dittrich « Everyday life Victorian England", which is designed to literally “chew” for the modern reader how people actually lived in England at that time. Where and how did you work? How did you dress and have fun? What moral and ethical standards did you adhere to? What technical improvements have been implemented? How did production and transport develop? Tanya Dittrich's book is written in a light literary style and reads like a fiction novel, although the fastidious reader clearly lacks documentary evidence and statistical evidence of the material presented.
On the one hand, the author confirms the greatness of the era when previously dormant humanity seemed to wake up and be illuminated by a flurry of ideas, projects and discoveries that radically changed the situation not only in Britain, but throughout the world. Great inventions gave impetus to the development of production, industry changed the appearance of cities, cities imposed their heavy toll on the people living in them, and people, as always, adapted to new conditions and responded to changes with new ideas. The inertia of these changes is so strong that even now, one might say, any area of our life stands firmly on the roots planted in the Victorian era.
But, on the other hand, here we see the unsightly sides of the life of the British, and especially the Londoners of that time. If a person did not belong to the upper class, but was a simple city dweller, his life was not at all sweet! Exhausting work for 12-14 hours in factories and factories, where no safety regulations were observed, lack of normal housing (entire families huddled in one room), complete unsanitary conditions (until sewers were built), constant coal smog, which could suffocate, and other delights...
By the way, Tanya Dittrich's book details the construction of the sewer system in London in the 1860s. And before that the city was the most polluted city in the world. This period is also called the “Great Stench.”
The same topic is touched upon by an article in the magazine “Profile” (No. 23, 2015), which is called “With the advent of toilets, chaos ensued.”. This is an interview with Lee Jackson, author of Dirty Old London. The Victorian battle against unsanitary conditions." The British of the Victorian era were obsessed with the idea of cleanliness: they polished silverware to a shine and tirelessly fought dust. But at the same time, the city was covered with a layer of disgusting black substance, a viscous mess of soot, dust, dirt and excrement. And the Thames was generally a sewer. But the most interesting thing is that the water closets only made the problem worse. Shortage drinking water led to the fact that Londoners drank mainly alcoholic drinks...
The “disadvantages” of English society during the reign of Queen Victoria also included ineradicable superstition, which persisted despite all scientific discoveries and research. This is the story of the book by Ekaterina Kouti and Natalia Kharsa "Superstitions of Victorian England". The authors of the book retell for the Russian audience legends, omens, fairy tales and ballads that were popular in England in the 19th century. The life of the English is shown here through the prism of customs and superstitions. The entire life of a subject of the British Empire, from birth to death, was accompanied by unshakable traditions and rituals, many of which today cause laughter and bewilderment. Weddings and family life, childbirth and raising children, death and funerals, everything was built on the basis of various signs and predictions.
What would you think if your business partner spit on his hand before shaking yours and signing the contract? Will some relative at a wedding insist that the bride in a snow-white lace veil kiss the soot-stained chimney sweep? Believe me, what seems crazy now would have surprised few people 150 years ago. What could these strange actions mean? You can read about this in the presented book, which is just as exciting and interesting to read as the previous one, and seems to be its direct continuation.
The life of any era is always best studied through the biographies of people who lived at that time. To do this, I propose to read three books dedicated to scientists, writers and politicians in Great Britain.
Among the scientists of that time, the names of Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley stand out, whose lives and scientific research are dedicated to the book by William Irwin "Monkeys, Angels and Victorians". The Victorian era is a time when revolutions were made in the scholar's study. The book is distinguished by the fact that the depiction of the main characters is given against the backdrop of a broadly and accurately outlined historical and social situation. Like true Victorians, Darwin and Huxley were consistent, noble and courageous. Despite the fact that the ideas of the founder of evolutionary theory and the greatest fighter for Darwinism met with strong opposition, both from society and from the scientific community, they managed to refract public opinion and turn the development of biology towards the path of truth.
If Irwin's book shows us the life of scientists against the backdrop of the Victorian era, then Margaret Forster's novel Notes of a Victorian Gentleman depicts the life of a writer of the same time. The book is dedicated to William Mikepeace Thackeray, the author of the famous Vanity Fair. The English writer chose a unique form for her novel. She allegedly acts as the publisher of autobiographical notes of Thackeray himself. The story of his life, creative searches, and his relationship with his contemporaries is revealed in a vivid artistic form. Letters, diaries and other materials from Thackeray's legacy are freely introduced into the fabric of the narrative, as well as his original drawings. Thackeray was labeled a “cynic,” but, according to the concepts of the 19th century, he was a real gentleman, a dandy, sophisticated in the subtleties of etiquette, a welcome guest at any social salon, an excellent father, and a respected citizen by all. Writing a novel in Thackeray's name was a difficult task and an audacious idea. But, as critics say, Margaret Forster succeeded.
If you are more interested in the life of politicians of the Victorian era, then I advise you to read the book by Vladimir Grigorievich Trukhanovsky “Benjamin Disraeli, or the History of his own incredible career.” How, in a country so fanatically committed to conservative traditions as England, could an unknown upstart, a foreigner who had neither money, nor connections, nor a university education, who had not even graduated high school? Coming from a wealthy background, but at the beginning of the 19th century. disenfranchised Jewish environment, he led the conservative party of the aristocracy - and became Chancellor of the Exchequer. A staunch and consistent defender of Great Britain's imperial interests, as prime minister he significantly strengthened its position on the seas and continents.
But these are all the fates of men...
The book by Tanya Dittrich, with which we began our review, touches on the topic of the position of women in Victorian society. Complete lack of rights and dependence on men are the main points of this description. Even Charles Darwin considered women to be the lower class. Listing the traits that are more pronounced in women than in men, he recalled that “according to at least, some of these properties characterize the lower races, and therefore the past or lower state of civilization.”
This topic is continued by an article by Natalia Kryuchkova "Middle Class Woman in the Victorian Era", which was published in the magazine “Knowledge is Power” (No. 8 for 2013). The author writes that women from the middle classes were constrained much more than their sisters from the working classes or from the circles of the nobility, who had much greater freedom in choosing occupations, in communication, etc. It is not surprising that feminism as a movement for women's equality arose precisely among middle class women. The activities of women's organizations contributed to the expansion of women's professional and social activity by the end of the 19th century. Women were allowed to participate in elections to local representative bodies, they were officially given the opportunity to receive higher education and, thus, engage in professional activity, reforms related to marriage relations also owe much to the women's movement.
In general, after reading these books and articles, you will learn a lot about that time, which, at first glance, seems almost ideal. You understand that any period has its bright and dark sides. In modern literature there is a tendency to denigrate everything, looking for unsightly moments. Personally, all the shortcomings of Victorianism do not frighten me at all, because it was at that time that people learned, and quite successfully, to overcome them - legislation changed, sanitary facilities were built, medicines were invented, medical technology... It was the Victorian era that made our world what it is today. Only much more boring.
Considering the Victorian era in a global context, it should be noted that it was marked for a significant number of states - british colonies- gaining greater independence and freedom, as well as the opportunity to develop their own political life. In addition, the discoveries that were made in Britain at this time were important not only for the country, but also for all humanity as a whole. The appearance in Britain of several outstanding representatives of art at once and, first of all, fiction, influenced the development of world art. For example, the work of the English writer Charles Dickens had a significant influence on the development of the Russian novel.
If we consider the significance of this period for Britain itself, it should be noted that the Victorian era occupies a very special place in the history of Great Britain. For this period British history two main circumstances are characteristic. First of all, Britain was not involved in any significant wars in the Victorian era. international arena, not counting the infamous Opium Wars in China. There was no serious tension in British society caused by the expectation of any catastrophe from outside. Since British society was and remains quite closed and self-centered, this circumstance seems especially important. The second circumstance is that interest in religious issues has grown significantly with the simultaneous rapid development of scientific thought and self-discipline of the human personality, which was based on the tenets of Puritanism.
The development of scientific thought in the Victorian era was such that as the importance of Darwinism increased and in the wake of more and more new scientific discoveries, even British agnostics turned to criticize the basic tenets of Christianity. Many nonconformists, including, for example, the Anglo-Catholic W. Gladstone, considered the internal and foreign policy The British Empire through the prism of its own religious beliefs.
The Victorian era was marked by the acquisition of new social functions by Britain, which was required by new industrial conditions And rapid growth population. As for personal development, it was built on self-discipline and self-confidence, reinforced by the Wesleyan and evangelical movements.
Distinctive features of the Victorian era
The beginning of the Victorian era dates back to 1837, when Queen Victoria ascended to the English throne. At that time she was 18 years old. Queen Victoria's reign lasted for 63 years until 1901.
Despite the fact that Victoria's reign was a time of unprecedented change in British history, the foundations of society during the Victorian era remained unchanged.
The Industrial Revolution in Britain led to a significant increase in the number of factories, warehouses, and shops. There was rapid population growth, which led to urban sprawl. In the 1850s, the whole of Britain was covered by a network of railways, which greatly improved the situation for industrialists by making it easier to transport goods and raw materials. Britain has become a highly productive country, leaving others far behind European states. At the International Industrial Exhibition of 1851, the country's successes were appreciated; Britain earned the title of “workshop of the world.” Leading positions in industrial production persisted until the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. However, it could not be done without negative aspects. Unsanitary conditions were typical for the working-class neighborhoods of industrial cities. Child labor was used everywhere, and low salaries coexisted with poor working conditions and exhausting long working hours.
The Victorian era was marked by the strengthening of the position of the middle class, which led to the dominance of its basic values in society. Sobriety, punctuality, hard work, frugality, and thrift were held in high esteem. These qualities soon became the norm, as their usefulness in the new industrial world was undeniable. Queen Victoria herself acted as an example of such behavior. Her life, completely subordinate to family and duty, was significantly different from the life of her two predecessors on the throne. Victoria's example influenced most aristocracy, which led to the abandonment of the upper circles from the flashy and scandalous lifestyle characteristic of the previous generation. The example of the aristocracy was followed by the highly skilled part of the working class.
At the heart of all the achievements of the Victorian era were, of course, the values and energy of the middle class. However, it cannot be said that all the features of this middle class were examples to follow. Among the negative traits so often ridiculed in the pages of English literature of that period are the bourgeois belief that prosperity is the reward for virtue, and extreme puritanism in family life, which gave rise to hypocrisy and feelings of guilt.
Religion played big role in the Victorian era, despite the fact that a significant part of the British population was not at all deeply religious. Various Protestant movements, such as Methodists and Congregationalists, as well as the evangelical wing of the Church of England, had a great influence on the people's minds. In parallel with this, there was a revival of the Roman Catholic Church, as well as the Anglo-Catholic movement within the Anglican Church. Their main tenets were adherence to dogma and ritual.
Despite Britain's significant successes during this period, the Victorian era was also a period of doubt and disappointment. This was due to the fact that the progress of science undermined the belief in the inviolability of biblical truths. At the same time, there was no significant increase in atheists, and atheism itself still remained an unacceptable system of views for society and the church. For example, the famous political figure Charles Bradlow, who advocated social reform and freedom of thought, became famous among other things for his militant atheism, was able to get a seat in the House of Commons only in 1880 after a number of unsuccessful attempts.
The publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859 had a great influence on the revision of religious dogmas. This book had the effect of a bomb exploding. Darwin's theory of evolution refuted the previously seemingly indisputable fact that man is the result of divine creation and, by the will of God, stands above all other forms of life. According to Darwin's theory, man developed through the process of evolution natural world just like all other animal species evolved. This work caused a wave of harsh criticism from religious leaders and the conservative part of the scientific community.
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that England was experiencing an undoubted surge of interest in science, which resulted in a number of large-scale scientific discoveries, but at the same time the country itself remained quite conservative in terms of its way of life and value system. Fast development Britain from an agricultural state to an industrial state led to rapid urban growth and the creation of new jobs, but did not improve the situation of workers and their living conditions.
Page from the first edition of On the Origin of Species
Political structure of the country
The Victorian Parliament was more representative than during the reigns of Queen Victoria's predecessors. More than in previous times, he listened to public opinion. In 1832, even before Victoria ascended the throne, parliamentary reform gave the vote to a large section of the middle class. Laws in 1867 and 1884 granted suffrage to most adult men. At the same time, a vigorous campaign began to give women the right to vote.
During Victoria's reign, the government was no longer subordinate to the reigning monarch. This rule was established under William IV (1830-37). Although the Queen was highly respected, her influence over the ministers and their political decisions was extremely small. Ministers were subordinate to parliament and primarily to the House of Commons. But since party discipline in those days was not strict enough, the decisions of ministers were not always implemented. By the 1860s, the Whigs and Tories had formed into much more clearly organized parties - Liberal and Conservative. The Liberal Party was led by William Gladstone and the Conservative Party by Benjamin Disraeli. However, the discipline in both parties was too liberal to keep them from splitting. The policy pursued by Parliament was constantly influenced by the problem of Ireland. The famine of 1845–46 forced Robert Peel to reconsider the grain trade laws that kept British agricultural prices high. The Free Trade Act was introduced as part of a general Victorian movement to create a more open, competitive society.
Meanwhile, Peel's decision to repeal the Corn Laws divided the Conservative Party. And twenty years later, the activities of William Gladstone, directed, according to him in my own words, on the pacification of Ireland, and his commitment to Home Rule policies caused a split among the Liberals.
During this reformist period foreign policy situation remained relatively calm. The conflict came to a head in 1854-56, when Britain and France unleashed Crimean War with Russia. But this conflict was only local in nature. The campaign was waged to curb Russian imperial aspirations in the Balkans. In fact, this was just one round in the protracted Eastern Question (a diplomatic problem related to the decline of the Turkish Ottoman Empire) - the only thing that seriously affected Britain in the pan-European politics of the Victorian era. In 1878, England found itself on the brink of another war with Russia, but remained aloof from the European alliances that would later split the continent. British Prime Minister Robert Arthur Talbot Salisbury called this policy of refusing long-term alliances with other powers brilliant isolation.
Based on the available data, the Victorian era was a period of parliamentary restructuring, as well as the formation and strengthening of the main parties that exist in Britain today. At the same time, the nominal power of the monarch made it impossible for him to have a significant influence on the political life of the country. The figure of the monarch increasingly became a tribute to the traditions and foundations of Britain, losing its political weight. This situation continues to this day.
British foreign policy
The Victorian era for Britain was marked by the expansion of colonial possessions. True, the loss of the American colonies led to the fact that the idea of new conquests in this area was not very popular. Before 1840, Britain did not seek to gain new colonies, but was concerned with protecting its trade routes and supporting its interests outside the state. At that time, there was one of the black pages of British history - the opium wars with China, the cause of which was the struggle for the right to sell Indian opium in China.
In Europe, Britain supported the weakening Ottoman Empire in its struggle with Russia. In 1890, the moment of redistribution of Africa came. It was to be divided into so-called “zones of interest.” The undoubted conquests of Britain in this case were Egypt and the Suez Canal. The British occupation of Egypt continued until 1954.
Some British colonies received additional privileges during this period. For example, Canada New Zealand and Australia gained the right to form a government, which weakened their dependence on Britain. At the same time, Queen Victoria remained the head of state in these countries.
TO late XIX centuries, Britain was the strongest maritime power and also controlled a significant part of the land. However, the colonies were sometimes an exorbitant burden for the state, since they required significant cash injections.
Problems haunted Britain not only overseas, but also on its own territory. They came mainly from Scotland and Ireland. At the same time, for example, the population of Wales quadrupled during the 19th century and amounted to 2 million people. Wales boasted rich coal deposits in the south, making it the center of a booming coal mining and metallurgical industry. This led to almost two-thirds of the country's population seeking to move south in search of work. By 1870 Wales had become an industrial country, although there remained large areas in the north where farming flourished and most of the inhabitants were poor peasants. Parliamentary reforms allowed the people of Wales to get rid of the wealthy landowning families that had represented them in Parliament for 300 years.
Scotland was divided into industrial and rural areas. The industrial estate was located near Glasgow and Edinburgh. The industrial revolution dealt a severe blow to the inhabitants of mountainous regions. The collapse of the clan system that had existed there for centuries was a real tragedy for them.
Ireland caused many problems for England, the battle for freedom of which resulted in a large-scale war between Catholics and Protestants. In 1829, Catholics received the right to participate in parliamentary elections, which only strengthened the sense of national identity of the Irish and encouraged them to continue their struggle with great effort.
Based on the data presented, we can conclude that the main task of Britain in that period in the foreign policy arena was not the conquest of new territories, but the maintenance of order in the old ones. British Empire has grown so much that managing all its colonies has become quite problematic. This led to the granting of additional privileges to the colonies and a decrease in the role that Britain had previously played in their political life. The rejection of strict control of colonial territories was due to the problems that existed on the territory of Britain itself, and the solution of which became a priority task. It should be noted that some of these problems have not yet been properly resolved. This is especially true of the Catholic-Protestant confrontation in Northern Ireland.
