Great North War, also called the Twenty Years' War, was fought between the Northern European Union and the Swedish Empire. The anti-Swedish coalition included Russia, led by Peter 1, the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, which at that time was headed by Christian 5, Moldavia, Prussia, and Saxony. Great Britain stood on the side of the Swedes, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Hanover.
The Saxon Elector Augustus dragged the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into the war along with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which at that time was experiencing a Civil War.
The reasons for the start of the Northern War lie in the struggle for power over the Baltic lands - it was extremely important for Russia to gain access to Baltic Sea to be able to expand their trade routes. Another reason for the war was the deep resentment of Peter 1, which he explained by the cold reception of his person by the Swedes in Riga in 1697. The result was the confiscation of all Swedish products available on the territory of Moscow in favor of the state, and the Swedish envoy was taken under arrest.
Saxony set the goal of returning Livonia; Denmark, like Russia, wanted to have control of the Baltic Sea.
Progress of the war
The troops of Saxony were the first to attack and besieged Riga, but this did not produce any result, since they did not receive the expected support from the city aristocracy. Further, the Danish army tried to enter from the south, but this also ended in failure, since the Swedes approached Copenhagen, for which its inhabitants were completely unprepared. As a result, Denmark capitulated and then signed a peace treaty with Sweden.
The further course of the war was marked by the actions of Russia, which alone took the warpath with Sweden. This happened because Saxony lifted the siege of Riga immediately after learning of the retreat of the Danish army. Russian troops set the goal of conquering Ingria (present-day Leningrad region). To do this, they launched an attack on the Narva fortress, which was unsuccessful due to Russia’s weak combat equipment.
After these events, Peter 1 decided to strengthen Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, expecting an attack from Sweden. However, King Charles 12 sent his army to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Saxony. Taking advantage of the situation, Russia repeated its attack on Sweden. December 1701 brought Peter his first victory, and after October 1702 he already began the construction of St. Petersburg. In 1704, a repeated and already successful siege of Narva took place.
At this time, the Swedish army does not react to Russia's actions and takes steps to move the battle to Poland, capturing some of its cities. This became the reason for the approval of Stanislav Leszczynski as the ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with which she categorically disagreed, and therefore became an ally of Russia.
In 1706, the Swedes defeated Saxony. In this regard, Russia was forced to retreat all the way to Kyiv, and then to Minsk, because Karl went against Peter 1. Then the Swedes won the last victory in the Northern War - in Golovchin. After these events, the Russian Tsar gave the order to destroy by fire all the settlements around the Swedish troops, in order to deprive them of provisions. This brought success and in September 1708 the Swedish king attacked Russia through Ukraine, where next year The famous battle of Poltava took place. Here the Swedes were helped by Hetman Ivan Mazepa, who supplemented Charles’s army with five thousand Cossacks. But this did not bring Sweden victory, since its numerical strength was clearly inferior to Russia in a ratio of 1:2. Also, by that time, Charles’s troops had suffered very significant losses in ammunition. All this led to the retreat of Sweden and its complete defeat.
Results of the war
Charles 12 himself did not see the end of the war; he died in 1718. His successors subsequently concluded the Peace of Nystadt in 1721, and Sweden lost its position on the world stage.
The results of the war for Russia turned out to be the most rosy. Peter 1 received the desired access to the Baltic Sea. Also, as a result of the Northern War, Russia conquered part of the lands (Karelia, Ingria, etc.). The victorious king himself was proclaimed emperor. The reasons for Russia's victory in the Northern War lie in competent policy Peter 1, its alliance with other states and the miscalculations of the Swedish ruler.
June 21, 1941, 13:00. German troops receive the code signal "Dortmund", confirming that the invasion will begin the next day.
Commander of the 2nd Tank Group of Army Group Center Heinz Guderian writes in his diary: “Careful observation of the Russians convinced me that they did not suspect anything about our intentions. In the courtyard of the Brest fortress, which was visible from our observation points, they were changing the guards to the sounds of an orchestra. The coastal fortifications along the Western Bug were not occupied by Russian troops."21:00. Soldiers of the 90th border detachment of the Sokal commandant's office detained a German serviceman who crossed the border Bug River by swimming. The defector was sent to the detachment headquarters in the city of Vladimir-Volynsky.
23:00. German minelayers stationed in Finnish ports began to mine the exit from the Gulf of Finland. At the same time, Finnish submarines began laying mines off the coast of Estonia.
June 22, 1941, 0:30. The defector was taken to Vladimir-Volynsky. During interrogation, the soldier identified himself Alfred Liskov, soldiers of the 221st Regiment of the 15th Infantry Division of the Wehrmacht. He said that at dawn on June 22, the German army would go on the offensive along the entire length of the Soviet-German border. The information was transferred to higher command.
At the same time, the transmission of Directive No. 1 of the People's Commissariat of Defense for parts of the western military districts began from Moscow. “During June 22-23, 1941, a surprise attack by the Germans is possible on the fronts of LVO, PribOVO, ZAPOVO, KOVO, OdVO. An attack may begin with provocative actions,” the directive said. “The task of our troops is not to succumb to any provocative actions that could cause major complications.”
The units were ordered to be put on combat readiness, to secretly occupy firing points of fortified areas on the state border, and to disperse aircraft to field airfields.
It is not possible to convey the directive to military units before the start of hostilities, as a result of which the measures specified in it are not carried out.
Mobilization. Columns of fighters are moving to the front. Photo: RIA Novosti
“I realized that it was the Germans who opened fire on our territory”
1:00. The commandants of the sections of the 90th border detachment report to the head of the detachment, Major Bychkovsky: “nothing suspicious was noticed on the adjacent side, everything is calm.”
3:05 . A group of 14 German Ju-88 bombers drops 28 magnetic mines near the Kronstadt roadstead.
3:07. The commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral Oktyabrsky, reports to the Chief of the General Staff, General Zhukov: “The fleet’s VNOS [air surveillance, warning and communications] system reports the approach from the sea of a large number unknown aircraft; The fleet is in full combat readiness."
3:10. The NKGB for the Lviv region transmits by telephone message to the NKGB of the Ukrainian SSR the information obtained during the interrogation of the defector Alfred Liskov.
From the memoirs of the chief of the 90th border detachment, Major Bychkovsky: “Without finishing the interrogation of the soldier, I heard strong artillery fire in the direction of Ustilug (the first commandant’s office). I realized that it was the Germans who opened fire on our territory, which was immediately confirmed by the interrogated soldier. I immediately began to call the commandant by phone, but the connection was broken...”3:30. Chief of Staff of the Western District General Klimovsky reports on enemy air raids on the cities of Belarus: Brest, Grodno, Lida, Kobrin, Slonim, Baranovichi and others.
3:33. The chief of staff of the Kyiv district, General Purkaev, reports on an air raid on the cities of Ukraine, including Kyiv.
3:40. Commander of the Baltic Military District General Kuznetsov reports on enemy air raids on Riga, Siauliai, Vilnius, Kaunas and other cities.
“The enemy raid has been repulsed. An attempt to strike our ships was foiled."
3:42. Chief of the General Staff Zhukov is calling Stalin and reports the start of hostilities by Germany. Stalin orders Tymoshenko and Zhukov arrive at the Kremlin, where an emergency meeting of the Politburo is convened.
3:45. The 1st border outpost of the 86th August border detachment was attacked by an enemy reconnaissance and sabotage group. Outpost personnel under command Alexandra Sivacheva, having entered into battle, destroys the attackers.
4:00. The commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral Oktyabrsky, reports to Zhukov: “The enemy raid has been repulsed. An attempt to strike our ships was foiled. But there is destruction in Sevastopol.”4:05. The outposts of the 86th August Border Detachment, including the 1st Border Outpost of Senior Lieutenant Sivachev, come under heavy artillery fire, after which the German offensive begins. Border guards, deprived of communication with the command, engage in battle with superior enemy forces.
4:10. The Western and Baltic special military districts report the beginning of hostilities by German troops on the ground.
4:15. The Nazis open massive artillery fire on Brest Fortress. As a result, warehouses were destroyed, communications were disrupted, and there were a large number of dead and wounded.
4:25. The 45th Wehrmacht Infantry Division begins an attack on the Brest Fortress.
Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. Residents of the capital on June 22, 1941, during the radio announcement of a government message about a treacherous attack fascist Germany to the Soviet Union. Photo: RIA Novosti
“Protecting not individual countries, but ensuring the security of Europe”
4:30. A meeting of Politburo members begins in the Kremlin. Stalin expresses doubt that what happened is the beginning of a war and does not exclude the possibility of a German provocation. People's Commissar of Defense Timoshenko and Zhukov insist: this is war.
4:55. In the Brest Fortress, the Nazis manage to capture almost half of the territory. Further progress was stopped by a sudden counterattack by the Red Army.
5:00. German Ambassador to the USSR Count von Schulenburg presented to the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR Molotov“Note from the German Foreign Office to the Soviet Government,” which states: “The German Government cannot remain indifferent to the serious threat on the eastern border, therefore the Fuehrer has ordered the German Armed Forces to ward off this threat by all means.” An hour after the actual start of hostilities, Germany de jure declares war on the Soviet Union.
5:30. On German radio, the Reich Minister of Propaganda Goebbels reads out the appeal Adolf Hitler to the German people in connection with the start of the war against the Soviet Union: “Now the hour has come when it is necessary to speak out against this conspiracy of the Jewish-Anglo-Saxon warmongers and also the Jewish rulers of the Bolshevik center in Moscow... At the moment, a military action of the greatest extent and volume is taking place, what the world has ever seen... The task of this front is no longer to protect individual countries, but to ensure the security of Europe and thereby save everyone.”7:00. Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs Ribbentrop begins a press conference at which he announces the beginning of hostilities against the USSR: “The German army has invaded the territory of Bolshevik Russia!”
“The city is burning, why aren’t you broadcasting anything on the radio?”
7:15. Stalin approves a directive to repel the attack of Nazi Germany: “The troops with all their might and means attack enemy forces and destroy them in areas where they violated the Soviet border.” Transfer of “directive No. 2” due to saboteurs’ disruption of communication lines in the western districts. Moscow does not have a clear picture of what is happening in the combat zone.
9:30. It was decided that at noon, People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Molotov would address the Soviet people in connection with the outbreak of war.
10:00. From the speaker's memories Yuri Levitan: “They’re calling from Minsk: “Enemy planes are over the city,” they’re calling from Kaunas: “The city is burning, why aren’t you broadcasting anything on the radio?” “Enemy planes are over Kiev.” A woman’s crying, excitement: “Is it really war?..” However, no official messages are transmitted until 12:00 Moscow time on June 22.
10:30. From a report from the headquarters of the 45th German division about the battles on the territory of the Brest Fortress: “The Russians are resisting fiercely, especially behind our attacking companies. In the citadel, the enemy organized a defense with infantry units supported by 35-40 tanks and armored vehicles. Enemy sniper fire resulted in heavy casualties among officers and non-commissioned officers."11:00. The Baltic, Western and Kiev special military districts were transformed into the North-Western, Western and South-Western fronts.
“The enemy will be defeated. Victory will be ours"
12:00. People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov reads out an appeal to the citizens of the Soviet Union: “Today at 4 o’clock in the morning, without making any claims against the Soviet Union, without declaring war, German troops attacked our country, attacked our borders in many places and bombed us with their planes attacked our cities - Zhitomir, Kiev, Sevastopol, Kaunas and some others, and more than two hundred people were killed and wounded. Raids by enemy planes and artillery shelling were also carried out from Romanian and Finnish territory... Now that the attack on the Soviet Union has already taken place, the Soviet government has given an order to our troops to repel the bandit attack and expel German troops from the territory of our homeland... The government calls on you, citizens and citizens of the Soviet Union, to rally our ranks even more closely around our glorious Bolshevik Party, around our Soviet government, around our great leader, Comrade Stalin.
Our cause is just. The enemy will be defeated. Victory will be ours" .
12:30. Advanced German units break into the Belarusian city of Grodno.
13:00.
The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issues a decree “On the mobilization of those liable for military service...”
“Based on Article 49, paragraph “o” of the USSR Constitution, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR announces mobilization on the territory of the military districts - Leningrad, Baltic special, Western special, Kiev special, Odessa, Kharkov, Oryol, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Ural, Siberian, Volga, North -Caucasian and Transcaucasian.
13:30. Chief of the General Staff General Zhukov flies to Kyiv as a representative of the newly created Headquarters of the Main Command on the Southwestern Front.
Photo: RIA Novosti
14:00. The Brest Fortress is completely surrounded by German troops. Soviet units blocked in the citadel continue to offer fierce resistance.
14:05. Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano states: “In view of the current situation, due to the fact that Germany declared war on the USSR, Italy, as an ally of Germany and as a member of the Tripartite Pact, also declares war on the Soviet Union from the moment German troops entered Soviet territory.”
14:10. The 1st border outpost of Alexander Sivachev has been fighting for more than 10 hours. The border guards, who had only small arms and grenades, destroyed up to 60 Nazis and burned three tanks. The wounded commander of the outpost continued to command the battle.
15:00. From the notes of the commander of Army Group Center, Field Marshal von Bock: “The question of whether the Russians are carrying out a systematic withdrawal remains open. There is now plenty of evidence both for and against this.
What is surprising is that nowhere is any significant work of their artillery visible. Heavy artillery fire is conducted only in the northwest of Grodno, where the VIII Army Corps is advancing. Apparently, our air force has an overwhelming superiority over Russian aviation."Of the 485 border posts attacked, not a single one withdrew without orders.
16:00. After a 12-hour battle, the Nazis took the positions of the 1st border outpost. This became possible only after all the border guards who defended it died. The head of the outpost, Alexander Sivachev, was posthumously awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, 1st degree.
The feat of the outpost of Senior Lieutenant Sivachev was one of hundreds committed by border guards in the first hours and days of the war. On June 22, 1941, the state border of the USSR from the Barents to the Black Sea was guarded by 666 border outposts, 485 of which were attacked on the very first day of the war. Not one of the 485 outposts attacked on June 22 withdrew without orders.
Hitler's command allotted 20 minutes to break the resistance of the border guards. 257 Soviet border posts held their defense from several hours to one day. More than one day - 20, more than two days - 16, more than three days - 20, more than four and five days - 43, from seven to nine days - 4, more than eleven days - 51, more than twelve days - 55, more than 15 days - 51 outpost. Forty-five outposts fought for up to two months.
Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. The workers of Leningrad listen to a message about the attack of Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union. Photo: RIA Novosti
Of the 19,600 border guards who met the Nazis on June 22 in the direction of the main attack of Army Group Center, more than 16,000 died in the first days of the war.
17:00. Hitler's units manage to occupy the southwestern part of the Brest Fortress, the northeast remained under the control of Soviet troops. Stubborn battles for the fortress will continue for weeks.
“The Church of Christ blesses all Orthodox Christians for the defense of the sacred borders of our Motherland”
18:00. The Patriarchal Locum Tenens, Metropolitan Sergius of Moscow and Kolomna, addresses the believers with a message: “Fascist robbers attacked our homeland. Trampling all kinds of agreements and promises, they suddenly fell upon us, and now the blood of peaceful citizens is already irrigating our native land... Our Orthodox Church has always shared the fate of the people. She endured trials with him and was consoled by his successes. She will not abandon her people even now... The Church of Christ blesses all Orthodox Christians for the defense of the sacred borders of our Motherland.”
19:00. From the boss's notes General Staff ground forces Wehrmacht Colonel General Franz Halder: “All armies, except the 11th Army of Army Group South in Romania, went on the offensive according to plan. The offensive of our troops, apparently, came as a complete tactical surprise to the enemy along the entire front. Border bridges across the Bug and other rivers were everywhere captured by our troops without a fight and in complete safety. The complete surprise of our offensive for the enemy is evidenced by the fact that the units were taken by surprise in a barracks arrangement, the planes were parked at airfields, covered with tarpaulins, and the advanced units, suddenly attacked by our troops, asked the command about what to do... The Air Force command reported, that today 850 enemy aircraft have been destroyed, including entire squadrons of bombers, which, having taken off without fighter cover, were attacked by our fighters and destroyed.”20:00. Directive No. 3 of the People's Commissariat of Defense was approved, ordering Soviet troops to launch a counteroffensive with the task of defeating Hitler's troops on the territory of the USSR with further advance into enemy territory. The directive ordered the capture of the Polish city of Lublin by the end of June 24.
Great Patriotic War 1941-1945. June 22, 1941 Nurses provide assistance to the first wounded after a Nazi air raid near Chisinau. Photo: RIA Novosti
“We must provide Russia and the Russian people with all the help we can.”
21:00. Summary of the Red Army High Command for June 22: “At dawn on June 22, 1941, regular troops of the German army attacked our border units on the front from the Baltic to the Black Sea and were held back by them during the first half of the day. In the afternoon, German troops met with the advanced units of the field troops of the Red Army. After fierce fighting, the enemy was repulsed with heavy losses. Only in the Grodno and Kristinopol directions did the enemy manage to achieve minor tactical successes and occupy the towns of Kalwaria, Stoyanuv and Tsekhanovets (the first two are 15 km and the last 10 km from the border).
Enemy aircraft attacked a number of our airfields and populated areas, but everywhere they met decisive resistance from our fighters and anti-aircraft artillery, which inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. We shot down 65 enemy aircraft.”
23:00. Message from the Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill to the British people in connection with the German attack on the USSR: “At 4 o'clock this morning Hitler attacked Russia. All his usual formalities of treachery were observed with scrupulous precision... suddenly, without a declaration of war, even without an ultimatum, German bombs fell from the sky on Russian cities, German troops violated Russian borders, and an hour later the German ambassador, who just the day before had generously lavished his assurances on the Russians in friendship and almost an alliance, paid a visit to the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs and declared that Russia and Germany were at war...
No one has been more staunchly opposed to communism over the past 25 years than I have been. I will not take back a single word that was said about him. But all this pales in comparison to the spectacle unfolding now.The past, with its crimes, follies and tragedies, recedes. I see Russian soldiers as they stand on the border native land and guard the fields which their fathers have plowed since time immemorial. I see them guarding their homes; their mothers and wives pray—oh, yes, because at such a time everyone prays for the safety of their loved ones, for the return of their breadwinner, patron, their protectors...
We must provide Russia and the Russian people with all the help we can. We must call on all our friends and allies in all parts of the world to pursue a similar course and pursue it as steadfastly and steadily as we will, to the very end.”
June 22 came to an end. There were still 1,417 days ahead of the worst war in human history.
The main reason Hundred Years' War(1337–1453) became a political rivalry between the French royal dynasty Capetian - Valois and English Plantagenets. The first sought to unite France and completely subjugate all vassals to their power, among whom the English kings, who still owned the region of Guienne (Aquitaine), occupied a leading place and often overshadowed their overlords. The Plantagenets' vassal relations to the Capetians were only nominal, but the English kings were burdened even by this. They sought not only to return their former possessions in France, but also to take the French crown from the Capetians.
The French monarch died in 1328 CharlesIV Handsome, and the senior line of the Capetian house stopped with him. Based Salic law, the French throne was taken by the cousin of the deceased king, PhilipVI Valois. But the English king EdwardIII, the son of Isabella, sister of Charles IV, considering himself the latter’s closest relative, laid claim to the French crown. This led to the outbreak in 1337, in Picardy, of the first battles of the Hundred Years' War. In 1338, Edward III obtained from the emperor the title of imperial governor west of the Rhine, and in 1340, having concluded an alliance against Philip VI with the Flemings and some German princes, he accepted the title of King of France. In 1339 Edward unsuccessfully besieged Cambrai, and in 1340 Tournai. In June 1340, the French fleet suffered a decisive defeat in a bloody Battle of Sluys, and in September the first truce of the Hundred Years' War took place, which was interrupted by the English king in 1345.
Battle of Crecy 1346
The year 1346 marked a major turning point in the Hundred Years' War. The military actions of 1346 took place in Guienne, Flanders, Normandy and Brittany. Edward III, unexpectedly for the enemy, landed at the cape La-Gog with 32 thousand soldiers (4 thousand cavalry, 10 thousand foot archers, 12 thousand Welsh and 6 thousand Irish infantry), after which he ravaged the country on the left bank of the Seine and moved to Rouen, probably to unite with the Flemish troops and besiege Calais, which could gain him the importance of a base at this stage of the Hundred Years' War.
Meanwhile, Philip VI went with strong army along the right bank of the Seine, meaning to prevent the enemy from entering Calais. Then Edward, with a demonstrative movement towards Poissy (in the direction of Paris), attracted the attention of the French king in this direction, and then, quickly turning back, crossed the Seine and went to the Somme, devastating the space between both of these rivers.
Philip, realizing his mistake, rushed after Edward. A separate French detachment (12 thousand), standing on the right bank of the Somme, destroyed bridges and crossings on it. The English king found himself in a critical situation, having the aforementioned detachment and the Somme in front, and Philip’s main forces in the rear. But, fortunately for Edward, he learned about the Blanc-Tash ford, along which he moved his troops, taking advantage of the low tide. A separate French detachment, despite the courageous defense of the crossing, was overthrown, and when Philip approached, the British were already finishing the crossing, and meanwhile the tide began to rise.
Edward continued his retreat and stopped at Crecy, deciding to take the fight here. Philip headed to Abbeville, where he stayed the whole day to add suitable reinforcements, which brought his army to about 70 thousand people. (including 8-12 thousand knights, most of them infantry). Philip's stop at Abbeville gave Edward the opportunity to prepare well for the first of the three main battles of the Hundred Years' War, which took place on August 26 at Crécy and resulted in a decisive British victory. This victory is explained mainly by the superiority of the English military system and English troops over the military system of France and its feudal militias. On the French side, 1,200 nobles and 30,000 soldiers fell in the Battle of Crecy. Edward temporarily achieved dominance over all of Northern France.
Battle of Crecy. Miniature for Froissart's Chronicles
Hundred Years' War 1347-1355
In the subsequent years of the Hundred Years' War, the British, under the leadership of King Edward himself and his son, Black Prince, won a number of brilliant successes over the French. In 1349, the Black Prince defeated the French commander Charny and took him prisoner. Later, a truce was concluded, which ended in 1354. At this time, the Black Prince, appointed ruler of the Duchy of Guienne, went there and prepared to continue the Hundred Years' War. At the expiration of the truce in 1355, he marched from Bordeaux to devastate France, and in several detachments passed through the county of Armagnac to the Pyrenees; then, turning to the north, he plundered and burned everything as far as Toulouse. From there, crossing the Garonne ford, the Black Prince headed towards Carcassonne and Narbonne and burned both of these cities. Thus he devastated the entire country from the Bay of Biscay to Mediterranean Sea and from the Pyrenees to the Garonne, destroying more than 700 cities and villages within 7 weeks, which terrified all of France. In all these operations of the Hundred Years' War, the gobblers (light cavalry) played a major role.
Battle of Poitiers 1356
In 1356, the Hundred Years' War was fought in three theaters. A small English army led by the Duke of Lancaster operated in the north. French king John the Good, capturing the Navarrese king Karl the Evil, was busy besieging his castles. The Black Prince, moving suddenly from Guienne, penetrated through Rouergue, Auvergne and Limousin to the Loire, destroying more than 500 towns.
Edward "The Black Prince", son of the English King Edward III, hero of the Hundred Years' War. 15th century miniature
This pogrom infuriated King John. He hastily gathered a fairly significant army and headed towards the Loire, intending to act decisively. At Poitiers, the king did not wait for the attack of the British, who were in a difficult situation at that time, since the king’s army was opposite their front, and another in the rear french army, concentrated in Languedoc. Despite the reports of his advisers who spoke in favor of defense, John set out from Poitiers and on September 19, 1356 attacked the British at their fortified position at Maupertuis. John made two fatal mistakes in this battle. First, he ordered his cavalry to attack the English infantry standing in a narrow ravine, and when this attack was repulsed and the English rushed onto the plain, he ordered his horsemen to dismount. Due to these mistakes, the 50,000-strong French army suffered a terrible defeat at the Battle of Poitiers (the second of the three main battles of the Hundred Years War) at the hands of the English army, which was five times less numerous. French losses reached 11,000 killed and 14,000 captured. King John himself and his son Philip were also captured.
Battle of Poitiers 1356. Miniature for Froissart's "Chronicles"
Hundred Years' War in 1357-1360
During the king's captivity, his eldest son, the Dauphin Charles (later King Charles V). His position was very difficult due to the successes of the British, which complicated the Hundred Years' War, internal French turmoil (the desire of the townspeople led by Etienne Marcel to assert their rights to the detriment of the supreme power) and especially, from 1358, due to the internecine war ( Jacquerie), caused by the uprising of the peasants against the nobility, which therefore could not provide the Dauphin with strong enough support. The bourgeoisie put forward another contender for the throne of France, the King of Navarre, who also relied on mercenary squads (grandes compagnies), which were a scourge for the country during the Hundred Years War. The Dauphin suppressed the revolutionary attempts of the bourgeoisie and in August 1359 made peace with the King of Navarre. Meanwhile, the captive King John entered into a very unfavorable agreement with England for France, according to which he gave almost half of his state to the British. But states general, assembled by the Dauphin, rejected this treaty and expressed their readiness to continue the Hundred Years' War.
Then Edward III of England crossed to Calais with a strong army, which he allowed to support himself at the expense of the country, and moved through Picardy and Champagne, destroying everything on the way. In January 1360 he invaded Burgundy, forced to abandon its alliance with France. From Burgundy he headed towards Paris and unsuccessfully besieged it. In view of this and due to a lack of funds, Edward agreed to a peace that suspended the Hundred Years' War, which was concluded in May of the same year in Bretigny. But the traveling squads and some feudal owners continued military operations. The Black Prince, having undertaken a campaign in Castile, imposed large taxes on the English possessions in France, which caused a complaint from his vassals there to the French king. Charles V brought the prince to trial in 1368, and in 1369 he resumed the Hundred Years' War.
Hundred Years' War 1369-1415
In 1369, the Hundred Years' War was limited to small enterprises only. English for the most part prevailed in field battles. But their affairs began to take an unfavorable turn, mainly from a change in the nature of the conduct of operations by the French, who began to avoid open clashes with English troops, turned to stubborn defense of cities and castles, attacked the enemy by surprise and suppressed his communications. All this was facilitated by the devastation of France by the Hundred Years' War and the depletion of its funds, forcing the British to carry with them everything they needed in a huge convoy. In addition, the British lost their commander, John Chandosa, King Edward was already old, and the Black Prince left the army due to illness.
Meanwhile, Charles V appointed commander-in-chief Bertrand Du Guesclin and entered into an alliance with the king of Castile, who sent his fleet to his aid, which turned out to be a dangerous rival for the English. During this period of the Hundred Years' War, the British more than once took possession of entire provinces, without encountering strong resistance in the open field, but suffered poverty, as the population locked themselves in castles and cities, hired traveling bands and repulsed the enemy. Under such conditions - large losses in people and horses and a lack of food and money - the British had to return to their fatherland. Then the French went on the offensive, took away the enemy’s conquests, and over time turned to more large enterprises and more important operations, especially after the appointment of Du Guesclin as constable, who achieved a number of brilliant successes in the Hundred Years' War.
Bertrand Du Guesclin, Constable of France, hero of the Hundred Years' War
Thus, almost all of France was liberated from the rule of the British, in whose hands, by the beginning of 1374, only Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne and several towns in the Dordogne remained. In view of this, a truce was concluded, which then continued until the death of Edward III (1377). In order to strengthen the military system of France, Charles V ordered in 1373 to form the beginnings of a standing army - Ordonnance companies. But after the death of Charles, this attempt was forgotten, and the Hundred Years' War again began to be fought mainly by the hands of mercenary gangs .
In subsequent years, the Hundred Years' War continued intermittently. The successes of both sides depended mainly on internal state Both states, enemies at that, mutually took advantage of their opponent’s troubles and then acquired a more or less decisive advantage. In this regard, the most favorable era of the Hundred Years' War for the British was the reign of the mentally ill in France CarlaVI. The establishment of new taxes aroused unrest in many French cities, especially Paris and Rouen, and resulted in the so-called war mayotenes or Berdyshnikov. Southern provinces, regardless of the uprising of the townspeople, were torn apart by civil strife and the predation of the mercenary gangs participating in the Hundred Years' War, which was also joined by peasant war(guerre des coquins); Finally, an uprising broke out in Flanders. In general, success in this turmoil was on the side of the government and vassals loyal to the king; but the citizens of Ghent, in order to be able to continue the war, entered into an alliance with England. However, not having time to receive help from the British, the inhabitants of Ghent suffered a decisive defeat in Battle of Rosebeek.
Then the regency of France, having suppressed the unrest outwardly and at the same time inciting the people against itself and the young king, resumed the Hundred Years' War and entered into an alliance against England and Scotland. The French fleet, Admiral Jean de Vienne, headed to the shores of Scotland and landed there Enguerrand de Coucy's detachment, which consisted of adventurers. However, the British managed to devastate a significant part of Scotland. The French suffered a shortage of food and quarreled with their allies, but nevertheless they invaded England together with them, and showed great cruelty. The British at this point in the Hundred Years' War were forced to mobilize their entire army; however, the allies did not wait for its offensive: the French returned to their homeland, while the Scots retreated deep into their country to wait there for the end of the term of feudal service of the English vassals. The English devastated the whole country as far as Edinburgh; but as soon as they returned to their fatherland and their troops began to disperse, detachments of Scottish adventurers, having received financial subsidies from the French, again raided England.
This attempt by the French to transfer the Hundred Years' War to Northern England failed, since the French government turned its main attention to operations in Flanders, with the aim of establishing there the rule of Duke Philip of Burgundy (the king's uncle, the same son of John the Good, who was captured with him at Poitiers). This was achieved in the fall of 1385. Then the French began to prepare again for the same expedition, equipped a new fleet and fielded a new army. The moment for the expedition was chosen well, since at that time there was renewed unrest in England, and the Scots, having carried out an invasion, devastated it and won a number of victories. But the commander-in-chief, the Duke of Berry, arrived at the army late, when, due to the autumn time, the expedition could no longer be undertaken.
In 1386, Constable Olivier du Clisson was preparing to land in England, but his overlord, the Duke of Brittany, prevented this. In 1388, the Hundred Years' War was again suspended by the Anglo-French truce. In the same year, Charles VI took control of the state, but then fell into insanity, as a result of which France was engulfed in the struggle between the king’s closest relatives and his primary vassals, as well as the struggle between the Orleans and Burgundian parties. Meanwhile, the Hundred Years' War did not stop completely, but was still only interrupted by truces. A rebellion against the king broke out in England itself. Richard II, who was married to the French Princess Isabella. Richard II was deposed by his cousin Henry of Lancaster, who ascended the throne under the name HeinrichIV. France did not recognize the latter as king, and then demanded the return of Isabella and her dowry. England did not return the dowry, because France had not yet paid the entire ransom for King John the Good, who had previously been released from captivity.
In view of this, Henry IV intended to continue the Hundred Years' War with an expedition to France, but, busy defending his throne and generally troubles in England itself, he could not fulfill this. His son HenryV, having calmed the state, decided to take advantage of the illness of Charles VI and the infighting between claimants to the regency to renew his great-grandfather's claims to the French crown. He sent ambassadors to France to ask for the hand of Princess Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. This proposal was rejected, which served as a pretext for the vigorous resumption of the Hundred Years' War.
King Henry V of England, hero of the Hundred Years' War
Battle of Agincourt 1415
Henry V (with 6 thousand cavalry and 20 - 24 thousand infantry) landed near the mouth of the Seine and immediately began the siege of Harfleur. Meanwhile, Constable d'Albret, who was on the right bank of the Seine and observing the enemy, did not try to help the besieged, but ordered a call to be sounded throughout France so that those accustomed to weapons noble people gathered to him to continue the Hundred Years' War. But he himself was inactive. The ruler of Normandy, Marshal Boucicault, having only insignificant forces, also could not do anything in favor of the besieged, who soon surrendered. Henry supplied Harfleur with supplies, left a garrison in it and, thanks to this, receiving a base for further operations in the Hundred Years' War, moved to Abbeville, intending to cross the Somme there. However, the significant efforts required to capture Harfleur, illness in the army due to bad food, etc., weakened the English army fighting in the theater of the Hundred Years' War, whose position worsened even more due to the fact that the English fleet, having been wrecked, had to retire to the shores of England . Meanwhile, reinforcements arriving from everywhere brought the French army to a large number. In view of all this, Henry decided to move to Calais and from there restore more convenient communications with his fatherland.
Battle of Agincourt. 15th century miniature
But it was difficult to carry out the decision made, due to the approach of the French, and all the fords on the Somme were blocked. Then Henry moved up the river in order to find a free passage. Meanwhile, d'Albret was still inactive at Peronne, having 60 thousand people, while a separate French detachment followed parallel to the British, devastating the country. On the contrary, Henry maintained the strictest discipline in his army during the Hundred Years' War: robbery, desertion and the like crimes were punishable by death or demotion. Finally, he approached the ford at Betancourt, near Gama, between Peronne and Saint-Quentin. Here the British crossed the Somme unhindered on October 19. Then d'Albret moved from Peronne to block the enemy's path to Calais, which led October 25 to the third main battle of the Hundred Years' War - at Agincourt, which ended in the complete defeat of the French. Having won this victory over the enemy, Henry returned to England, leaving the Duke of Bedford in his place. The Hundred Years' War was again interrupted by a truce for 2 years.
Hundred Years' War in 1418-1422
In 1418, Henry again landed in Normandy with 25 thousand people, took possession of a significant part of France and, with the assistance of the French Queen Isabella (Princess of Bavaria), forced Charles VI to conclude a deal with him on May 21, 1420. peace in Troyes, by which he received the hand of the daughter of Charles and Isabella, Catherine, and was recognized as the heir to the French throne. However, the Dauphin Charles, son of Charles VI, did not recognize this treaty and continued the Hundred Years' War. 1421 Henry landed in France for the third time, took Dreux and Mo and pushed the Dauphin beyond the Loire, but suddenly fell ill and died (1422), almost simultaneously with Charles VI, after which Henry’s son, an infant, ascended the thrones of England and France HenryVI. However, the Dauphin was proclaimed king of France by his few followers under the name CarlaVII.
End of the Hundred Years' War
At the beginning of this period of the Hundred Years' War, all of Northern France (Normandy, Ile-de-France, Brie, Champagne, Picardy, Ponthieu, Boulogne) and most of Aquitaine in the southwest were in the hands of the British; Charles VII's possessions were limited only to the territory between Tours and Orleans. The French feudal aristocracy was completely humiliated. During the Hundred Years' War, it demonstrated its inconsistency more than once. Therefore, the aristocrats could not serve as reliable support for the young king Charles VII, who relied mainly on the leaders of the mercenary gangs. Soon, Earl Douglas with 5 thousand Scots entered his service, with the rank of constable, but in 1424 he was defeated by the English at Verneuil. Then the Duke of Brittany was appointed constable, to whom management of state affairs also passed.
Meanwhile, the Duke of Bedford, who ruled France as regent of Henry VI, tried to find means to end the Hundred Years' War in favor of the English, recruited new troops in France, transported reinforcements from England, extended the limits of Henry's possessions and finally began the siege of Orleans, last stronghold defenders of independent France. At the same time, the Duke of Brittany quarreled with Charles VII and again took the side of the English.
It seemed that France's loss of the Hundred Years' War and its death independent state were inevitable, but from that same time its revival began. Excessive misfortunes aroused patriotism among the people and brought Joan of Arc to the theater of the Hundred Years' War. She made a strong moral impression on the French and their enemies, which served in favor of the rightful king, brought his troops a number of successes over the British and opened the way for Charles himself to Reims, where he was crowned... Since 1429, when Joan liberated Orleans, not only was the end put to the successes of the British, but in general the course of the Hundred Years' War began to take an increasingly favorable turn for the French king. He renewed the alliance with the Scots and the Duke of Brittany, and 1434 g. entered into an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy.
Joan of Arc during the siege of Orleans. Artist J. E. Lenepve
Bedford and the British made new mistakes, which increased the number of supporters of Charles VII. The French began to gradually take away their enemy's conquests. Distressed by this turn of the Hundred Years' War, Bedford died, and after him the regency passed to the incapable Duke of York. In 1436, Paris submitted to the king; then the British, having suffered a series of defeats, concluded a truce in 1444, which lasted until 1449.
When, in this way, the royal power, having restored the independence of France, strengthened its position, it became possible to lay solid foundations for the internal and external security of the state by establishing standing troops. From then on, the French army could easily compete with the British. This was quickly revealed in the last outbreak of the Hundred Years' War at the end of the reign of Charles VII, which ended in the complete expulsion of the English from France.
Charles VII, King of France, winner of the Hundred Years' War. Artist J. Fouquet, between 1445 and 1450
Of the military clashes of this period of the Hundred Years' War, the most remarkable are: 1) The battle of August 15, 1450 at Formigny, in which the dismounted archers of the Ordonnance companies outflanked the British from the left flank and rear and forced them to clear the very position at which the frontal attack of the French was repulsed. This enabled the gendarmes of the Ordonnance companies, with a decisive attack on horseback, to completely defeat the enemy; even free shooters acted quite well in this battle; 2) the last major battle of the Hundred Years' War - July 17, 1453 at Castiglione, where the same free shooters, in shelters, drove back and upset the troops of the old English commander Talbot.
Charles VII was also favored by the fact that Denmark entered into an alliance with him, and in England itself, internal turmoil and civil strife began again. Although the struggle between both states still continued after the death of Charles VII and Henry VI, and the English king did not stop calling himself the King of France, he no longer sought to ascend the French throne, but only to divide the Capetian-Valois state. - thus, the date of the end of the Hundred Years War itself is usually recognized as 1453 (still under Charles VII).
The first major defeat of the Wehrmacht was the defeat of the fascist German troops in the Battle of Moscow (1941-1942), during which the fascist “blitzkrieg” was finally thwarted and the myth of the invincibility of the Wehrmacht was dispelled.
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a war against the United States with the attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 8, the USA, Great Britain and a number of other countries declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. The entry of the United States and Japan into the war affected the balance of forces and increased the scale of the armed struggle.
IN North Africa in November 1941 and in January-June 1942, combat operations were carried out with varying success, then until the autumn of 1942 there was a lull. In the Atlantic, German submarines continued to cause great damage to the Allied fleets (by the fall of 1942, the tonnage of sunk ships, mainly in the Atlantic, amounted to over 14 million tons). On Pacific Ocean At the beginning of 1942, Japan occupied Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Burma, inflicted a major defeat on the English fleet in the Gulf of Thailand, the Anglo-American-Dutch fleet in the Javanese operation, and established supremacy at sea. The American Navy and Air Force, significantly strengthened by the summer of 1942, defeated the Japanese fleet in naval battles in the Coral Sea (May 7-8) and off Midway Island (June).
Third period of the war (November 19, 1942 - December 31, 1943) began with a counteroffensive by Soviet troops, which ended with the defeat of the 330,000-strong German group during Battle of Stalingrad(July 17, 1942 - February 2, 1943), which marked the beginning of a radical change in the Great Patriotic War and had a great influence on the further course of the entire Second World War. The mass expulsion of the enemy from the territory of the USSR began. The Battle of Kursk (1943) and the advance to the Dnieper completed a radical turning point in the course of the Great Patriotic War. The Battle of the Dnieper (1943) upset the enemy’s plans for waging a protracted war.
At the end of October 1942, when the Wehrmacht was fighting fierce battles on the Soviet-German front, Anglo-American troops intensified military operations in North Africa, conducting the El Alamein operation (1942) and the North African landing operation (1942). In the spring of 1943 they carried out the Tunisian operation. In July-August 1943, Anglo-American troops, using favorable environment(the main forces of the German troops took part in the Battle of Kursk), landed on the island of Sicily and took possession of it.
On July 25, 1943, the fascist regime in Italy collapsed, and on September 3, it concluded a truce with the Allies. Italy's withdrawal from the war marked the beginning of the collapse of the fascist bloc. On October 13, Italy declared war on Germany. Nazi troops occupied its territory. In September, the Allies landed in Italy, but were unable to break the defenses of the German troops and suspended active operations in December. In the Pacific and Asia, Japan sought to retain the territories captured in 1941-1942, without weakening the groups on the borders of the USSR. The Allies, having launched an offensive in the Pacific Ocean in the fall of 1942, captured the island of Guadalcanal (February 1943), landed on New Guinea, and liberated the Aleutian Islands.
Fourth period of the war (January 1, 1944 - May 9, 1945) began with a new offensive of the Red Army. As a result of crushing blows by Soviet troops Nazi invaders were expelled from the Soviet Union. During the subsequent offensive, the USSR Armed Forces carried out a liberation mission against European countries and, with the support of their peoples, played a decisive role in the liberation of Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Austria and other states. Anglo-American troops landed on June 6, 1944 in Normandy, opening a second front, and began an offensive in Germany. In February, the Crimean (Yalta) Conference (1945) of the leaders of the USSR, USA, and Great Britain took place, which examined issues of the post-war world order and the participation of the USSR in the war with Japan.
In the winter of 1944-1945, on the Western Front, Nazi troops defeated the Allied forces during the Ardennes Operation. To ease the position of the Allies in the Ardennes, at their request, the Red Army began its winter offensive ahead of schedule. Having restored the situation by the end of January, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine River during the Meuse-Rhine Operation (1945), and in April carried out the Ruhr Operation (1945), which ended in the encirclement and capture of a large enemy group. During the Northern Italian Operation (1945), the Allied forces, slowly moving north, with the help of Italian partisans, completely captured Italy in early May 1945. In the Pacific theater of operations, the Allies carried out operations to defeat the Japanese fleet, liberated a number of islands occupied by Japan, approached Japan directly and cut off its communications with the countries of Southeast Asia.
In April-May 1945, the Soviet Armed Forces defeated Berlin operation(1945) and the Prague operation (1945) the last groupings of Nazi troops met with the Allied forces. The war in Europe is over. On May 8, 1945, Germany unconditionally surrendered. May 9, 1945 became Victory Day over Nazi Germany.
At the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference (1945), the USSR confirmed its agreement to enter the war with Japan. For political purposes, the United States held on August 6 and 9, 1945 atomic bombings Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan and began military operations on August 9. During the Soviet-Japanese War (1945), Soviet troops, having defeated the Japanese Kwantung Army, eliminated the source of aggression in the Far East, liberated Northeast China, North Korea, Sakhalin and Kurile Islands, thereby hastening the end of World War II. On September 2, Japan surrendered. The Second World War is over.
The Second World War was the largest military conflict in human history. It lasted 6 years, 110 million people were in the ranks of the Armed Forces. More than 55 million people died in World War II. Greatest casualties suffered by the Soviet Union, which lost 27 million people. Damage from direct destruction and destruction of material assets on the territory of the USSR amounted to almost 41% of all countries participating in the war.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
What was Russian foreign policy like at the beginning of the seventeenth century? North War - the struggle for the coast was the main and most important event of those years. The battle lasted twenty-one years. Some call it the Great Northern War, and some call it the Twenty Years' War. In general, this battle between a coalition of European northern states and the Swedish Empire began in 1700 and ended in 1721.
Countries fought for possession of the Baltic territories. Unfortunately, the battle ended in defeat for Sweden. But the war ended, because everything comes to an end sooner or later, and a young Russian empire. She owned a powerful fleet and an impressive army. Its capital was St. Petersburg. It was located on the shores of the Baltic Sea.
So, on the initiative of King Augustus II of Poland and the Saxon Elector, the Northern Alliance was created. It was this organization that initially declared war on Sweden. The Northern Union also included Russia, led by Peter I, and the Norwegian-Danish kingdom, headed by King Christian the Fifth.
After a series of lightning Swedish victories in 1700, the Northern Alliance collapsed. Denmark then left the battlefield in 1700, and Saxony retreated in 1706. To the Russian state had to fight the Swedes on their own, but by 1709 the Northern Alliance was restored. The stages of the Northern War differ from each other: after all, first Prussia, then Holland, then Hanover fought on the side of Russia. And Sweden was first helped in battles by England (from 1707 - Great Britain), then by Holstein and the Ottoman Empire.
The Ukrainian Cossacks, together with the Zaporozhye Cossacks, were divided and to some extent supported the Turks and Swedes, but mainly assisted the Russian troops. As a result, Russia managed to regain control over the ancient Russian fiefdoms in the Baltic states, lost during troubled times.
Why did the war start?
What are the most important reasons for the Northern War? Let's try to get an answer to this question. It is known that at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Swedish Empire was the dominant country on the Baltic Sea. In addition, it was considered one of the leading countries in Europe. This state owned a large part of the Baltic coast: it included the current Baltic, the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, part south coast Baltic Sea.
Interestingly, in 1697, fifteen-year-old Charles the Twelfth was appointed Head of Sweden. Sweden's neighbors took notice of him young age and counted on an easy victory: the Norwegian-Danish kingdom, Saxony and Russia thus tried to make claims against Sweden regarding its territories. It was these three powers that created the Northern Alliance, the founder of which was the King of Poland and Elector of Saxony Augustus II. This man wanted to subjugate Livonia (Livonia), part of Sweden, which would help strengthen his power in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the way, Livonia ended up in the hands of Sweden in accordance with the Treaty of Oliwa in 1660.
What pushed Denmark into conflict with Sweden? Of course, there is a long-standing desire to dominate the Baltic Sea. It is known that in 1658, Charles X Gustav defeated the Danes during a campaign in Jutland. He also captured several provinces in the south of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Denmark had to refuse to collect duties on ships that passed through the Sound Strait. By the way, the two powers competed with each other for control of Denmark's southern neighbor - the Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.
The reasons for the Northern War also lie in the following: the Russian sovereign Peter I, after negotiations with Augustus, was the last to join the Northern Alliance. This event was formalized in the form of the Preobrazhensky Treaty. Russia's land claims to Sweden included Ingria and Karelia: these countries were annexed by Sweden during the Time of Troubles in accordance with the Treaty of Stolbovo of 1617. Russia was also not averse to annexing the lands of Livonia, because their subordination to Rus' in the eleventh century was remembered from chronicles - the territory was considered the ancient “fatherland” of Russian rulers.
It is interesting that during the fighting of 1656-1658, the Russian army was able to occupy the eastern part of Livonia and Ingria for some time. The Russians captured Noteburg, Nyenschanz and Dinaburg and besieged Riga. But the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was resumed, and Russia had to conclude the peace treaty of Kardis - all the conquered lands were returned to Sweden.
It is very interesting to study the causes of the Northern War - this is the key to understanding impressive battles. So, the Russian state ensured trade relations with Europe with the help of Arkhangelsk, the only port on the White Sea. There was difficult and irregular navigation here, which made trade very difficult. And in the field of shipbuilding and navigation on the White Sea there was a significant lag. In general, acquiring access to the Baltic Sea was considered the most important economic task for Russia.
Isn’t it true that these are quite serious reasons for the Northern War? By the way, a secondary factor in Russia’s entry into the battle was the end of the war with Turkey. The Treaty of Constantinople was concluded on July 3, 1700, and on August 18, final peace was declared with Turkey. Finally, on August 19, Russia declared war on Sweden. Immediately, all Swedish goods located in Moscow began to be confiscated in accordance with the newly issued decree. They were confiscated in favor of the Russian treasury. At the same time, the Swedish envoy was arrested in Moscow.
Various troubles, especially personal grievances in 1697, were considered reasons for declaring war. After all, it was then that Peter I, who was traveling around Europe, was coldly greeted by the Swedes in Riga. However, land claims were not mentioned.
The beginning of the battle
Participants in the Northern War were distinguished by their extraordinary abilities. For example, an eighteen-year-old was “in love with war.” He had outstanding tactical talent. Therefore, the Swedes were able to win a series of important victories in the first hostilities. However, the brave warrior Charles XII was a very bad politician: he outlined unrealistic war goals for himself and his army.
His main enemy, Peter I, turned out to be a highly gifted commander, strategist and military organizer. In addition, he was considered a very insightful and talented diplomat. Of course, he was plagued by failures at the beginning of the battle, but in the end the enterprise ended successfully. After all, Charles XII made too many mistakes.
Ayuka Khan also supported the battles of the Northern War in some way. This Kalmyk ruler was born in Dzungaria. At the age of twelve he migrated to the Volga region, where he was proclaimed the first taisha of the Kalmyk Horde. The Russian authorities started negotiations with the Kalmyks, during which they managed to make friends with them. Russia at that time strongly encouraged Ayuki's policy. In return, he allowed her to use his army in the battles of the Northern War.
Denmark Campaign
Participants in the Northern War, namely the troops of Saxony, besieged Riga on February 12, 1700. However, the dreams of Augustus II were not destined to come true: the Livonian nobility did not side with the attackers, and Augustus’ units did not achieve success. Frederick IV in August of the same year raided the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp in the southern part of the state. However, ten thousand Swedish soldiers, led by Charles XII, took the Danes by surprise when they landed near Copenhagen. Denmark was forced to break the alliance with Augustus II: on August 7, it had to sign the peace Treaty of Travendal.
Russian campaign against Ingermanland
Now let's look at the main events of the Northern War. It is known that Peter received a message about the conclusion of the peace treaty of Constantinople on August 18. No one notified him that Denmark had ceased hostilities, and therefore on August 19 he declared war on Sweden. Eventually Russian troops went on the offensive.
Previously, Russia entered into an alliance agreement with Augustus II, according to which it was supposed to receive Ingria (aka Swedish Ingria). This country was similar in size to the current Leningrad region.
Interestingly, on the border between Estonia and Ingermanland was located an impressive city and Sweden's largest fortress in the region - Narva. This fortress became a target for Russian commanders.
Isn’t it true that the stages of the Northern War are very diverse and picturesque? Consider the trip to Narva. It was organized for the fall, but completely unsuccessfully. There was little food, the soldiers were starving. The horses carrying equipment were fed so poorly that they began to die. Among other things, it began to rain, the condition of the roads worsened, and the carts of the convoy regularly broke down.
In general, Peter I wanted to gather over sixty thousand soldiers near Narva. Unfortunately, the army advanced into this area too slowly and disrupted the king’s plans and deadlines. As a result, the siege of Narva began on October 14, in which only 40 thousand soldiers took part.
Siege of Narva
What else is the Northern War famous for? Let's briefly look at the siege of Narva. This event was poorly organized. The cannon fire on the city turned out to be ineffective, since the Russian army used light guns. Moreover, there was only enough ammunition for a couple of weeks.
Narva is a fortress shared with neighboring Ivangorod. Therefore, Peter I, who personally planned the siege, had to stretch the Russian troops as much as possible, simultaneously surrounding both fortresses. This arrangement turned out to be very unfortunate for the Russian forces: during the next battle of Narva, it weakened their combat effectiveness.
What did Augustus II do? Having received information about Denmark’s quick withdrawal from the war, he immediately lifted the siege of Riga and retreated to Courland. The course of the Northern War was changed: thanks to the actions of Augustus II, Charles XII was able to transfer part of his army by sea to Pernov (Pärnu). He landed there on October 6 and headed towards Narva, which was besieged by the Russian horde.
Further, on the night of November 18, Field Marshal Count Golovin, together with Peter I, left the army - they headed to Novgorod. The king entrusted the highest command to the eldest in rank - the foreigner Duke de Croix. On November 19, 1700, the army of Charles XII inflicted a severe defeat on the Russian army in the battle of Narva. It is interesting that the Swedish army numbered 25 thousand people, and the Russian army - about 40 thousand.
The years of the Northern War are interesting due to the actions of the cowardly Duke de Croix, who even before decisive battle surrendered to Charles XII. But he did not surrender alone, but together with his headquarters, consisting of strangers. After all the losses, the Russian army still outnumbered the Swedish one. But by November 21, its main part capitulated on the orders of the Duke de Croix.
It should be noted that the Semyonovsky Life Guards and Preobrazhensky Life Guards regiments staunchly defended themselves from the Swedes. They were not only able to prevent a shameful capitulation, but also covered the retreat of part of the Russian army, thereby protecting it from final defeat. For the courage shown in this battle, the soldiers of the regiment in 1700-1740 were awarded red stockings: in memory of the fact that “they stood knee-deep in blood in this battle.”
Campaign outcome
The battles of the Northern War ended in different ways. For example, the result of military operations near Narva for the Russian side was terrible: the losses in mortally wounded, killed, deserted, drowned, died from frost and hunger amounted to from eight to ten thousand people. In addition, seven hundred people, including ten generals and fifty-six officers, were captured, and 179 of the 184 guns were lost. It was a disaster.
Reasons for the defeat of the Russian army
Some battles of the Northern War ended in defeat. Let's look at the reasons for the defeat of the Russian army in the Battle of Narva. Firstly, the army was disgustingly prepared for war with a strong enemy. Moreover, it was in the process of reorganization. Secondly, the army was poorly armed and did not know how to fight according to the laws of linear tactics or carry out reconnaissance missions. The artillery was of different calibers and outdated. In fact, at that time she had more than twenty-five different calibers - this nuance catastrophically complicated her supply of ammunition. And finally the most important moment: the Russian army did not have its own national command staff. After all, all the main command positions were occupied by foreign officers.
In Europe, after this failure, for several years it was believed that the Russian army was completely unfit for combat. At the same time, Charles XII was nicknamed the Swedish Alexander the Great.
What were the main events of the Northern War after the defeat of the Russian army near Narva? Peter I took the next step: he limited the number of foreign officers in the troops. Now they made up only a third of the total number of officers in the unit.
It is noteworthy that the defeat at Narva played a huge role in the development of the Russian army and the history of the state. Historian M.N. Pokrovsky noted that all Russian interests in the war boiled down to gaining access to the sea, trade and gaining control over the Baltic trading ports. That is why Peter, in the initial stages of the conflict, devoted Special attention Baltic ports - Riga and Narva. Unfortunately, he suffered a crushing defeat near Narva and was driven back to the area of modern St. Petersburg. Peter decided to build a new port and city at the mouth of the Neva - future capital Russian Empire.
Russian campaign
So the Northern War continued. The Russian campaign is briefly described below, but succinctly. Of course, Peter I appreciated the reasons why the Russian troops were defeated near Narva. Now he directed all his potential towards preparing the country and troops for war with Sweden. He creates a new one regular army, improves its organizational structure, training and education system, and acquires the latest weapons.
He is updating the artillery - reducing the number of calibers, there are now only 12 of them. By order of Peter I, three hundred new guns were cast in a short period of time. It should be noted that some tools were made from church bells that were seized from the treasury and melted down. As a result, Peter regained his strength after the failure at Narva and resumed his offensive in the north.
Battles in Ingria
How did the Northern War continue? Let us briefly examine the subsequent course of events. It is known that the main forces of Sweden took part in the battles in Saxony and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Taking advantage of the moment, Peter in 1701 ordered a new offensive to be launched in the north. Then the Russian troops commanded, they attacked Ingria (Ingria), then belonging to Sweden, and on December 30, 1701, at the Battle of Erestfera, they won their first victory in the Northern War.
At that time, the Swedish army was commanded by General Schlippenbach. And in July 1702, in the battle of Hummelshof, the Russian army defeated his hordes for the second time.
As a result, by the beginning of 1703, the entire course of the Neva was controlled by the Russians.
Battles in Estland and Livonia
In general, the results of the Northern War were greatly influenced by 1703 - by its end, Russia controlled almost all the lands of Ingria. In 1704, the Russian army continued its offensive. By the summer of 1704, under the command of Boris Sheremetev, she entered Livonia and besieged Dorpat. The fortress was taken in July 1704 with the personal participation of Peter I.
After these events, the second group of the Russian army besieged Narva and entered Estland. Then the soldiers were commanded by General Ogilvy. And so Peter came from Dorpat, and by the end of summer this fortress was taken. Agree, the assault on the fortresses was magnificent! Russian army in this operation demonstrated its increased skill and excellent equipment.
Polish campaign
During the Northern War, Charles XII had to make a colossal number of decisions. He decided to abandon active military action against the Russian army. And he wanted to deliver the main blow to the army of Augustus II. In general, the Swedish king wanted to enthrone a monarch favorable to him in Poland instead of Augustus II. He decided to create a buffer zone from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between the Russians and the Swedes.
Then, in July 1701, Swedish troops, without meeting adequate resistance, crossed the Dvina and captured Livonia. Interestingly, the Polish campaign ended with the capture of the Swedish commander and the victory of the Russian army.
Invasion of Russia
The results of the Northern War are interesting to every person who cares about history. But let's first consider 1707 - all this year the Swedish army was in Saxony. During this period, Charles XII managed to cover losses and significantly strengthen the army. And at the beginning of 1708, the Swedes headed to Smolensk. Some believe that they initially planned to deliver a major blow in the Moscow direction. Peter I did not have the enemy’s plans: the position of the Russians became more complicated every day.
The significance of the Northern War is very interesting; every nuance influenced its outcome. For example, on September 11-13, 1708, a military council of the Swedish king and his generals took place in a small Smolensk village. This was the easternmost point of movement of the Swedish army during the invasion of Russia.
The military decided the issue of further movements of the Swedish army. Some proposed going to Moscow through Smolensk, while others wanted to move south, to Ukraine. Unfortunately, she needed rest: the soldiers were running out of food and ammunition was worn out, most of them were sick. However, the hetman assured the Swedes of the support of the Ukrainian population, and they chose to move to Ukraine.
Poltava
Of course, historical meaning The Northern War is very big for the Russians. They won on June 27, 1709 in the battle of Poltava, which the Swedes besieged in vain and with significant losses.
It is known that after this grandiose battle, Charles XII hid in Ottoman Empire, where he persuaded Sultan Ahmed III to begin military operations against Russia. Menshikov, one of the brave men who defeated the Royal Army of Sweden, was awarded the title of Field Marshal by Emperor Peter I for his participation in the battle.
Outcome of the war
The results of the Northern War are vague and are assessed in completely different ways. Some point out that to defeat Sweden, especially as part of a powerful coalition (Saxony, Denmark, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), and provide Russian access to the Baltic Sea, twenty years was not required at all.
Many admit that the war radically changed the balance of power in the Baltic: now Russia enjoyed the greatest influence in this area. The key task set by Peter I, of course, was solved - Russia received access to the sea and began to establish maritime trade with Europe.
How did the Northern War influence Peter’s reform activities? Thanks to her, reforms only gained some acceleration. It should be noted that Peter did not stop his reform activities for a single second. All his reforms were due to military problems.
By the way, the Northern War of 1700-1721 had a significant impact on Russia - the country experienced a serious economic and demographic crisis. And in the history of Finland, the most difficult period of the war - from 1714 to 1721 - was called the Great Hatred. Sweden lost its former power and became a secondary state.
