PLAN
I. State reforms of the first half of the 18th century
a) decree on single inheritance
b) the table of ranks in 1722
c) reform of the state apparatus
d) local government reform
e) the status of the Russian monarch
II. Formation of a new system of law in the first half of the 18th century
a) military articles of 1716, types of crimes and punishments
b) the judicial system and the judicial process
c) civil, inheritance and family law
III. Codification of law in the second half of the 18th century
a) development of a new Code (1754)
IV. State reform of the second half of the 18th century
a) judicial reform of 1775
b) certificate of honor to the nobility
V. State reforms of the first half of the 19th century
a) reforms of the state apparatus
b) police reforms
VI Codification of law in the first half of the 19th century
a) civil law
b) criminal law
I. State reforms of the first half of the 18th century
The transformations that took place in Russia covered almost all aspects of the country's life: economy, politics, science, everyday life, foreign policy, political system... They affected the position of the working masses, church affairs, etc. In many ways, these transformations are associated with the activities of Peter I
a) Decree on single inheritance
Peter's policy contributed to the sharp strengthening and consolidation of the nobility. It stood out from the upper ranks of the service class, while the lower ranks of the latter became state peasants. The nobility pushed the boyar aristocracy out of power and strengthened its economic position. The decree on single inheritance of 1714 legally equalized patrimonial and local property, while only one of the heirs could now receive all immovable property, and the rest - movable property. With these measures, Peter hoped, firstly, to prevent the fragmentation of the noble possessions, and, secondly, to encourage the nobles to more actively engage in military and civil service, entrepreneurship and study.
The decree on single inheritance could in the future lead to the emergence in Russia of a layer of the nobility, independent of the favors of the state and the autocrat. In Western Europe, this contributed to limiting royal power... However, nothing of the kind happened in Russia. Under Peter I, the dependence of the nobles on the state grew even more, and later this decree was canceled under pressure from the nobility.
b) table of ranks
After a long and thorough preparation in 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was published - one of the most important documents of the era of strengthening of the tsarist autocracy, defining the system of ranks and the order of promotion in the public service - military and civil. Dividing all civil and military positions into 14 ranks, she put at the forefront not the nobility of origin, but the personal dignity of the nobles, expanded access to public service for representatives of other classes. But that was not the ultimate goal of the transformation. With the help of the principle of personal length of service, strictly specified conditions for raising the ladder of ranks, Peter turned the mass of servicemen into a military-bureaucratic corps, completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. At the same time, Peter strove to connect as closely as possible the very concept of "nobleman" with the obligatory permanent service, requiring knowledge and practical skills. Only that nobleman is worthy of veneration who serves. Peter backed up his suggestions with actions: all the nobles were assigned to various institutions and regiments, their children were sent to schools, sent to study abroad, the tsar forbade those who did not want to study to marry, and took away estates from those who were hiding from service.
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Military overland ranks |
Civilian ranks |
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Generalissimo Field Marshal | ||
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General of artillery, infantry, cavalry |
Valid Privy Counselor |
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Lieutenant general |
Privy Counselor |
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Major general |
Valid Councilor of State |
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Foreman |
State Councillor |
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Colonel |
Collegiate counselor |
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Lieutenant colonel |
Court Counselor |
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Collegiate Assessor |
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Titular counselor |
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Head captain |
Collegiate Secretary |
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Senate Secretary |
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Provincial Secretary |
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Second lieutenant |
Senate Registrar |
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Ensign |
Collegiate registrar |
c) reforms of the state apparatus
The most important direction of Peter's transformations was the reformation of the state. The old apparatus was not able to cope with the increasingly complex control tasks. Therefore, new orders and offices began to be created. The reform, responding to the most urgent needs of the autocracy, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic tendency. It was with the help of strengthening the bureaucratic element in management that Peter intended to solve all state issues. The reform led to the concentration of all financial and administrative powers in the hands of several governors - representatives central government, but also to the creation in the field of an extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials. The previous system "order - district" has doubled: "order - province - province - district".
A similar scheme was laid in the idea of organizing the Senate. Autocracy, which increased sharply in the second half of the 17th century. There was no need for institutions of representation and self-government. At the beginning of the 18th century, the activity actually ceases Boyar Duma, the management of the central and local apparatus passes to the so-called "consilia of ministers" - a temporary council of chiefs of the most important representative departments.
The creation and functioning of the Senate was next level bureaucratization of top management. The permanent composition of senators, elements of collegiality, a personal oath, a program of work for a long period, a strict hierarchy of management - all this testified to the growing importance of bureaucratic principles, without which Peter did not think of either effective management or autocracy as political regime personal power.
Peter chose as a model for creating the state reform he planned state structure Sweden.
Peter made great efforts to establish the effective work of the institutions he created and paid the main attention to the development of numerous documents that were supposed to ensure the effectiveness of the apparatus. He also created a sample of the regulations of the central institution - the Admiralty Collegium.
In the post-Petrine era and up to recent years In the 18th century, state reforms in Russia were carried out:
First, because Peter's successors each time turned out to be incapable of leading their system of state institutions created for themselves.
Secondly, Peter's successors were forced to reckon with the fact that their environment was heterogeneous - in it the old nobility had to get along with the "new" (ministered, appointed)
Thirdly, a series of dynastic crises favored palace coups. They, in turn, engendered the readiness of the monarchical authorities to seek support from the upper class, whose interests were recognized as the guard and the military bureaucratic elite.
Thanks to these prerequisites, the state reforms of the middle of the 18th century, state reforms were of the same type: supreme advisory and administrative bodies were established, separated from the Senate and placed above it.
Only Elizabeth, relying on the authority of her father, dealt only with the Senate, restoring its status supreme body in the state. There is reason to believe that the Elizabethan Senate, while remaining appointed, was perceived by the empress as a representative body that expressed the requests of the local nobility. Indirectly, this is evidenced by the recognition on her part of the Senate's legislative initiative.
Elizabeth in questions domestic policy, and above all financial, acted in conjunction with the Senate. As a result of this, the first 15 years of Elizabeth's reign in historical and state science were called the “Golden Age of the Senate”. But in the second half of the 1950s, the Senate found it incapable of fulfilling its universal functions.
First, the capabilities of the Senate proved insufficient when Russia had to wage a war far from its borders in Central Europe against Prussia. Here it was necessary to comprehensively solve the tasks of a military-diplomatic nature and deal with issues of supplying troops, as well as directorates
The decision turned out to be standard - the "Conference at the Imperial Court" was established.
Secondly, the abundance of everyday affairs made it difficult for the Senate to solve a long-overdue task: the codification and updating of legislation.
In this, the Senate had to cede the main part preparatory work an elected representative body - the Legislative Commission, but the death of the Empress did not allow the commission to even begin work.
At the same time, the creation of advisory bodies appointed over the Senate was accompanied by the removal from the Senate of not many, but the most important ones, which in turn undermined the significance of the collegia.
In addition, Catherine I directly dealt a blow to the collegial principle, when in 1726, in order to reduce government spending, she significantly reduced the number of staff in the collegiums.
At the same time, the fiscal power was eliminated and the prosecutor's office was weakened.
By the time of the death of Peter I, the local government was in a state of almost complete decomposition, since there were close, but very poorly interacted with, military and civil government. The consequence of this was the widespread dissatisfaction of the landlords with the state of affairs on the ground.
In 1727, the third provincial reform was carried out. It retained three conditions of local government, but instead of tax districts with their elected officials, the posts of city governors were established, in whose jurisdiction were also the territories adjacent to the city. In essence, the principle of the historical territorial-administrative division was restored: "the districts are drawn to the city."
This created the preconditions for the uyezd to become the lowest territorial administrative unit. The main unit was to remain the one that belonged to the second level of government - a province with a voivode at its head.
Nevertheless, the number of provinces gradually increased, and the size of their territories decreased.
“Separate rule” - the separation of the judiciary from the administrative one, the governors and voivods were returned to judicial functions, but at the same time the jurisdiction of these officials and their subordination were not only poorly spelled out in the laws, but were also determined by the preference of the litigants themselves, who ignored the presence of instances in the court and management.
Thus, the 3rd provincial reform should be recognized as openly reactionary, that is, it returned local government in a number of ways to the realities of the 17th century.
Under Elizabeth, the state of local government and especially its inability to perform judicial functions became the cause of discontent among the landowners. Elizabeth tried to increase efficiency local authorities, restoring the significance of the prosecutor's office. The position of the Prosecutor General, which had not previously been replaced, was restored and the exclusive subordination of his prosecutorial vertical was confirmed. In local government, the role of prosecutors has been enhanced by the provision of judicial review functions.
Even under Anna, Peter's initiative in creating a police was developed. She appeared in 30 more cities. But with their exception, the police functions, as well as the collection of customs and and money, still remained under the jurisdiction of the city (posad) communities. This led the community to a crisis. Elizabeth laid the foundation for his resolution. In 1755, Elizabeth abolished internal customs duties.
The middle of the 18th century was the time of legislative recognition for the landowner public service... After the passport reform gave them administrative powers in relation to the peasants, a decree of 1757 determined organizational function landlords in the primary collection of taxes
In 1760, Elizabeth by law allowed the landowners to exile serfs to Siberia without resorting to legal proceedings of state authorities.
All these legislative measures made the landowner the lower authority in the local government system, and not only in practice.
Thus, the transformation of the system of state institutions in the middle of the 18th century was a series of attempts to adapt it (the system) to such a form of government as an absolute monarchy. At the same time, they demonstrated the insolubility of this task, revealing the imperfection of one-man and irresponsible government.
At the same time, the reforms of local institutions stemmed from the need of the state to achieve the desired degree of separation from society.
The strongest stimulator of Peter's reforms was bad start Northern War... All artillery was lost near Narva. It became clear that it would be necessary to re-create the army, to provide it with weapons, ammunition, and uniforms. The rapid creation of manufactories was carried out not for the sake of economic development or profit, but was due to the strict need to fully satisfy the needs of the army and navy. The current situation made Peter realize the need to increase and re-equip the army, determine the nature and characteristics of the entire economic policy Peter's government.
The essence of the reforms of Peter I was that they were a classic example of radical coercive reforms carried out by the state "from above". The initiative emanating from the society, that is, “from below,” turned out to be unclaimed. The main instrument of reform was legislative regulation all aspects of society. Peter's legislation covers literally all areas public life: regulation of industry, foreign trade, army and navy, management of various segments of the population.
In the field of economics, Peter's transformations were aimed, first of all, at the accelerated construction of state-owned factories in industries strategically important for the state. Already in connection with Azov campaigns and the construction of the Voronezh fleet expanded the Borinsky iron-making plant, built the Lipetsk blast-furnace and Kuzminsky hammer plants near the Voronezh shipyard. In the Tula district, arms factories were expanded and re-equipped, which by the end of Peter's reign were producing 15 thousand guns and a thousand pistols a year.
To supply the army and navy, for sale on the domestic market and export abroad, 15 cloth and woolen, 11 linen and sailing, 14 leather, 9 silk, 6 paper, many gunpowder, rope and other manufactories were founded. In total, by the end of the reign of Peter the Great, 221 industrial enterprises were operating in Russia, of which 200 factories and plants were founded in the Peter the Great era.
Letters and letters of the tsar were sent to all parts of the country, sometimes with advice, sometimes with a formidable order to search for iron, silver and lead, to start manufactories and factories, to cast iron, to weave linen and canvas. Encouraging enterprising people to invest in industry, the tsar freed entrepreneurs from duties, provided them with loans, benefits and state protection from foreign competitors.
The rapidly developing industry was in dire need of labor. In the beginning, all kinds of "walking people", fugitive soldiers and beggars were attached to factories. The number of free workers was small. Most often, working people were recruited from serfs.
In feudal Russia, Peter solved the problem of labor power in industry in a purely feudal manner - forcibly attributing state peasants to factories. It was also allowed for entrepreneurs to buy serfs from their factories in order to use them in factory work. So turned industrial enterprises, where the capitalist way of life was born, into serf enterprises. In entire industries, only serfs were employed.
With the development of industry, the internal and international trade, especially with the conquest of the exit to Baltic Sea... The center of foreign trade is moving here. Petersburg became the main city through which trade with the West went. In 1722, 116 foreign ships visited the port of St. Petersburg, and in 1725 - 914 already. By the end of Peter's reign, Russian imports amounted to 2.1 million rubles, and exports - 4.2 million rubles, that is, 2 times more. In the total mass of Russian export, products accounted for 52%, and raw materials - 48%. Large profits went to the merchants, went to the state treasury. The autocratic government of Peter consistently pursued a commercial and industrial policy based on mercantilism.
Thus, Peter's reforms made it possible to create a powerful economic base for a developing nation, but at the same time, the industry imposed by the state was serfdom, which hindered the development of bourgeois relations in the country.
V social policy reformatory activities affected all classes of Russian society. Peter I first of all strove to economically and politically stabilize the ruling class - the nobility. In the first quarter of the 18th century, the once united class of "service people" collapsed. The upper class of the service class - the servants "by their fatherland", that is, by origin, turned into nobles, and the lower classes of the servants "by their fatherland" and "by device" became state peasants.
The formation of the estate of the nobility was the result conscious activity Peter. He was building a strong noble state. And for this it was necessary to raise the nobility. The tsar seeks to ensure that it considers "the sovereign's service" its honorable right, its vocation, to skillfully rule the country and command over the troops.
Peter establishes new responsibilities for the nobles: from 10 to 15 years old, a nobleman is obliged to learn "reading and writing, numbers and geometry." From the age of 15 he went to serve. The passage of a simple course of science was obligatory, without a certificate of "training" the nobleman was not given permission to marry.
By decrees of the tsar, the order was established, according to which "nobility" was not taken into account when appointing to office and passing the service. Conversely, the most gifted and active people from the people had the opportunity to receive any military or civilian rank. This order was enshrined in the "Table of Ranks" adopted in 1722, according to which all positions in the army, navy and civilian institutions were divided into 14 ranks or ranks. All ranks could be obtained only for their personal qualities and for service.
The "Table of Ranks", which enshrined the principle of career advancement depending on personal merit, was undoubtedly a step forward from feudalism to the creation of the foundations of a bourgeois state. At the same time, the "Table of Ranks" defended the interests of the ruling classes.
Peter eliminated the division that existed within the ruling class at that time into the devious, boyars, nobles, the boyars hereditarily owned by the land, and the service nobility. All became nobles. The 1714 decree on single inheritance eliminated the distinction between estates and estates. All lands became completely the property of the nobles, their estates. Peter forbade the nobles to split land holdings between all their sons and ordered to bequeath real estate to only one son of their choice. When there was no will, the eldest son inherited the estate. This prevented the fragmentation of the noble lands, the fall in the solvency of the peasants, prompted the nobles to carry out "the sovereign's service", to engage in trade. Those who did not receive estates were forced to "seek their bread by service, teaching, bargaining, and so on."
Realizing the importance of trade and industry in the life of the state, Peter strove to raise the activity of the urban population, to unify social structure cities. According to the western model, magistrates, workshops and guilds were transferred to it. The Posad population was divided into two guilds: the first included the upper posad, wealthy merchants, artisans, townspeople of intelligent professions; the second guild includes small shopkeepers and artisans.
Peter's social transformations also affected the serf peasantry. With the introduction of the poll tax, the legal position of the serf peasantry worsened as a result of its merger with the slaves into a single estate of landlord "subjects". The slaves were first rewritten and then included in the capitation salary. Having lost the sign of taxlessness, slaves became a kind of serfs and lost the right to receive freedom.
Towards the end of Peter's reign, many petty levies were abolished, and the direct taxes that were distributed among the taxpayers were replaced by the poll tax. For this, in 1718, a census of the entire "taxable" population was made. A capitation salary of 74 kopecks is set for all males included in the revision lists.
Thus, in the social system of Russia in Peter's time, the process of unification of the estate structure of society was deliberately carried out, the purpose of which was to create an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state.
The central place among Peter's transformations was occupied by the reforms of public administration, the reorganization of all its links. At the beginning of the reign of Peter, the old organs of power and administration continued to exist, next to which new ones appeared (Preobrazhensky Prikaz, Prikaz of Military Affairs, etc.). The Boyar Duma gradually receded into the background. The number of members of the Duma gradually decreased. The old boyars were dying, and the tsar almost never gave new awards to the boyars. In 1699, the Boyar Duma was replaced by the Near Chancellery, consisting of eight confidants of the tsar, whom he called the "consilia of ministers."
Setting out on the Prut campaign on February 22, 1711, Peter signed a decree on the organization of a new higher state institution - the Senate. Nine senators were appointed to this institution: Count I.A. Musin-Pushkin, T.N. Streshnev, Prince P.A. Golitsyn, Prince D.V. Dolgoruky, G.A. Plemyannikov, M.M. Samarin, V. Apukhtin, prince G.I. Volkonsky, N.P. Melnitsky and chief secretary Shchukin.
The power and competences of the Senate were clarified by decrees dated March 2, 1711. The Senate was instructed to be in charge of finance, trade, take care of increasing income, monitor the actions of high officials and institutions, monitor legal proceedings, and develop new laws.
The Senate was firmly assigned the rights of the highest state institution, set over the entire central apparatus of management and administration, all collegiums and chanceries were subordinate to it. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was put at the head of the Senate, P.I. Yaguzhinsky - "the eye of the sovereign." He exercised his control through prosecutors appointed to all government offices. Then, a system of fiscal headed by an ober-fiscal was added to the prosecutor's supervision. They fought against abuses of officials and, above all, against bribery. But Peter failed to eradicate bribery. Ober-fiscal Nesterov himself was publicly executed for a bribe. The ordering system did not meet the changed conditions either. To replace it, 12 collegia were created in 1718, each of which was in charge of a specific industry or sphere of government and was subordinate to the Senate. Three collegia were considered the main ones: Military, Admiralty and Foreign. Three collegiums were in charge of finances: the Chamber Collegium - income, the State Collegium - expenditures, and the Audit Collegium controlled the receipt of income, collection of duties, and the correctness of spending by institutions of the funds allocated to them. The Manufacturing Collegium was engaged in industry, the Berg Collegium was engaged in mining, and the Commerce Collegium was responsible for trade. Judicial functions were carried out by the Justitz Collegium, the patrimonial collegium was engaged in local affairs. Each collegium consisted of a president and a vice president, 4 advisers, 4 assessors and a secretary. All cases were decided by a majority vote, collegiality was one of the hallmarks of the new institutions.
To manage the townspeople, the Chief Magistrate was created, acting as a collegium. Subordinate to him were the magistrates and town halls of all cities, which were engaged in legal proceedings, tax collection and the supervision of order in the city.
Looking at the differences between the collegia and the old orders, it should be noted that the collegium system centralized power, organized the administrative apparatus more clearly and correctly, eliminated the previous confusion between departments, and also extended its competence to the entire territory of the country.
Important role in the approval of absolutism played church reform... In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter was in no hurry to elect his successor, and appointed the Ryazan Metropolitan Stephen Yavorsky as “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne”. The management of the patriarchal economy passed into the hands of specially appointed secular persons. For more than twenty years, the Russian Church was ruled without a patriarch. In 1721, the "Most Holy Governing Synod" was opened. This ecclesiastical collegium replaced the patriarchal authority, dependent on the state: the synodals were officials in robes, like secular officials, they took the oath and received a salary.
Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich, a supporter of Peter's transformations, compiled the Spiritual Regulations, edited by Peter. In it the church reform was substantiated, the functions of the Synod for the administration of the church were determined. The representative of the sovereign in the Synod was the chief prosecutor, who was actually the head of the spiritual collegium. Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role churches. She became an integral part of the state apparatus.
In 1708-1709, the restructuring of local government began. In the 17th century, the country was divided into 150 counties, each county was ruled by a voivode who was directly connected to the center.
A new administrative-territorial division was introduced on the basis of a decree of December 18, 1708, which proposed "for the benefit of the whole people to create 8 provinces and to assign cities to them." The provinces varied greatly in terms of territory and population.
At the head of the province was the governor appointed by the king, who concentrated in his hands all the administrative, judicial and military power... The deputy governor was the assistant to the governor. Under the governor, there was a provincial chancellery. It was not easy to govern the huge provinces. Therefore, in 1719, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces. The provinces were headed by governors or vice-governors appointed from local nobles. The voivode headed the zemstvo office. Each province, in turn, was divided into districts, which were ruled by commissars.
This entire complex system of authorities and administration had a clearly pronounced pro-noble character and consolidated the active participation of the nobility in the exercise of their domination in the localities.
In the first quarter of the eighteenth century, Peter carried out a military reform, which was the most difficult task for both the tsar himself and the people. By creating a regular army, the Russian government had to resolve the issue of its size, manning methods and forms of warfare. At the same time, it was necessary to rebuild the system of supplying troops with weapons, ammunition and food, as well as organize the combat training of troops, introduce new system management.
Regular infantry and cavalry regiments with uniform staffing, weapons and uniforms began to form the basis of the new army. Combat training was carried out in accordance with the general army regulations.
Peter tied the soldier exclusively to military service, tearing him away from home and business. Conscription now fell on all classes of society, except for the clergy and citizens belonging to the guilds. All nobles were required to serve indefinitely as soldiers and officers.
The recruitment of the regular army and navy was carried out through annual recruitment. The essence of the recruiting system was that the entire taxable population of the country was obliged to a certain number tax yards to give one recruit.
The first recruitment was made in 1705 and until 1710 the recruitment was repeated annually. Recruits from the tax-paying classes in the troops were in the same position with the soldiers-nobles, adopted a single military equipment, and the entire mass of servicemen made up a single army, which in its combat qualities was not inferior to the European troops.
For the training of officers, the military-practical school of officer cadres for army regiments, Guards Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky regiments, as well as special schools - navigation, artillery, engineering, admiralty, and others were widely used. who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments.
The armament of the Russian army was improved. First-class domestic artillery was created. In the army under Peter I, a qualitatively new weapon was used for the first time, when a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the effectiveness of the infantry in battle,
On the whole, the military reform of Peter, despite its caste and harshness, objectively contributed to the strengthening of the armed forces, increasing the international prestige of the Russian Empire.
In the Petrine era, a reform was carried out in the field of culture and everyday life. Its main content was the formation and development secular culture, education, changes in everyday life and morals. Under Peter, primary "digital" schools and special educational establishments... Textbooks, textbooks, dictionaries, primers were widely published. The first printed newspaper in Russia, Vedomosti, appears, a civilian script is introduced, Arabic numerals have replaced the old ones letter designations... The logical result of all these activities was the founding in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, and with it - a university and a gymnasium.
Most of all, Peter I was concerned with the idea of the fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Great Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where I saw how far Russia has lagged behind in its development.
This event in the life of the young tsar marked the beginning of his reforming activity. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing external signs Russian life: he ordered to shave off beards and ordered to dress in European clothes, brought music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked him.
By a decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the reckoning of the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the new year on January 1.
Foreign policy of Peter I
The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699 Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in Poltava battle June 27, 1709 and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.
On August 30, 1721, the Nishtadt Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was ensured.
In commemoration of what was achieved in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.
In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I obtained west coast The Caspian Sea.
Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the ebullient activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, to raise the education of the Russian people, to strengthen the power and international position Russia. A lot was done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.
Public administration reform of Peter I
Instead of the Boyar Duma, the Council of Ministers was created in 1700, which sat in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest government agency... With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activities, they were replaced by the Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The control system also operated the Secret Police - the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were run by the emperor himself.
Administrative reforms of Peter I
Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I
The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. Second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by voivods, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by zemstvo commissars.
Urban reform (1699-1720)
To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 the Town Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the Town Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.
Estate reforms
The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each class - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.
Nobility.
- The decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
- Education decree (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
- The decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
- Table of ranks (1722): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.
Peasantry
Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll in soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.
Among the free peasants were:
- state, possessing personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., at the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
- palace ones that belonged to the tsar personally;
- possessory attributed to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.
Urban estate
Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". Regular ones were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. The irregulars, or "vile people," made up the majority of the urban population.
In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.
Judicial reform of Peter I
Functions supreme court carried out by the Senate and the Justitz Collegium. There were courtyards in the provinces. courts of appeal and provincial courts, headed by voivods. Provincial courts dealt with peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople who were not included in the posad. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the posad were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.
Church reform of Peter I
Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.
Financial reforms of Peter I
First step financial reform Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Added benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.), introduced indirect taxes (bath, horse, beards, etc.).
In 1704 was held monetary reform , for which the penny became the main currency. The unchangeable ruble was canceled.
Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from household taxation to capitation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and posad population that had previously been exempted from tax.
Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.
Social reforms of Peter I
Education reform of Peter I
In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civil and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mountain, garrison, religious schools; digital schools for free education of children of all ranks; The Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.
Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with him the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.
Reforms of Peter I in culture
Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which made it easier to learn to read and write and promoted printing. The first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti" began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.
The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, giving Special attention the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.
Medical reforms of Peter I
The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, in which doctors and pharmacists were trained.
In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state-owned pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.
For growing, studying, creating collections medicinal plants Pharmaceutical gardens were created, where seeds and foreign flora were imported.
Socio-economic reforms of Peter I
To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with abroad, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I strove to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than imported. During his reign, 200 factories and factories operated on the territory of Russia.
Reforms of Peter I in the army
Peter I introduced annual recruiting sets of young Russians (15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, setting out the service, rights and duties of the military.
As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.
Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, since transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration... Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.
Results of the reforms of Peter I
- The regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more perfect system of government, strong army and a fleet, a stable economy. Power was centralized.
- Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
- The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
- There has been tremendous progress in the fields of science and culture. A task of state importance has been set - the creation of a Russian medical education, and also the beginning of Russian surgery.
Features of the reforms of Peter I
- The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
- Lack of a reform system.
- Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
- Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.
Reasons for the reforms of Peter I
TO XVIII century Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of the volume of production in industry, the level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which stood at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. Russian army, consisting of archers and the noble militia, was poorly armed, not trained and could not cope with its task.
Preconditions for the reforms of Peter I
In the course of the history of our country, by this time there had already been significant shifts in its development. The city separated from the village, there was a division Agriculture and crafts, industrial enterprises of the manufacturing type arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground for Peter's reforms had already been prepared.
I. Public administration reform
Establishment of the Senate: judicial, administrative and managerial power. Institute of fiscal: control over the activities of the administration. 1711 g.
General regulations of the collegia. 1718 g.
Synod: Church Administration. 1721 g.
Division of the country into provinces, provinces, districts. 1708-1709
Establishment of master's degrees, elected by "regular" citizens (merchants, wealthy artisans, etc.). 1720 g.
II. Military reform
Replacement of rifle regiments with regiments of "foreign order".
Creation of a regular army based on recruitment.
Military Regulations. 1716 g.
Creation navy.
III. Economic reform
The introduction of the poll tax.
Formation of craft workshops. 1722 g.
Encouraging creation large factories(Demidovs, Batashovs, Evreinovs) and manufactures with a combination of hired and possessive (serf) labor.
Protection policy in relation to Russian industry.
Creation of an exchange for wholesale trade. 1703 g.
The decree on single inheritance, equating the local nobility with the patrimonial one.
IV. Development of scientific and artistic culture
Opening of the Maritime Hospital on the Vyborg side led by the Dutch anatomist Shendo Van der Bech. 1716 g.
Creation of artillery and engineering schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg, opening of the Mathematics and Navigation School in Moscow.
Replacing the Church Slavonic alphabet with a civil one.
Release of the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti. 1703
Issue of textbooks by L. Magnitskiy "Arithmetic" and M. Smotritskiy "Grammar".
The activities of the scientists-inventors: G. Skornyakov-Pisarev, V. Korchmin, J. Bruce, V. Tatishchev, V. Genin, Andrey Nartov.
Opening of the Kunstkamera, the Naval and Artillery Museums.
Opening of public libraries and theaters in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The opening of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and the gymnasium with her. 1725 g.
Creation of architectural and engineering ensembles in St. Petersburg and Peterhof.
Start portrait painting(I. Nikitin, G. Adolsky, A. Matveev).
Struggle for progressive transformation. Activities of Feofan Prokopovich, Vice-President of the Synod.
Reforms of Peter the Great
Military reform
During the Northern War, a radical reorganization of the armed forces takes place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia, and in this regard, the local noble militia and the rifle army are being liquidated. The army began to be based on regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staffing, uniforms, weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations. The main ones were Voinsky in 1716 and the Naval Regulations of 1720, in the development of which Peter I participated.
The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces, obsolete artillery of various sizes was replaced by new types of guns.
For the first time in the army, a combination of cold steel and firearms was made - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and strike power of the troops.
V early XVIII v. For the first time in the history of Russia, a navy was created on the Don and the Baltic, which was not inferior in value to the creation of a regular army. The construction of the fleet was carried out at an unprecedentedly fast pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.
During the reign of Peter I, Russia became the owner of the largest navy in the Baltic.
The first guards regiments were formed - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky.
By 1725, the Russian army numbered 318 thousand people.
Creation regular armies and the fleet demanded new principles of their manning. It was based on the recruiting system, which had undoubted advantages over other forms of recruitment that had at that time. The nobility was exempted from conscription, but military or civilian service was obligatory for it.
Government and Administration Reforms
In the first quarter of the 18th century. a whole complex of reforms related to the restructuring of central and local authorities and administration was carried out. Their essence was the formation of a centralized noble-bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.
Since 1708, Peter I began to rebuild the old institutions and replace them with new ones, as a result of which the following system of authorities and administration was formed.
All the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after the end of the Northern War, received the title of emperor. In 1711, a new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions.
To replace the outdated system of orders, 12 collegia were created, each of which was in charge of a specific industry or sphere of government and was subordinate to the Senate. The collegiums received the right to issue decrees on those issues that were within their jurisdiction. In addition to the collegia, a certain number of offices, offices, departments, orders were created, the functions of which were also clearly delineated.
In 1708 - 1709 restructuring of local authorities and administration began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population.
At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the king, who concentrated executive and official power in his hands. Under the governor, there was a provincial chancellery. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor obeyed not only the emperor and the Senate, but also all the colleges, orders and decrees of which often contradicted each other.
The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. At the head of the province was the governor with the provincial chancellery under him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts (counties) with the voivode and the county office. After the introduction of the poll tax, regimental districts were created. The military units quartered in them watched the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal demonstrations.
This entire complex system of organs of power and administration had a clearly expressed pro-noble character and consolidated the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of their dictatorship in the localities. But at the same time, she further expanded the scope and forms of service of the nobles, which caused their displeasure.
Reform of the class structure of Russian society
Peter set himself the goal of creating a powerful noble state. For this it was necessary to disseminate knowledge among the nobles, to raise their culture, to make the nobility prepared and fit to achieve the goals that Peter set for himself. Meanwhile, the majority of the nobility were not prepared to understand and implement them. Peter strove to ensure that the entire nobility considered "the sovereign's service" their honorary right, their vocation, skillfully to rule the country and command over the troops. For this, it was necessary, first of all, to spread education among the nobles. Peter established a new duty for the nobles - educational: from 10 to 15 years old, a nobleman had to learn "reading and writing, numbers and geometry", and then had to go to serve. Without a certificate of "training", the nobleman was not given a "crown memory" - permission to marry.
Decrees of 1712, 1714 and 1719 a procedure was established according to which "gentility" was not taken into account when appointing to a position and passing through the service. Conversely, people from the people, the most gifted, active, devoted to the cause of Peter, had the opportunity to receive any military or civil rank. Not only "art" noblemen, but even people of "mean" origin were nominated by Peter to prominent government positions.
In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The report card established 14 service ranks of promotion. This made it possible for an ordinary person to make a career, thanks to his merits, and not to nobility. Having reached the 8th rank in the civil service or 12th rank in the military service, one could get the nobility.
Church reform
Church reform played an important role in the establishment of absolutism. In 1700. Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter I forbade to elect his successor. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who served as "the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1721 the patriarchate was liquidated, and the "Holy Governing Synod", or the Spiritual Collegium, also subordinate to the Senate, was created to govern the church.
Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. In parallel with this, the state strengthened control over the church's income and systematically withdrawn a significant part of it for the needs of the treasury. These actions of Peter I caused discontent church hierarchy and the black clergy and were one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.
Peter carried out a church reform, which was expressed in the creation of a collegial (synodal) administration of the Russian Church. The abolition of the patriarchate reflected Peter's desire to liquidate the "princely" system of church power that was inconceivable under the autocracy of Peter the Great's time. By declaring himself in fact the head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to conduct police policy. The subjects, on pain of heavy fines, were obliged to attend church and repent of their sins in confession to the priest. The priest, also according to the law, was obliged to inform the authorities about everything illegal that became known in confession. The transformation of the church into a bureaucratic office, protecting the interests of the autocracy, serving its needs, meant the destruction for the people of the spiritual alternative to the regime and ideas coming from the state. The Church became an obedient instrument of power and thus largely lost the respect of the people, who subsequently looked so indifferently at both its death under the rubble of autocracy and the destruction of its churches.
Reforms in the field of culture and life
Important changes in the life of the country decisively required the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks that replaced the church textbooks.
Peter I introduced a new civil script in 1708, replacing the old Cyril semi-statute. For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The development of book printing was accompanied by the beginning of the organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. Since 1702 the first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti" was systematically published.
The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which found its expression in the organization of a number of large expeditions.
At this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.
During this period, a number of important works on history were written, and the Kunstkamera created by Peter I laid the foundation for the collection of collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, to make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of museum work in Russia.
The logical result of all measures in the field of the development of science and education was the founding in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.
From the first quarter of the 18th century. the transition to urban planning and regular urban planning was carried out. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by cult architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government institutions and the aristocracy.
In painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the first quarter of the 18th century. Attempts to create a Russian theater are also related, at the same time the first dramatic works were written.
Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old familiar long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were prohibited and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. The fastest growing Western European outerwear and dress among women. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the tax-paying estates. A special "beard tax" and a mandatory copper sign on its payment were introduced.
Peter I established assemblies with the obligatory presence of women, which reflected serious changes in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of the "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.
The changes in everyday life and culture that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century were of great progressive importance. But they even more emphasized the separation of the nobility into a privileged estate, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble estate privileges and was accompanied by a widespread Gallomania, a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture among the noble milieu.
Lecture 28
Northern war and the transformation of Russia into an empire
Causes:
Struggle for access to the Baltic Sea for solving the most important foreign policy tasks: establishing direct ties with the West (the Baltic Sea is the most convenient trade route to Europe);
Strengthening the military power of Russia and increasing its role in the international arena.
Conditions: the return of the Russian lands seized by Sweden at the beginning of the 17th century.
Participants: the anti-Swedish Northern Union created by Russia in 1699 (Russia, Denmark, Saxony, Poland
1700 - On August 19, Peter I declared war on Sweden and moved his troops to the Baltic States, wishing to divide the possessions of Sweden: Finland from Estland and Livonia. For this purpose, the Russians besieged Narva, but the siege dragged on. Charles XII decided to upset the Northern Union. Denmark withdrew from the war on August 18. The Swedes turned against the Russians.
On November 19, Karl XII attacked the Russian army near Narva and defeated it. After the victory, Charles XII moved against Poland and Saxony.
On October 11, 1702, the Russians stormed the Noteburg (Shlisselburg) fortress on Lake Ladoga.
On May 16, on the Hare Island at the mouth of the Neva, by order of Peter I, the Peter and Paul Fortress was laid, which laid the foundation for a new capital - St. Petersburg.
1704 - Having established himself on the Neva, Peter I moved to Estonia in the spring.
1705 - In December, Charles XII set out towards the Russian border.
1707 - preparations of the Russians and Swedes for further struggle.
After completing his training, Charles XII set out on a campaign against Russia.
On September 28, at the village of Lesnoy, Peter I, at the head of the flying corps, defeated Levengaupt. The remnants of the enemy hardly reached the main forces.
Betrayal of the Ukrainian hetman Mazepa, who passed to the Swedes.
1709 - In the spring, Charles XII laid siege to Poltava with the forces of an army of 30,000. The 42,000-strong Russian army led by Peter I soon came to the rescue of the garrison.
1710 - Turkey intervened in the war
1711 - on the Prut River, the 130,000-strong Turkish army surrounded the Russian troops. Only after returning Azov to Turkey and destroying Taganrog, Russia achieved an armistice.
1714 - the center of the Northern War moved to the Baltic
1714 - the young Russian fleet won the first victory at Cape Gangut. Peter I brilliantly used the advantages of galley ships over sailing ships in calm conditions.
1720 - the victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Grengam.
Peace Treaty of Nystad - signed on August 30, 1721 between Russia and Sweden in Nystadt.
The coast of the Baltic Sea from Vyborg to Riga was assigned to Russia.
Provided for the mutual release of prisoners.
The treaty secured Russia's access to the Baltic.
Russia became one of the great European powers.
Lecture 29
Russia in the era of palace coups
The 37-year period of political instability (1725-1762) that followed the death of Peter I was named "the era of palace coups". The immediate reason for the palace coups was the decree on the succession to the throne, issued by Peter I in 1722. According to this decree, the emperor himself could appoint an heir for himself, but he did not leave a will. The son of Peter I, Tsarevich Alexei, was accused of conspiracy against his father, sentenced to death and died in the casemate of the Peter and Paul Fortress in 1718.
After the death of Peter I, a struggle for power began between representatives of the noble aristocracy and associates of Peter I, headed by A.D. Menshikov. The decisive role was played by the guard, who supported the candidacy of the wife of Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna.
As a result, with the support of the guards and the new nobility, who had come forward under Peter I, Catherine 1 (1725-1727) was elevated to the throne. In fact, power was in the hands of Menshikov. A new supreme state body was created - the Supreme Privy Council, in which the associates of Peter I played the main role.
After the death of Catherine, the 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730), the son of Tsarevich Alexei, ascended the throne. Representatives of the old nobility - the princes Dolgorukiy and Golitsyns - gained great influence, and Menshikov and his family were exiled to Berezov (Siberia). A return to the old order was outlined, and even the capital moved to Moscow again. The wedding of Peter II with Ekaterina Dolgoruka was announced, but, not having time to get married, he died of smallpox.
After the unexpected death of Peter II, the "leaders" (as they began to call the members of the Derkhovny privy council) invited to the throne the daughter of Peter I's elder brother Ivan V - Anna Ioannovna. She lived in Lithuania (Courland) after the death of the husband of the Duke of Courland. The "supreme leaders" developed special conditions - conditions that limited the empress's power in favor of the supreme secret council, but Anna Ioannovna, with the support of the guards and the nobility, "broke the conditions" and declared herself an autocratic empress. Anna Ioannovna dissolved the Supreme Privy Council and restored the Senate. The cabinet of ministers was approved, in 1731 a "secret office" was established - a center of political investigation, which terrified the population with sudden arrests and torture during the investigation.
The favorite of Anna Ioannovna, Biron, acquired special power. Therefore, the time of her reign is 1730-1740. - received the name "Bironovschina". Foreigners, mainly Baltic nobles and Germans, began to play a decisive role in governing the country.
Anna Ioannovna announced her successor to the grand-nephew of Ivan Antonovich of Braunschweig. Ivan Antonovich was three months old when Anna Ioannovna died. Biron was appointed regent. Against Biron, the palace coup was carried out just a few weeks later. The regent was the mother of Ivan Antonovich, Anna Leopoldovna. There were no changes in policy, all positions remained in the hands of the Germans.
On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky regiment made a coup in favor of Elizabeth (daughter of Peter 1) - 1741-1761. Elizabeth proclaimed a return to her father's order. The cabinet of ministers was abolished, the Senate was restored. Russian noblemen (Shuvalovs, Vorontsovs, Razumovskys) were established in the highest posts in the state. Bestuzhev-Ryumin became Chancellor. Elizabeth proclaimed the abolition of the death penalty. Under her, Moscow University was opened (1755) and the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg (1757) began its activities. The social policy of Elizabeth Petrovna was aimed at expanding the rights and privileges of the nobility.
Foreign policy of Elizabeth Petrovna
At the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, Russia is waging a war with Sweden, which ended in a world advantageous for Russia. Sweden confirmed the results of the Northern War and ceded part of Finland to Russia. The main foreign policy event during the reign of Elizabeth was the participation of Russia in the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763. The war involved two coalitions of countries:
1: Prussia, England, Portugal v.
2: France, Spain, Austria, Sweden, Saxony, Russia
The new king of Prussia, Frederick II, created one of the largest army in Europe. Prussia began to threaten Russia's interests in Poland and the Baltics. In 1757, Russia enters the war. Russian troops invaded East Prussia and defeated the Prussian troops under the command of Apraksin. In 1758, Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) was taken.
Frederick's army was defeated. In the battles of the Seven Years War, the formation of talented Russian commanders - Rumyantsev and Suvorov - took place.
In connection with the accession Peter III in December 1761 nullified the successes of the Russian troops. Peter III was a great admirer of Frederick II, he concluded a Separate Peace and returned all the conquered lands.
Elizabeth Petrovna's successor was her nephew, the son of her elder sister Anna and the grandson of Peter I (by his mother), he ascended the throne under the name of Peter III (1761-1762). In February 1762, a manifesto was published on granting "liberty and freedom to the entire Russian noble nobility", i.e. on exemption from military service.
Peter III issued a decree on the abolition of the secret office, on permission to return to Russia for the schismatics who fled abroad, with a ban on prosecuting the schism. However, soon the policy of Peter III caused discontent and revived the capital's society against him. Peter III emphatically expressed his disdain for church Orthodox rituals, ridiculed Russian religious culture. He did not hide his admiration for Frederick II, dressed himself and the guard in a Prussian uniform, and foreigners were again appointed to leading posts. The danger of a new "Bironovism" arose. Particular discontent among the officers was caused by the refusal of Peter III from all conquests during the victorious Seven Years War. The head of the conspiracy was Count Grigory Orlov, the favorite of Peter III's wife Ekaterina Alekseevna.
As a result of the latter in the 18th century palace coup the wife of Peter III, Ekaterina Alekseevna, was elevated to the Russian throne, the Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her.
Peter III wrote the abdication of the throne, and on July 6, 1762, the news of his death came to St. Petersburg from Ropsha, where Peter III was imprisoned.
Ekaterina Alekseevna finally established herself on the Russian throne under the name of Catherine II (1762-1796).
