Linguists identify such a concept as syllables. Language learners need to be able to correctly identify their boundaries in words and distinguish them by type. Consider the most basic types of syllables, as well as the division rules.

Syllables - what are they?

Exists different approaches to the definition of this concept. From the point of view of phonetics, a syllable is one sound or a group of sounds, accompanied by an exhalation impulse. There are always exactly as many syllables in a word as there are vowels in it. We can say that a syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit.

A vowel is a syllabic (or syllabic sound). A consonant, accordingly, is considered non-syllable.

Types of syllables

Syllables are also classified into open and closed. Closed syllables end in a consonant, and open ones end in a vowel. In the Russian language, there is a tendency towards the openness of the syllable.

Also, if a syllable begins with a vowel, it is overt, and if it starts with a consonant, it is covered.

There are also syllables for acoustic structure:

• ascending, where from a less sonorous (voiceless consonant) comes and / or a sonorous consonant, and / or a vowel (pa-pa).
• descending, where, unlike ascending, the syllable begins with a vowel, and then there are already sonorous consonants and / or voiceless (mind).
• ascending-descending, where a kind of "slide" is obtained, in which consonants first go according to the degree of sonority, then the top is a vowel sound, and then "descent" downward, starting with the most sonorous consonants (ping-pong).
• even syllables - one vowel, that is, bare and open syllables are even and consist of only one vowel (a).

Stressed and unstressed syllables

A stressed syllable is a syllable whose vowel is stressed, that is, the vowel is in strong position... Unstressed syllables are not stressed.

And unstressed syllables, in turn, are divided into two types in relation to the stressed syllable: post-stressed and pre-stressed. It is easy to guess that the pre-stressed ones stand before the stressed syllable, the post-stressed ones, respectively, after. They are also divided into pre-stressed / post-stressed syllables of different order in relation to the stressed one. The first pre-struck or pre-struck is closest to the struck, the second in order is behind the first pre-struck and pre-struck, and so on.

Take for example the word che-re-do-va-ni, where all syllables, it is worth noting, are open. The stressed will be the fourth syllable -wa-, the first pre-stressed - the syllable -do-, the second - -pe-, and the third - che-. But the first shock will be -no, the second will be -e.

How to divide a word into syllables?

All words can be divided into syllables. V different languages division can take place in different ways. But how is the division in Russian? What are the nuances of the rule?

In general, the division follows the general principles:

• There are as many vowels as there are syllables. If a word has one vowel sound, then this is one syllable, since vowels are syllabic. For example, these are the words: cat, whale, one, current, which consist of one syllable.
• Only a vowel sound can be a syllable. For example, the word "this" is divided by syllables as e-that.
• Open syllables end with vowels, closed ones with consonants. Examples of openness: mo-lo-ko, de-le-ni-e, ko-ro-va. Closed syllables are found, as a rule, at the end of a word or at the junction of consonants (com-pot, mole, give). In the Russian language, as already mentioned, there is a tendency towards the openness of the syllable.
• If the word contains the letter "y", then it goes to the previous syllable. For example, mine.
• At the junction of two vowels, there is a division in the middle, because there can be no two vowels in one syllable. In this case, it turns out that the first syllable is open, and the second is naked (ha-os).
• All sonorants (m, n, l, p) at the junction of consonants before the voiceless ones usually "stick" to the sounds preceding them, forming a syllable.

Splitting theories

However, there is no clear framework for what exactly is a syllable and where its boundaries lie. The main thing is the presence of a vowel, but the definition of boundaries can happen in different ways. There are several basic theories of slogan splitting.

• A sonoric theory based on the principle of the wave of sonority of a syllable. It was developed by a scientist from Denmark Otto Jespersen, and for the Russian language continued the idea of ​​RI Avanesov. He singled out four degrees of sonority, ranging from more sonorous to non-sonorous. At the top are vowels, then the second degree is sonorous, the third degree is voiced noisy, and in fourth place are completely voiceless consonants. That is, a syllable is a combination of a vowel from less to non-consonant.
• The expiratory theory (expiratory) implies that a syllable is one expiratory impulse. How many jerks, so many syllables. However, the minus of this theory lies in the ambiguity of the syllable boundary at the junction of consonants. In this theory, you can use a candle to figure out how many syllables (air jolts) there are in a word.
• The theory of "muscle tension" carries the idea that the syllable combines the levels of maximum and minimum muscle tension (ie, tension of the speech organs). The border of the syllable will be the sounds of minimal muscular tension.

Now that you know the rules for dividing words into syllables, you will not have any problems with word wrap.

Syllable concept. Syllable theories

Syllable Is a sound or a combination of sounds uttered by one push of exhaled air.

Issues of syllable and syllabus have been of interest to researchers for a long time. There are several theories of the syllable.

Expiratory theory (breathing theory) boils down to the fact that a syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds pronounced with one push of exhaled air. Accordingly, the number of exhaled impulses is equal to the number of syllables. The expiratory theory developed by R. Stetson is often criticized. The main counterargument is the fact that one exhaled impulse can pronounce not only one syllable, but also a word and several sentences.

Sonor theory , proposed by O. Espersen (for the Russian language, this theory was developed by R.I. Avanesov), considers the syllable as a combination of a more sonoric element with a less sonorous one. According to the scale of sonority, vowel sounds have the highest sonority, and voiceless consonants have the lowest. Element with na more sonority is the pinnacle of a syllable. Thus, a syllable consists of a sound with the highest degree of sonority or a sequence of sounds, one of which has the highest sonority, and the others - less sonorous.

Weaknesses This theory is that the degree of sonority of a particular sound is not a constant value, and also that the theory of sonority does not explain the very mechanism of syllable formation and syllable separation.

Muscle tension theory , whose supporters are L.V. Shcherba, M.I. Matusevich, L.R. Zinder, assumes that the syllable is pronounced with a single muscular tension, and all real speech is a chain of tensions or impulses. Each impulse is represented by three phases: gain, peak, and weakening. The distribution of muscle tension when pronouncing sound chains indicates the boundaries of syllables: an increase in muscle tension marks the beginning of a syllable, a weakening - the end of a syllable. According to this theory, each syllable at the pronunciation level is formed by an "arc" of muscular tension.

The disadvantage of the theory is that the desire to put only the articulatory principle at the basis of the theory reduces the problem of syllable and syllable division only to the work of the organs of speech.

An attempt to combine the articulatory and acoustic aspects during the study of the syllable was made by N.I. Zhinkin. His theory was named loudness theory ... Experiments conducted by the researcher have shown that the change in loudness at the perceptual level is due to the fact that the pharynx changes shape when a particular speech sound is pronounced. Narrowing of the pharyngeal tube leads to an increase in the volume arc and a sign of the apex of the syllable.

Despite the different understanding of the nature of the syllable, the representatives of the above theories are united by the fact that the top of the syllable (the core of the syllable) is the most distinguished sound, which is called the syllable. Elements, often consonants, which are called marginal and are not syllabic, adjoin the core of a syllable. For example, the word map consists of one syllable, the core of which is [æ], and the marginal elements are [m], [p].

A syllable is a phonetic concept, not a graphic one, although often for clarity, syllables in a word are represented graphically, the boundaries between syllables are indicated with a hyphen. For example, ta-ble, smit-ten, sim-u-late, bad-ly, do-n't, ca-me-ra.

Reading rules english letters, especially vowels, are associated with their position in the word and depend on the quantity and quality of adjacent letters. It is equally important to know whether neighboring letters are in the same or in different syllables - their reading will also depend on this.

The principle of dividing words into syllables in English is not as simple and clear as in Russian: one sound (one vowel letter) - one syllable. As can be seen from the above graphical examples of dividing words into syllables, one syllable can include, along with consonants, one "mute" vowel or two or three consonant letters. This clearly illustrates the gap between the graphic and phonetic sides. of English language.

(R.R. Kaspransky, pp. 76-85)

The theory of the syllable has long attracted the attention of philologists. Another ancient grammarian Priscian Caesarean(c. 500 BC) defined a syllable, according to which a syllable is a combination of sounds that are pronounced sub uno aceentu et uno spiritu. The syllable interested him, first of all, from the standpoint of the metric.

Priscian of Caesarea(lat.Priscianus Caesariensis) - Roman grammar, originally from Caesarea in Mauritania, lived about 500 AD. NS. His greatest work is the Institutiones Grammaticae, an 18-volume textbook of the Latin language. In the Middle Ages, it was the most common guide to Latin and served as the basis for latest works in Latin Philology .

A coherent theory was developed by Roman philologists poetic speech based on the syllable structure of the word.

In the 60s and 70s of the 19th century, the problem of the syllable attracted the attention of phonetic linguists. Since human speech can be considered as physiological, organo-genetic, psychological and acoustic phenomena, attempts have been made to explain the nature of the syllable from all these points of view.

There are more than a dozen theories or interpretations of the syllable. Let's consider the most famous of them.

3.1.Expiratory or espiratory ... As the name suggests, this theory is based on the physiological process of exhalation when speaking. German phonetician Eduard Sievers

Edward Sievers(German: Eduard Sievers; November 25, 1850, Lippoldsberg - March 30, 1932, Leipzig) - German philologist-Germanist. Graduated from the University of Leipzig (1870). Professor in Jena (from 1871), Tübingen (from 1883), Halle (from 1887) and Leipzig (from 1892). Major works are devoted to phonetics and grammar, and history German language, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon grammar, speech psychology, stylistics and textology. He was engaged in research and publication of monuments of Germanic languages ​​and monuments of German literature. Editor of the magazine "Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur" (1891-1906, 1924-1931).

calls the syllable that part of the word that is pronounced with one push of exhaled air. According to this theory, speaking does not occur as a uniform "outflow" of air and uniform production of sounds one after another, but in the form of portions of exhaled air, which produce not a single sound, but a group of sounds more closely related to each other than the sounds produced by the next push of air.

This theory is the oldest and the most, perhaps, understandable and close to us. Pristsian gave a similar definition ("one stress and one exhalation"), and we

We often observe this phenomenon when we need to pronounce a word separately, i.e. by syllables, as well as group speaking, chanting, etc. Therefore, examples are hardly needed to illustrate this theory.

3. 2 . Sonor theory

Founder: Jens Otto Harri Jespersen

(Jens otto harry jespersen; July 16, 1860, Randers - April 30, 1943, Copenhagen) - Danish linguist.

Graduated from Copenhagen University, then continued his education in Oxford University... In 1893-1925. Professor of English at the University of Copenhagen.

The author of an English textbook (1895, withstood 19 editions), which is based on a living Speaking... He reflected his understanding of grammar as a living and developing whole in the Philosophy of Grammar (1924). Jespersen is the author of the "theory of progress" in language, according to which all linguistic changes are aimed at facilitating the conditions of communication and therefore are progressive. Created a project of international artificial language novial, previously participated in the development of ido.

Jespersen's works had a significant impact on the development of linguistics in the 20th century. He contributed to the formation of the Danish linguistic school (among his students, in particular, Louis Leonor Hammerich).

This theory is based on the acoustic nature of speech sounds, i.e. the syllable is associated with sonority or the degree of sonority of sound types. For example,

a group of deaf explosives are minimally sonorous sounds.

o Vowels [o, a] are maximally sonorous.

o All consonants are less sonorous than any vowel sound.

o Among consonants, sonorant consonants are naturally more sonorous than others,

o Among noisy consonants, voiced ones have a greater degree of sonority than voiceless ones,

o among the deaf, fricatives are more sonorous, etc.

According to this theory, sonority (Schallfülle) is directly proportional to the size (volume) of the resonator cavity. O. Espersen identifies 8 gradations of sonority (in the order of increasing sonority: (Table for demonstration)

A syllable is the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, characterized by the maximum fusion of its components. In the articulatory relation, the syllable is indistinguishable in the sense that speech breaks down precisely into syllables, and not into separate sounds.

The problem of the syllable is reduced to two interrelated issues: the phonetic nature of the syllable and the principles of syllable division. The difficulty of the problem lies in the fact that syllable division is not associated with a difference in meaning: the semantics of a linguistic sign does not depend on the division of its exponent into syllables. So, the exponent of the word cat undoubtedly consists of two syllables, but which ones ( cat or cat) is not conditioned by the semantics of the word. Therefore, linguistic criteria for division into syllables, similar to the criteria for dividing speech into phonemes, do not exist. The main role in solving the problem of the syllable in modern phonetics is played by objective research methods using perfect sound-analyzing equipment.

In Russian phonetics, even V.A. Bogoroditsky, a student of I.A. Contemporary research phoneticians and physiologists also confirm that the simplest articulatory construction of Russian speech is the closing-opening movement of the pronunciation organs: closing (including such a type of obstacle as a slit) when articulating a consonant and opening when articulating a vowel. The repetition of this articulatory complex generates a sequence of open syllables such as SG. An open syllable is a pronunciation structure in the sense that its components - consonant and vowel - cannot be considered independent, since they strongly influence each other; they act as parts of a larger sound whole - the syllable. Pronounced commonality of elements open syllable is determined by the fact that the articulation of the entire complex is performed as if as a result of a single command from the control centers of the cerebral cortex: everything that can be pronounced simultaneously is simultaneously pronounced [Bondarko, 1998, p. 195]. At the very beginning of pronouncing a syllable such as SG, preparation for the articulation of a vowel takes place, and all its movements that do not contradict the articulation of a consonant begin from the very beginning of the syllable. Specific examples such merging in Russian are: a) the labialization of consonants before /O/ and / y /; b) vowel nasalization after nasal consonants; c) the formation of a pronounced transition from a soft consonant to a vowel; d) mutual adaptation of the place of formation of a consonant and a vowel, etc. A syllable of the SG type is a pronunciation unit in the sense that it is not just a sequence of sounds following one after another, but a sequence that is united by a common articulatory program that determines the organization of pronunciation movements during the formation of a syllable. On the contrary, a combination of sounds like vowel + consonant (GS) is a simple sequence of elements that have little to do with each other.

In light of the above, the specificity of the Russian language in terms of syllabic structure consists in the close connection of the consonant with the subsequent vowel. Therefore, syllables of the SG type (open) are characteristic of the Russian language, and syllables of the GS type (closed) are less characteristic.

Slogan making in Russian

Syllabic-making can be viewed in three phonetic positions.

• 1. The simplest and most indisputable case of syllable division is the division of a word into open syllables such as dog, cuttlefish, pro-yes-yu. There is no exception to this rule: a single intervocal (i.e., standing between vowels) consonant is included in one syllable followed by a vowel.
• 2. The intervocal combination of two consonants of the GSSG can theoretically either completely go to the subsequent vowel (G-SSG), or be distributed between two syllables (GS-SG). (There is no syllable GSS-G in Russian.) The first option seems to be natural. Data on the nature of the transition from a vowel to a subsequent consonant are of great evidentiary value in the question of syllabus assignment. The idea that the nature of the transition from one sound to another can serve as a criterion for establishing a syllable boundary was first expressed by the Swedish linguist B. Malmberg in 1955. If the first component of the intervocal combination was included in one syllable with the preceding vowel (GS-SG) , it would be characterized by a close connection with this vowel. However, according to spectral analysis, transitions from vowel to consonant (in our examples, from the stressed / a, e / To / n, NS/) in word forms like wound, turnip, where syllable division is not in doubt, and in word forms such as ra-nka, re-pka, where one could assume the emergence of closed syllables early, rep- do not differ significantly. Thus, there is every reason to believe that the consonants / n, NS/ do not adjoin stressed vowels and therefore do not belong with them in the same syllable. If we extend this provision to all structures of the GSSG type, then we can say that the intervocal combination departs to the subsequent vowel. This is also true for three-phonemic combinations of consonants such as Г-СССГ. Thus, the structure of the previous open syllable is not disturbed by intervocal combinations.

Let's illustrate syllable division in Russian with specific examples.

The only exception to this rule is the combination / j /+ consonant: / j / always goes back to the preceding vowel ( gull, war, howl howl). Phoneme / j / in this phonetic position appears in its allophone, usually called "and non-syllabic ", which definitely indicates its closeness to the vowel /and/.

3. When a consonant or a combination of consonants is at the end of a word ( cat, dispute, nose, coal, tail, repair), conditions are created for the formation of closed syllables.

A distinction should be made between two positions of the final consonant: either at the end of a word in a stream of speech, or at the end of a word before a pause. In the first case, the final consonant or combination of consonants is adjacent not to the previous vowel, but to the next one, which is part of another word ( ku-pi-l a-na-us - "bought a pineapple", ku-pi-l ma-shee-nu, ku-pi-l sko-vo-ro-doo), even if there are already one or more consonants in front of this vowel. In the second case, there is no vowel behind the final consonant. However, since the flow of speech in terms of articulation is a sequence of closing-opening movements (closing corresponds to a consonant, and opening to a vowel), it is quite possible to assume that after a consonant before a pause, an opening movement will occur, generating some very short vowel element. The resulting phonetic effect is determined by the nature of a particular consonant. So, the final /R/ becomes multi-stressed and approaches in duration to an unstressed syllable. Vowel sound after /R/ easily detected. The final deaf plosives are characterized by aspiration and a longer explosion, in the spectrum of which separate areas of energy concentration are distinguished, a kind of formant, which indicates the presence of a vocal element, only pronounced without participation vocal cords, i.e. deaf. "Word cat, pronounced at the absolute end of the phrase, before the pause gets the following syllabic organization: to-t "[Bondarko, 1998. S. 212]. In this regard, it is interesting to note that Professor A.I. Thomson, a linguist with a remarkably fine phonetic ear, in 1922 argued that final solid consonants in Russian have NS-shaped coloration, and the final soft - and-shaped. In this coloration, Thomson saw a reflection of the reduced vowels [ b] and [ b] that existed in Old Russian language... The final sonants lose their consonant nature to a considerable extent.

As a result, we can say that the structure of an open syllable characteristic of the Russian language is also manifested in the case of a final consonant before a pause. The opening movement following the closing produces a very short vowel element that cannot be given phonemic attribution. This is a purely phonetic syllable, in contrast to the usual "phonemic" syllables, in which the phonemic nature of the components can be established without difficulty.

Splitting theories

The concept of slogan splitting presented above is based on the achievements of modern scientific and technical thought and in this regard can be considered quite reliable. The preceding theories do not have experimental-phonetic substantiation, and, although the information contained in them is of certain interest and largely corresponds to the intuitive sensations of native speakers, they still do not give an objective picture of syllabus division.

Danish linguist O. Jespersen put forward sonorous syllable theory (sonority theory). A syllable is understood as a combination of a more sonorous element with a less sonorous one. The sonor theory establishes a scale of relative sonority (sonority), which includes 10 steps - from the most sonorous (open vowel /a/) to the least sonorous voiceless stop /T, NS, To/. RI Avanesov developed the sonor theory on the basis of the Russian language. He limited himself to only three degrees of sonority: 1) noisy consonants (the least sonorous), 2) sonants, 3) vowels. The basic law of syllable division says: the non-initial syllable is built according to the principle of ascending sonority, starting with the least sonorous [Avanesov, 1956, p. 42], for example: cartridge(in the second syllable the ratio is 1-2-3), powder (1-2-3), desk (1-3), gamma (2-3), hol-hundred (1-1-3), pocket (2-3).

Another theory commonly referred to as the theory of muscle tension, was put forward by the French linguist M. Grammont and developed by L. V. Shcherba. The theory proceeds from the fact that in the work of the pronunciation apparatus, the states of maximum and minimum muscular tension and the corresponding changes in sonority are constantly alternating. The boundaries between syllables correspond to a minimum of muscular tension and sonority. A rise in tension and an increase in sonority indicate the beginning of the next syllable. The theory of muscular tension gives great attention syllabus sharing. Since the role of a vowel in a syllable is always the same, the main attention is paid to the characteristics of consonants in terms of their adherence to a vowel. There are three types of consonants: strong-initial, strong-pointed, and bimodal. Strong initial a consonant with its beginning is adjacent to a vowel, its beginning is pronounced stronger, with more tension than the end, for example /T/ in a word (syllable) cat. Strong-pointed a consonant adjoins a vowel with its end, its end is pronounced stronger than the beginning, for example /To/ v cat. Have bimodal one consonant part is pronounced on the decline of muscular tension and belongs to the first syllable; the other part is pronounced on the rise of muscular tension and belongs to the second syllable. Thus, the beginning and end of the two-vertex consonant are strengthened, and the middle, where the syllable border passes, is weakened. A bimodal consonant is always long. According to M.I.Matusevich, a two-vertex consonant can be pronounced in a position after a stressed vowel, for example recreation [O d: oops], although in general they are not characteristic of the Russian language.

The gravitation of a consonant to a preceding or subsequent vowel is put in the theory of muscular tension in dependence on stress. The stressed vowel "pulls" into its syllable the first component of the two-phonemic combination of consonants, especially if the first consonant is the sonant ( stick).

A syllable is a nominal, pronunciation unit of speech, consisting of one or more sounds that form a close phonetic unity on the basis of a single exhalation impulse.

Syllable theories:

a) expiratory theory - the theory of a syllable, according to which a syllable is an expiratory push of air.

However, experimental studies have shown that the number of syllables does not necessarily coincide with the number of tremors.

b) sonor (acoustic) theory - the theory of a syllable, according to which a syllable is an expiratory push of air, but the top of a syllable is formed by a sound that has the greatest sonority.

The weak side of the sonor theory is that the degree of sonority of one or another sound is not a constant value. The same sound can be pronounced with different degrees of sonority.

c) muscle theory - the theory of a syllable, according to which a syllable is the result of muscular tension during articulation (L.V. Shcherba)

The theory of muscle tension explains the complex phenomena of syllable formation only from the point of view of physiology, i.e. only articulatory.

d) articulatory-acoustic theory - the theory of the syllable, according to which the syllable is defined as the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, the elements of which are closely related both acoustically and articulatively.

18. Syllabic and non-syllable sounds.

All vowels are syllabic. But consonants can also act as syllables, especially sonorous [m], [m '], [n], [n'], [p], [p '], as well as some consonants at the end of a word if there is between them of the so-called long articulatory distance: letters - [letters]. The sound [k] is the posterior lingual, [in] is the labial, the articulatory distance between these sounds is significant.

The syllable function of sonorant consonants is acquired in the following positions:

a) in a position in front of a noisy one at the beginning of a word ([Olby], [Orty]);

b) in a position after a noisy word at the end ([d'iE / ká / bO r ’], [kv / pá / bOL’];

b) sonorous [p] and [l] in complex combinations of sounds (overseer, timpani, suprasl).

19. Types of syllables

By the nature of the final sound in Russian, two types of syllables are distinguished - open and closed.

A syllable that ends in a syllabic sound is called open, and a syllable that ends in a non-syllable sound is called closed.

In Russian, about 85% of syllables are open, and most of them correspond to the SG or SSG model, i.e. "Consonant + vowel" or "consonant + consonant + vowel", for example: ru-ka, candle-cha, ko-shka, simple, etc. This can be explained by two reasons:

1. Words in Old Russian, as well as in modern Russian, were divided into syllables. However, unlike the modern one, in the Old Russian language the law of an open syllable was in effect, according to which each syllable in a word had to end in a syllable-forming sound, that is, in the overwhelming majority of cases in a vowel, for example: do / мъ, bra / тъ, s / nъ , la / vb / ka, se / stra, not / sti, mo / zg, d / n. It should be noted that b and b in the Old Russian language denoted vowel sounds: b denoted a short, weakened sound, close to [o], and b - the same short, weakened sound, close to [e].

According to the law of an open syllable, syllables were built according to the principle of ascending sonority.

In modern language, this law has lost its force: syllables can be both open and closed, that is, they end with a vowel and a consonant sound. At the same time, a certain tendency towards the openness of the syllable, towards its construction along the ascending sonority has been preserved.

2. The peculiarity of the Russian language in terms of syllabic structure lies in the close connection of the consonant with the subsequent vowel and, conversely, in the weak adjoining of the consonant to the previous vowel.

By the nature of the initial sound, there are overt and covered syllables. Uncovered ones begin with a syllabic sound, covered ones with a non-syllable sound.