(USA)
Jan van Steenbergen, Igor Polyakov
G. I. Muravkin (Berlin)
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Notes
Literature
- Histoire de la langue universelle. - Paris: Librairie Hachette et C ie, 1903. - 571 p.
- Drezen E.K. For the common language. Three centuries of searching. - M.-L.: Gosizdat, 1928. - 271 p.
- Svadost-Istomin Ermar Pavlovich. How will a common language emerge? - M .: Nauka, 1968. - 288 p.
- Dulichenko A. D. Projects of universal and international languages (Chronological index from II to XX centuries) // Uchenye zapiski Tartu Gos. university. Issue. 791. - 1988. - S. 126-162.
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Introduction
Artificial languages are special languages that, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created.
Distinguish the following types artificial languages:
· Programming languages and computer languages - languages for automatic processing of information using computers.
· Informational languages -- languages used in various systems information processing.
Formalized languages of science -- languages designed for symbolic notation scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
· International auxiliary languages (planned) -- languages created from elements natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of international communication.
Languages of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes, such as the Elvish language invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series Star Trek (see Fictional Languages), the Navi language created for the movie Avatar ".
The idea of creating a new language of international communication arose in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appear based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was a station wagon published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details later projects went unnoticed by the public.
Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer, became the next project for an international language. He caused a very big resonance in society.
According to the purpose of creation artificial languages can be divided into the following groups:
Philosophical and logical languages-- languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Toki Pona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.
· Auxiliary languages - designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovyanski.
· Artistic or aesthetic languages - created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.
Also, the language is created for setting up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).
According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:
· A priori languages - based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.
A posteriori languages - languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental
· Mixed languages - words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.
The number of speakers of artificial languages can only be given approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers.
artificial language international alphabet
The Volapyuk alphabet is based on Latin and consists of 27 characters. This language has a very simple phonetics, which should have made it easier to learn and pronounce it for children and peoples whose language does not have complex combinations of consonants. The roots of most words in Volapuk are borrowed from English and French, but modified to fit the rules of the new language. Volapuk has 4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative; the stress always falls on the last syllable. The disadvantages of this language include a complex system of formation of verbs and various verb forms.
By 1889, 25 Volapük magazines were published worldwide and 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and the number of clubs for lovers of this language reached almost three hundred. However, gradually interest in this language began to fade, and this process was especially affected by internal conflicts at the Volapuk Academy and the emergence of a new, simpler and more elegant planned language - Esperanto. It is believed that at present there are only about 20-30 people in the world who own Volapuk.
Esperanto
The most famous and widespread artificial language was Esperanto (Ludwik Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself. However, a more correct term is not "artificial", but "planned", that is, created specifically for international communication.
This language was constructed by the Warsaw doctor and linguist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887. He called his creation Internacia (international). The word "esperanto" ("esperanto") was originally a pseudonym under which Zamenhof published his works. Translated from the new language, it meant "hoping."
Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions.
AT given language missing gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are transmitted using prepositions.
The alphabet is based on Latin, and all parts of speech have fixed endings: -o for nouns, -a for adjectives, -i for indefinite verbs, -e for derived adverbs.
All this makes Esperanto so plain language that an unprepared person can learn to speak it fluently enough in a few months of regular practice. It takes at least a few years to learn any of the natural languages at the same level.
Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Usually these are children from marriages where the parents belong to different nations and use Esperanto for intra-family communication.
Esperanto has descendant languages that lack some of the shortcomings of Esperanto. The most famous of these languages are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will be as widespread as Esperanto.
Ido is a kind of descendant of Esperanto. It was created by French Esperantist Louis de Beaufron, French mathematician Louis Couture and Danish linguist Otto Jespersen. Ido was proposed as an improved version of Esperanto. It is estimated that up to 5,000 people speak Ido today. At the time of its creation, about 10% of Esperanto speakers switched to it, but the Ido language did not gain worldwide popularity.
Ido uses the Latin alphabet: there are only 26 letters in it, while there are no letters with dots, dashes and other umlauts.
The most significant changes in this "offspring" of Esperanto occurred in phonetics. Recall that there are 28 letters in Esperanto, while diacritics are used (just dots and dashes above the letters), and in Ido - only 26. The phoneme h was excluded from the language, an optional pronunciation of the letter j appeared - j [?] (that is, , now it is not always heard as it is written, it is already necessary to memorize the sequences of letters with different sounds). These are the most significant differences, there are others.
The stress does not always fall on the penultimate syllable: for example, in infinitives, the stress now falls on the last one.
Most Big changes occurred in word formation: in Esperanto, knowing the root, it was only necessary to add to it the endings of the desired part of speech. In Ido, nouns from verbs and from adjectives are formed differently, so it is necessary to know whether we form a noun from the root of an adjective or a verb.
There are also a number of less significant differences.
Although Ido did not become a popular language, it was able to enrich Esperanto with a number of affixes (suffixes and prefixes), some successful words and expressions were transferred to Esperanto.
Loglan was designed specifically for linguistic research. It got its name from the English phrase "logical language", which means "logical language". Dr. James Cook Brown began work on the new language in 1955, and in 1960 the first paper on Logglan was published. The first meeting of people interested in Brown's brainchild took place in 1972; and three years later, Brown's book Loglan 1: A Logical Language was published.
Brown's main goal was to create a language free from the contradictions and inaccuracies inherent in natural languages. He suggested that loglan could be used to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, according to which the structure of language determines thinking and the way of knowing reality to such an extent that people who speak different languages perceive the world differently and think differently.
The Loglan alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet and consists of 28 letters. This language has only three parts of speech:
Nouns (names and titles) denoting specific individual objects;
Predicates that play the role of most parts of speech and convey the meaning of statements;
Words (English "little words", literally - "little words") are pronouns, numerals and operators that express the emotions of the speaker and provide logical, grammatical, digital and punctuation links. Punctuation in the usual sense of the word is absent in loglan.
In 1965, Loglan is mentioned in R. Heinlein's story "The Moon Hardly Lays" as a language used by a computer. The idea to make Loglan a human language understandable to a computer gained popularity, and in 1977-1982 work was done to finally rid it of contradictions and inaccuracies. As a result, after minor changes, Loglan became the first language in the world with a grammar without logical conflicts.
In 1986, a split occurred among the Loglanists, the result of which was the creation of another artificial language - Lojban. Currently, interest in loglan has declined markedly, but in online communities language issues are still being discussed, and the Loglan Institute is sending out its educational materials to anyone who is interested in a new language. According to various sources, there are from several tens to several thousand people in the world who are able to understand texts in Loglan.
Pona currents
Toki pona is a language created by Canadian linguist Sonya Helen Kisa and has become perhaps the simplest of artificial languages. The phrase "toki pon" can be translated as "good language" or "kind language". It is believed that its creation was influenced by the Chinese teachings of Taoism and the work of primitive philosophers. The first information about this language appeared in 2001.
The Toki Pona language has only 120 roots, so almost all words in it have multiple meanings. The alphabet of this language consists of 14 letters: nine consonants (j k l m n p s t w) and five vowels (a e i o u). All official words are written lower case, only informal words, currents of pon, such as names of people or names of peoples, geographical places and religions, begin with a capital letter. The spelling of words fully corresponds to their pronunciation, they do not change with the help of endings, prefixes and suffixes and can act as any part of speech. Offers have a rigid structure. So, for example, the qualifier always comes after the qualifier (an adjective after a noun; an adverb after a verb, etc.) Toki Pona is primarily a language for communicating on the Web and exemplifies Internet culture. It is believed that several hundred people are currently using this language.
This language is the most famous of the languages created by the English linguist, philologist and writer J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973), who began his work in 1915 and continued it all his life. The development of Quenya, as well as the description of the Eldar, a people who could speak it, led to the creation of a classic fantasy literary work - the Lord of the Rings trilogy, as well as a number of other works published after the death of their author. Tolkien himself wrote about it this way: “No one believes me when I say that my long book is an attempt to create a world in which the language that suits my personal aesthetic could be natural. However, it's true."
The basis for the creation of Quenya was Latin, as well as Finnish and Greek. Quenya is quite difficult to learn. It includes 10 cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, instrumental, possessive, parting, approximate, locative, and corresponding. Nouns in Quenya are inflected for four numbers: singular, plural, fractional (used to indicate part of a group), and dual (used to indicate a pair of items).
Tolkien also developed a special alphabet for Quenya - Tengwar, but the Latin alphabet is most often used for records in this language. At present, the number of people who speak this language to one degree or another reaches several tens of thousands. In Moscow alone, there are at least 10 people who know it at a level sufficient to write poetry on it. Interest in Quenya increased significantly after the adaptation of The Lord of the Rings. There are a number of Quenya textbooks, as well as Quenya language clubs.
In the 20th century, another attempt was made to create a new artificial language. The project was named Slovio - the language of words. The main thing that distinguishes this language from all its artificial predecessors is the vocabulary, which is based on all existing languages of the Slavic group, the largest group Indo-European languages. Moreover, the Slovio language is based on common Slavic vocabulary, which is understandable to all Slavs without exception.
Thus, Slovio is an artificial language designed to be understandable to speakers of the languages of the Slavic group without any additional study, and to those who do not speak Slavic languages, to make learning as easy as possible. The creator of Slovio, linguist Mark Guchko, began working on it in 1999.
When creating Slovio, Mark Guchko used the experience gained in the creation and development of Esperanto. The difference between Slovio and Esperanto is that Esperanto was created on the basis of various European languages, and the vocabulary of Slovio consists of common Slavic words.
There are 26 sounds in the word, the main writing system is Latin without any diacritics, which can be read and written on any computer.
The word provides for the possibility of writing in Cyrillic. At the same time, some sounds in different versions of the Cyrillic alphabet are indicated by different characters. Recording words in Cyrillic significantly simplifies the understanding of what is written by unprepared readers in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, the countries of the former USSR. But it should be remembered that the Cyrillic alphabet cannot only be read, but sometimes they cannot even be displayed correctly in other countries and parts of the world. Cyrillic users will be able to read what is written in Latin, although with some inconvenience at first.
The slovio uses the most simplified grammar: there is no case declension, no grammatical genders. This is intended to facilitate and speed up language learning. Like natural Slavic languages, the word allows the free order of the words in the sentence. Despite the simplified grammar, the word always accurately conveys the subject and object in the sentence, both in the direct order subject-predicate-object, and in the reverse order object-predicate-subject.
The main idea that the creators of Slovio developed was that the new language should be understood without learning by all Slavs, who are the largest ethnic group in Europe. There are more than 400 million Slavs in the world. Therefore, Slovio is not just an artificial language for the sake of the very idea, this language has a great practical value. It is believed that a German who has learned Slovio will be able to overcome the language barrier in any of the Slavic countries, and learning Slovio is much easier than learning at least one of the Slavic languages.
Conclusion
Regardless of the reason for the creation of this or that artificial language, it is impossible for them to replace the natural language equally. It is devoid of a cultural and historical base, its phonetics will always be conditional (there are examples when Esperantists from different countries could hardly understand each other because of the huge difference in the pronunciation of certain words), it does not have a sufficient number of speakers to be able to " plunge" into their environment. Artificial languages, as a rule, are taught by fans of certain works of art where these languages are used, programmers, mathematicians, linguists or just interested people. It is possible to consider them as an instrument of interethnic communication, but only in a narrow circle of amateurs. Be that as it may, the idea of creating a universal language is still alive and well.
Bibliography
1. http://www.openlanguage.ru/iskusstvennye_jazyki
2. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_language
3. http://www.rae.ru/forum2012/274/1622
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Constructed languages, their difference in specialization and purpose, and determination of the degree of similarity with natural languages. The main types of artificial languages. The impossibility of using an artificial language in life as main disadvantage his study.
Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Kurgan State Agricultural Academy named after V.I. T. S. Maltseva
Faculty: Economic
Department: Russian language and culture of speech
Essay on the Russian language and culture of speech
On the topic: Artificial languages.
- Completed by: student of the 1st year of the 2nd group
- accounting department
- accounting analysis and audit
- Zhilyakova Natalya
- Checked by: Ukraintseva Nina Efimovna
Content
Introduction
- The concept of artificial language.
Types of artificial languages.
- Volapyuk.
- Esperanto.
Loglan.
Pona currents.
Quenya.
Klingon language.
- Conclusion.
- List of used literature.
Human language is a system of sound and visual symbols that people use to communicate and express their thoughts and feelings. Most of us deal mainly with natural languages, which independently emerged from living human communication. However, there are also artificial human languages created by people themselves, primarily for communication between representatives of different nationalities, as well as for literary or cinematic fantastic works.
The need for language has always existed. We can say that its embryo was a consequence of the fact that people realized, on the one hand, multilingualism, on the other hand, the unity of the human race and the need for mutual communication.
The purpose of my work is to convey the concept of "artificial languages" and show their history of origin.
1. The concept of an artificial language
Artificial languages? - special languages, which, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created.
The idea of creating a new language of international communication originated in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appear based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was the universalglot published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.
2. Types of artificial languages
There are the following types of artificial languages:
Programming languages and computer languages - languages for automatic processing of information using a computer.
Information languages are languages used in various information processing systems.
Formalized languages of science are languages intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages of non-existent peoples created for fiction or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand.
International auxiliary languages are languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
According to the purpose of creation, artificial languages can be divided into the following groups:
Philosophical and logical languages are languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Toki Pona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.
Auxiliary languages - designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slavonic.
Artistic or aesthetic languages - created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.
According to their structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:
A priori languages - based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.
A posteriori languages - languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental
Mixed languages - words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.
Part of an alphabetical list of artificial languages:
Adyuvanto, Afrihili, Basic English, "Divine Language", Venedyk, Westron, Volapyuk, Glossa, Zlengo, Ido, Interglosa, Interlingua, Ithkuil, Quenya, Klingon, Cosmos, Kotava, Lango, Latin Blue Flexione, Lincos, Loglan, Lojban, Lokos, Na "Vi, Neutral, Novial, Neo, Occidental, OMO, Palava-kani, Rho, Romanid, Romanitso, Sevorian, Simlish, Sindarin, Slovio, Slovianski, Modern Indo-European, Solresol, Sonna, Sunilinus, Talos language, Pona Currents, Unitario, Uropi, Chengli, Edo, Eljundi, Esperantido, Esperanto, Brithenig, Dastmen, D "ni, Folkspraak, Hymmnos, Langua catolica, Lingwa de Planeta, Pasilingua, S-lingva, and many others.
Of these, the most famous are:
- Volapuk
- Esperanto
- loglan
- Pona currents
- Quenya
- Klingon language
2.1. Volapyuk
One of the first languages was Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist J. Schleyer.
The Volapyuk alphabet is based on Latin and consists of 27 characters. This language has a very simple phonetics, which should have made it easier to learn and pronounce it for children and peoples whose language does not have complex combinations of consonants. The roots of most words in Volapuk are borrowed from English and French, but modified to fit the rules of the new language. Volapuk has 4 cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative; the stress always falls on the last syllable. The disadvantages of this language include a complex system of formation of verbs and various verb forms.
Although the unusual sound and spelling of words in Volapuk caused ridicule in the press, and the word "Volapuk" itself became synonymous with "gibberish", this language quickly gained popularity. In 1880, the first textbook in German was created, and two years later newspapers were published in Volapük. By 1889, 25 Volapük magazines were published worldwide and 316 textbooks were written in 25 languages, and the number of clubs for lovers of this language reached almost three hundred. However, gradually interest in this language began to fade, and this process was especially affected by internal conflicts at the Volapuk Academy and the emergence of a new, simpler and more elegant planned language - Esperanto.
It is believed that at present there are only about 20-30 people in the world who own Volapuk.
2.2. Esperanto
Esperanto is the most famous and widespread of the artificially created languages. However, a more correct term is not "artificial", but "planned", that is, created specifically for international communication.
This language was constructed by the Warsaw doctor and linguist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887. He called his creation Internacia (international). The word "esperanto" ("esperanto") was originally a pseudonym under which Zamenhof published his works. Translated from the new language, it meant "hoping."
Esperanto is based on international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exceptions. In this language, there is no grammatical gender, it has only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the meanings of the rest are conveyed using prepositions. The alphabet is based on Latin, and all parts of speech have fixed endings: -o for nouns, -a for adjectives, -i for indefinite verbs, -e for derived adverbs.
All this makes Esperanto such a simple language that an untrained person can become fluent enough in a few months of regular practice. It takes at least a few years to learn any of the natural languages at the same level.
Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to various estimates, from several tens of thousands to several million people. At the same time, it is believed that for 500-1000 people this language is native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Usually these are children from marriages where the parents belong to different nations and use Esperanto for intra-family communication.
Esperanto has descendant languages that lack some of the shortcomings of Esperanto. The most famous among these languages are Esperantido and Novial. However, none of them will be as widespread as Esperanto.
2.3. Loglan
Loglan was developed specifically for linguistic research. It got its name from the English phrase "logical language", which means "logical language". Dr. James Cook Brown began work on the new language in 1955, and in 1960 the first paper on Logglan was published. The first meeting of people interested in Brown's brainchild took place in 1972; and three years later, Brown's book Loglan 1: A Logical Language was published.
Brown's main goal was to create a language free from the contradictions and inaccuracies inherent in natural languages. He suggested that loglan could be used to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, according to which the structure of language determines thinking and the way of knowing reality to such an extent that people who speak different languages perceive the world differently and think differently.
The Loglan alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet and consists of 28 letters. This language has only three parts of speech:
- nouns (names and titles) denoting specific individual objects;
- predicates that play the role of most parts of speech and convey the meaning of statements;
- little words (English "little words", literally - "little words") - pronouns, numerals and operators that express the emotions of the speaker and provide logical, grammatical, digital and punctuation links. Punctuation in the usual sense of the word is absent in loglan.
In 1965, Loglan is mentioned in R. Heinlein's story "The Moon Hardly Lays" as a language used by a computer. The idea to make Loglan a human language understandable to a computer gained popularity, and in 1977-1982 work was done to finally rid it of contradictions and inaccuracies. As a result, after minor changes, Loglan became the first language in the world with a grammar without logical conflicts.
In 1986, a split occurred among the Loglanists, the result of which was the creation of another artificial language - Lojban. Currently, interest in Loglan has noticeably declined, but there is still a discussion of language problems in online communities, and the Loglan Institute sends out its educational materials to everyone who is interested in the new language. According to various sources, there are from several tens to several thousand people in the world who are able to understand texts in Loglan.
2.4. Pona currents
Pona Toki (Toki pona) is a language created by Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa and has become perhaps the simplest of artificial languages. The phrase "toki pon" can be translated as "good language" or "kind language". It is believed that its creation was influenced by the Chinese teachings of Taoism and the work of primitive philosophers. The first information about this language appeared in 2001.
etc.................
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, sign systems created for use in areas where the use of natural language is less effective or impossible. Artificial languages vary in purpose, range of specialization, and degree of similarity to natural languages.
non-specialized languages general purpose are international artificial languages (which are called planned languages if they have been implemented in communication; see Interlinguistics, International languages). In the 17th-20th centuries, about 1000 projects of such languages were created, but only a few of them received real use (Volapyuk, Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, and some others).
Functionally, such artificial languages are divided into logical (claiming to reform the human language as a means of thinking) and empirical (limited to the task of building a language as an adequate means of communication). In material terms, languages differ a posteriori (borrowing lexical and grammatical material from natural source languages) and a priori (devoid of material similarity with natural languages). Another classification parameter is the form of expression (manifestation) language material. Artificial languages that have two common forms of expression (voiced and written) are called pasilalia. They are opposed, on the one hand, by systems of artificial languages that have only one form of expression, for example, written (pasigraphy) or gestural (pasimology), and, on the other hand, systems that strive for an infinite variability of forms of expression: such is the “musical language” of sol-re- salt J. Sudra (1817-66; France), which could be expressed using notes, their corresponding sounds, numbers, gestures, spectrum colors, semaphore signals or flag signaling, etc.
A distinctive feature of the class of international artificial languages is that their typology changes over time (whereas in natural languages it is timeless): in the initial period of linguistic design, systems that were logical in function and a priori in material prevailed, but over time, the focus of linguistic design gradually shifted towards empiricism and a posteriori. The point of balance between the multidirectional tendencies falls on 1879, when the first artificial language appeared, implemented in communication - Volapyuk (created by I. M. Schleyer; Germany). In his system, logicism is balanced with empiricism, and a prioriism with a posteriorism. For this reason, Volapuk is considered a language of a mixed logical-empirical and a priori-a posteriori type: it borrows words from natural languages (English, German, French, Latin, etc.), but modifies them in order to simplify pronunciation, eliminate the phenomena of homonymy and synonymy and not to give preponderance to one source language over others. As a result, borrowed words lose their recognizability, for example, English world > vol ‘world’, speak > рük ‘to speak’ (hence volapük ‘world language’). Volapuk grammar is synthetic (see Synthetism in linguistics), it includes a large number of nominal and verbal categories (2 numbers, 4 cases, 3 persons, 6 tenses, 4 moods, 2 types and 2 voices). Practice has shown the difficulty of using such a system in communication, and subsequently the semiotic range of artificial languages is narrowing, they are increasingly approaching the type of natural languages.
Artificial languages began to be created mainly on the basis of international vocabulary, with a certain ordering according to the autonomous rules of a given artificial language (autonomist artificial languages) or with preservation in a form as close as possible to natural languages (naturalistic artificial languages). The grammar of artificial languages began to be built according to the analytical type (see Analyticism in linguistics) with the maximum reduction in the number of grammatical categories used. The stage of wide communicative application of a posteriori artificial languages was opened by Esperanto (created by L. Zamenhof in 1887; Poland), which remains the most widely used of all existing artificial languages. Much less widespread was the Ido language (the reformed Esperanto, created in 1907 by L. de Beaufron, L. Couture, O. Jespersen, V. Ostwald, and others; France). Of the naturalistic projects, the following gained fame: Latino-blue-flexione (or Interlingua-Peano; 1903, J. Peano), Occidental (1921-22, E. Wahl; Estonia) and Interlingua-IALA (created in 1951 by the Association of International auxiliary language under the leadership of A. Goud; USA). The synthesis of ido and occidental is presented in Jespersen's novial project (1928; Denmark).
Lit.: Couturat L., Leau L. Histoire de la langue universelle. R., 1907; idem. Les nouvelles langues internationales. R., 1907; Drezen E.K. Behind the common language. M.; L., 1928; Rônai R. Der Kampf gegen Babel. Munch., 1969; Bausani A. Le lingue inventate. Rome, 1974; Knowlson J. Universal language schemes in England and France 1600-1800. Toronto; Buffalo, 1975; Kuznetsov S. N. To the question of typological classification international artificial languages // Problems of interlinguistics. M., 1976.
S. N. Kuznetsov.
Specialized artificial languages for various purposes- these are symbolic languages of science (languages of mathematics, logic, linguistics, chemistry, etc.) and languages of human-machine communication (algorithmic, or programming languages, languages operating systems, database management, information, request-response systems, etc.). A common feature of specialized artificial languages is a formal method for their description (definition) by specifying an alphabet (dictionary), rules for the formation and transformation of expressions (formulas) and semantics, that is, a method for meaningful interpretation of expressions. Despite the formal method of definition, these languages are for the most part not closed systems, since the rules for the formation of words and expressions allow recursion. Therefore, as in natural languages, the vocabulary and the number of generated texts are potentially infinite.
The beginning of the creation and application of specialized artificial languages can be considered the use in Europe since the 16th century of letter notation and symbols of operations in mathematical expressions; in the 17-18 centuries, the language of differential and integral calculus was created, in the 19-20 centuries - the language mathematical logic. Elements of the symbolic languages of linguistics were created in the 1930s and 40s. The symbolic languages of science are formal systems designed to represent knowledge and manipulate it in the relevant subject areas (there are also domain-independent knowledge representation languages), that is, they implement a limited number of language functions (metalinguistic, representative), at the same time they perform functions that are not characteristic of natural language (for example, serve as a means of logical inference).
The development of human-machine communication languages began in the 1940s with the advent of computers. The first languages of this type were languages for describing computational processes by specifying machine instructions and data in binary code. In the early 1950s, symbolic coding systems (assemblers) were created that use mnemonic symbolic designations for operations (verbs) and operands (objects, additions); in 1957 the programming language Fortran was developed in the United States, and in 1960 a group of European scientists proposed the Algol-60 language. Usually the text in a programming language consists of a program heading, descriptive (declarative) and procedural parts; in the declarative part, the objects (values) on which actions will be performed are described; in the procedural part, calculations are specified in the imperative or sentential (narrative) form. Computations in programming languages are specified in the form of operators (sentences), which include operands (variables and constants) and symbols denoting arithmetic, logical, symbolic, set-theoretic and other operations and computational functions; there are special grammatical constructions for setting logical conditions, cycles, compound operators (analogues complex sentences), constructions for setting and using procedures and functions, data input and output operators, operators for accessing the translator and the operating system, i.e., programs that interpret text in a programming language and monitor its correct execution (understanding). Of artificial languages, programming languages are closest to natural languages in terms of the composition of their linguistic functions (there are communicative, representative, conative, phatic and metalinguistic functions). For programming languages, as well as for a natural language, the asymmetry of the expression plan and the content plan is common (there is synonymy, ambiguity, homonymy). They serve not only for actual programming, but also for professional communication of programmers; there are special language versions for publishing algorithms.
By the 1980s, there were apparently over 500 different programming languages, numerous versions (dialects) of some of the most common languages (Fortran, Algol-60, PL/1, Cobola). Programming languages have, to a certain extent, the property of self-development (extensibility) due to the possibility of defining an infinite number of functions in them; there are languages with defined value types (Algol-68, Pascal, Ada). This property allows the user to define his programming language by means of this.
Other means of human-machine communication are close to programming languages: the languages of operating systems, with the help of which users organize their interaction with a computer and its software; languages of interaction with databases and information systems, with the help of which users define and enter information into the system, request various data in the system. A private (and originally emerged) form of query languages is information retrieval languages, set by information retrieval thesauri, classifiers of concepts and objects, or simply dictionaries automatically compiled by the system when information is entered into it. The text in the information retrieval language has the form nominal offer, which lists the concepts that are features of the desired data. Information retrieval languages may be purely dictionary (without grammar), but may also have by grammatical means expressions of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between concepts. They serve not only to formulate requests to information system, but also a means of indexing (i.e., displaying content) of texts entered into a computer.
To interact with a computer, a strictly formally defined part (subset) of a natural language is also used, the so-called limited natural, or specialized natural, language, which occupies an intermediate position between natural and artificial languages. Bounded natural language expressions are similar to natural language expressions, but they do not use words whose meanings lie outside the given subject area, are difficult to parse, or have irregular grammatical forms and constructions.
Lit.: Sammet J. Programming languages: history and fundamentals. Englewood Cliffs, ; Tseitin G. S. Features of natural languages in programming languages // Machine Translation and Applied Linguistics. M., 1974. Issue. 17; Morozov V.P., Ezhova L.F. Algorithmic languages. M., 1975; Cherny AI Introduction to the theory of information retrieval. M., 1975; Andryushchenko VM Linguistic approach to the study of programming languages and interaction with computers // Problems of Computational Linguistics and Automatic Text Processing in Natural Language. M., 1980; Lekomtsev Yu. K. Introduction to the formal language of linguistics. M., 1983.
V. M. Andryushchenko.
The artificial languages of the above classes are used in real world. The opposite of them is the artificial languages of virtual (fictional) worlds, created by the imagination of utopian philosophers (starting with "Utopia" by T. Mohr), science fiction writers, authors of projects " alternative history”, etc. At the turn of the 20th-21st century, in connection with the development of new mass media and the advent of the Internet, the class of such languages, called virtual (fictional, fictitious, fantastic), dramatically expanded its boundaries.
The peculiarity of virtual languages is that their authors invent not only the language system itself, but also model the communicative situation as a whole (fictitious time, place, communication participants, texts, dialogues, etc.). Newspeak, described in the satirical dystopia by J. Orwell in 1948, and various language projects by J. Tolkien (the Lord of the Rings trilogy) gained fame in the 20th century; virtual languages are used not only in literary works but also in movies and series role playing, they compose and perform songs, a significant number of Internet sites are devoted to them. Societies of supporters of such languages are created, as a result of which they are sometimes transformed into languages of real human communication. In contrast to international artificial languages such as Esperanto, which develop in a direction that brings them closer to natural languages, virtual languages follow in the opposite direction, mastering semiotic possibilities unusual for human communication (“alternative semiosis” as a sign of an “alternative world”). See also Tolkien languages.
Lit .: Sidorova M. Yu., Shuvalova O. N. Internet linguistics: fictional languages. M., 2006.
In linguistics of the 19th century (less often in modern linguistics), the term "artificial languages" was also applied to subsystems (or modifications) of natural languages, which differ from other subsystems in a greater degree of conscious human influence on their formation and development. With this understanding [G. Paul (Germany), I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay and others] artificial languages include, on the one hand, literary languages (as opposed to dialects), and on the other hand, professional and secret languages (as opposed to the common language). The most artificial are those literary languages that are a more or less arbitrary synthesis of a number of existing dialects (for example, Lansmål; see Norwegian). In these cases, the antithesis "artificial - natural" is equated with the opposition of the conscious and the spontaneous.
In some linguistic concepts, all human languages were recognized as artificial on the grounds that they act as a product of human creativity (“the creation of mankind”, N. Ya. Marr) and in this sense oppose the natural communication of animals. The antithesis "artificial - natural" thus approached the antithesis "social - biological".
The study of artificial languages, both in the proper sense and in application to artificially ordered subsystems of natural languages, makes it possible to understand the general principles of the structure and functioning of a language in general, expands theoretical ideas about such properties of a language as systemicity, communicative suitability, stability and variability, as well as about the limits conscious human impact on the language, the degree and types of its formalization and optimization.
Lit .: Marr N. Ya. General course of teaching about language // Marr Ya. Ya. Selected works. L., 1936. T. 2; Paul G. Principles of the history of language. M., 1960; Baudouin de Courtenay I. A. Selected works on general linguistics. M., 1963.T. 1-2.
Esperanto is the world's most widely spoken artificial language. Now, according to various sources, it is spoken by several hundred thousand to a million people. It was invented by the Czech ophthalmologist Lazar (Ludwig) Markovich Zamenhof in 1887 and got its name from the author's pseudonym (Lazar signed in the textbook as Esperanto - "hoping").
Like other artificial languages (more precisely, most of them), it has an easy-to-learn grammar. The alphabet has 28 letters (23 consonants, 5 vowels) and is based on Latin. Some enthusiasts have even nicknamed it "Latin of the new millennium".
Most Esperanto words are made up of Romance and Germanic roots: roots are borrowed from French, English, German and Italian. There are also many international words in the language that are understandable without translation. 29 words are borrowed from Russian, among them the word "borscht".
Harry Harrison spoke Esperanto and actively promoted this language in his novels. Thus, in the cycle "The World of the Steel Rat", the inhabitants of the Galaxy speak mainly Esperanto. About 250 newspapers and magazines are published in Esperanto, and four radio stations broadcast.
Interlingua (occidental)
Appeared in 1922 in Europe thanks to the linguist Edgar de Wahl. In many ways it is similar to Esperanto: it has a lot of borrowings from the Romano-Germanic languages and the same language construction system as in them. The original name of the language - Occidental - became a hindrance to its spread after the Second World War. In the countries of the communist bloc, it was believed that after the pro-Western language, anti-revolutionary ideas would also creep in. Then Occidental became known as Interlingua.
Volapyuk
In 1879, God appeared to the author of the language, priest Johann Martin Schleyer, in a dream and ordered him to invent and write down his own language, which Schleyer immediately took up. All night he wrote down his grammar, word meanings, sentences, and then whole verses. The German language became the basis of Volapuk, Schleyer boldly deformed the words of English and French reshaping them in a new way. In Volapuk, for some reason, he decided to abandon the sound [p]. More precisely, not even for some reason, but for a very specific one: it seemed to him that this sound would cause difficulties for the Chinese who decided to learn volapuk.
At first, the language became quite popular due to its simplicity. It published 25 magazines, wrote 316 textbooks in 25 languages, and operated 283 clubs. For one person, Volapuk even became their native language - this is the daughter of Professor Volapuk Henry Conn (unfortunately, nothing is known about her life).
Gradually, interest in the language began to decline, but in 1931 a group of Volapukists led by the scientist Ary de Jong reformed the language, and for some time its popularity increased again. But then the Nazis came to power and banned everything in Europe foreign languages. Today, there are only two or three dozen people in the world who speak Volapuk. However, Wikipedia has a section written in Volapük.
Loglan
Linguist John Cooke coined loglan (log ical lan guage) in 1955 as an alternative to conventional, "imperfect" languages. And suddenly a language that was created for the most part for scientific research found its fans. Still would! After all, it does not have such concepts as tense for verbs or number for nouns. It is assumed that this is already clear to the interlocutors from the context of the conversation. But there are a lot of interjections in the language, with the help of which it is supposed to express shades of emotions. There are about twenty of them, and they represent a spectrum of feelings from love to hate. And they sound like this: wow! (love), wow! (surprise), wow! (happiness), etc. And there are no commas or other punctuation marks. Miracle, not language!
Designed by Ohio priest Edward Foster. Immediately after its appearance, the language became very popular: in the first years, even two newspapers were published, manuals and dictionaries were published. Foster was successful in obtaining a grant from the International Auxiliary Language Association. main feature Ro language: words were built according to a categorical scheme. For example, red is bofoc, yellow is bofof, orange is bofod. The disadvantage of such a system: it is almost impossible to distinguish words by ear. That's probably why special interest the public did not call the language.
Solresol
Appeared in 1817. French creator Jean-Francois Sudre believed that everything in the world can be explained with the help of notes. Language, in fact, consists of them. It has a total of 2660 words: 7 one-syllable, 49 two-syllable, 336 three-syllable and 2268 four-syllable. To denote opposite concepts, the mirroring of the word is used: fall - good, lafa - bad.
Solresol had several scripts. It was possible to communicate on it by writing down the notes on the stave, the names of the notes, the first seven digits of Arabic writing, the first letters Latin alphabet, special shorthand symbols, and rainbow colors. Accordingly, it was possible to communicate in Solresol not only by pronunciation of words, but also by playing a musical instrument or singing, as well as in the language of the deaf and dumb.
The language found a lot of fans, including among famous people. Famous followers of Solresol were, for example, Victor Hugo, Alexander Humboldt, Lamartine.
Ithkuil
A specially invented language to communicate on philosophical topics (however, this can just as well be done in any other language, it will still be incomprehensible!). The creation of the language took its author John Quijada almost 30 years (from 1978 to 2004), and even then he believes that he has not yet finished with a vocabulary set. By the way, there are 81 cases in Ithkuil, and the meanings of words are transmitted using morphemes. Thus, a long thought can be conveyed very briefly. As if you wanted to archive the words.
tokipona
The simplest artificial language in the world was created in 2011 by Canadian linguist Sonia Helen Kisa (real name, however, Christopher Richard). There are only 118 words in the tokipon vocabulary (each of which has several meanings), and it is generally assumed that speakers will understand what is being said from the very context of the conversation. The creator of the tokipona believes that he has come close to understanding the language of the future, which Tyler Durden spoke about in Fight Club.
Klingon
Linguist Mark Okrand invented Klingon by order of Paramount Pictures, it was supposed to be spoken by aliens in the Star Trek movie. They actually talked. But besides them, numerous fans of the series have adopted the language, and currently there is the Klingon Language Institute in the USA, which publishes periodicals and translations of literary classics, there is Klingon-language rock music (for example, the Stokovor band performs its death metal songs exclusively in Klingon) , theatrical performances and even section search engine Google.
