Question 1. Settlement of the British Isles
The special geographical position of the UK has always distinguished it from other European countries.
Great Britain has not always been an island. She became it only after the end of the last ice age, when the ice melted and flooded the lowlands that were on the site of today's English Channel and the North Sea.
Of course, the Ice Age was not one long continuous winter. Ice either came to the islands or retreated to the north, enabling the first person to settle in new places. The earliest evidence of human presence in the British Isles - flint tools - date back to approximately 250,000 BC. e. However, the noble undertakings of these people were interrupted by another cold snap, and did not resume until about 50,000 BC. e., when the ice receded and a new generation of people arrived on the islands, the ancestors of the modern inhabitants of Great Britain.
By 5000 B.C. e. Britain finally turned into an island inhabited by small tribes of hunters and fishermen.
Around 3000 BC e. the first wave of settlers arrived on the island, who grew grain, kept livestock and knew how to make pottery. Perhaps they came from Spain or even North Africa.
Following them, about 2400 BC. e. other people arrived who spoke an Indo-European language and knew how to make bronze tools.
Around 700 BC e. Celts began to arrive on the islands, who were tall, blue-eyed people with blond or red hair. Perhaps they moved from central Europe or even from the south of Russia. The Celts knew how to process iron and make better weapons from it, which convinced the earlier inhabitants of the island to move west to Wales, Scotland and Ireland. To build on their success, groups of Celts continued to move to the island in search of permanent residence for the next seven centuries.
The Celts lived as separate tribes ruled by a warrior class. Of these warriors, the most powerful were the priests, the Druids, who could not read and write, and therefore memorized all the necessary knowledge of history, medicine, etc.
Around 400 BC e. here appeared Cymry, or Britons, related to the tribes of Gauls living in the territory of modern France.
Two centuries later, another wave of Celtic settlers poured onto the land of the island of Great Britain: the southern part of the island was occupied by the Belgae who had moved to it from Northern Gaul.
Question 2. Britain as part of the Roman Empire
In 55 BC. e. The troops of Julius Caesar landed on the shores of present-day England.
The first time the Romans stayed on the island was only about three weeks. The second invasion took place in the summer of 54 BC. e., this time with a powerful army.
The real conquest of Albion by the Romans began under the emperor Claudius in 43 AD. e., about 40 thousand Roman soldiers took part in it. One of the main leaders in the struggle against the Romans was Caractacus.
Under the Romans, Britain began to export food, hunting dogs and slaves to the continent. They also brought writing to the island. While the Celtic peasants remained illiterate, the educated city dwellers could easily communicate in Latin and Greek.
The Romans never took over Scotland, although they tried to do so for a good hundred years. They eventually built a wall along the northern border with the unconquered lands, which subsequently defined the border between England and Scotland. The wall was named after the Emperor Hadrian, during whose reign it was erected.
With the collapse of the great Roman Empire came the end of Roman control over the British. In 409, the last Roman soldier left the island, leaving the "Romanized" Celts to be torn to pieces by the Scots, Irish and Saxons, who periodically make raids from Germany.
The south-east of the island of Great Britain was subjected to the greatest influence of Roman culture. Here were the main Roman settlements: Camulodin (Colchester), Londinius (London) and Verulamius (St. Albans).
Question 3. Early Middle Ages
Anglo-Saxons
The wealth of Britain by the fifth century, accumulated during the years of peace and tranquility, did not give rest to the hungry Germanic tribes. At first they raided the island, and after 430 they returned to Germany less and less, gradually settling in British lands. Illiterate and warlike people were representatives of three Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The Angles captured the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons - the southern territories, and the Jutes - the lands around Kent. However, the Jutes soon completely merged with the Angles and Saxons and ceased to be a separate tribe.
The British Celts were reluctant to cede land to England, but under pressure from the better armed Anglo-Saxons they retreated into the mountains to the west, which the Saxons called "Wales" (land of strangers). Some Celts went to Scotland, while others became slaves of the Saxons.
The Anglo-Saxons created several kingdoms, the names of some of which are still in the names of counties and districts, for example, Essex, Sussex, Wessex. A hundred years later, the king of one of the kingdoms proclaimed himself the ruler of England. King Offa was rich and powerful enough to dig a huge ditch along the entire length of the border with Wales. However, he did not control the lands of all of England, and with his death his power came to an end.
The Anglo-Saxons developed a good system of government, in which the king had a council, then called Witan, which consisted of warriors and church officials and made decisions on difficult issues. The king could ignore the advice, but it was dangerous. The Saxons also divided the territory of England into districts and changed the way the land was plowed. Now the inhabitants plowed long narrow strips of land with a heavier plow and used a three-field system of farming, which, incidentally, survived into the eighteenth century.
Christianity
It is not known how Christianity was brought to Great Britain, but it is certain that it happened before the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. In 597, the Pope sent the monk Augustine to officially bring Christianity to Great Britain. He went to Canterbury and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. By the way, he converted only a few families of noble and wealthy people to Christianity, and Celtic priests brought Christianity to the people, who went from village to village and taught the new faith. The two churches were very different, but the Celtic Church had to back down when Rome took control of the lands of Britain. Also, the kings of the Saxons preferred the Roman church for economic reasons: villages and cities grew around the monasteries, trade and relations with continental Europe developed. Anglo-Saxon England became famous in Europe for the export of wool, cheese, hunting dogs, utensils and metal products. She imported wine, fish, peppers and ornaments.
By the end of the eighth century, new hungry tribes began to arrive, driven by the hunt for the wealth of Britain. They were Vikings, like the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, Germanic tribes, but they came from Norway and Denmark and spoke North Germanic. Like the Anglo-Saxons, at first they only glimpsed the islands. In the end, they got tired of sea travel, and they decided to settle on the islands, having previously destroyed as many villages, churches and monasteries as possible.
In 865, the Vikings captured the north and east of the island and, having converted to Christianity, settled down and did not disturb the locals. King Alfred fought them for more than ten years, and only after he won the decisive battle in 878 and captured London eight years later did he make peace with them. The Vikings controlled the north and east of England, and King Alfred controlled everything else.
Throne controversy
By 590, England was back to the peaceful state it had been in before the Viking invasion. Soon the Danish Vikings began to control the western part of England, and after the death of another Saxon king, the Danish Vikings began to control most of England. After the death of the Viking king and his son, Edward, one of the sons of the Saxon king, ascended the throne. Edward devoted more time to the church than to government. By the time of his death, almost every village had a church, and a huge number of monasteries had also been built. King Edward died without an heir, so there was no one to lead the country. The dispute for the throne flared up between the representative of the powerful Saxon family Harold Godwinson and the Norman Duke William. In addition, the Danish Vikings also had their eyes on the enticing English throne. In 1066, Harold was forced to fight off persistent Vikings in the north of Yorkshire. As soon as Harold defeated the Danes, news came that William, along with his army, had arrived in England. The tired soldiers of Harold could not defeat the fresh army of William, whose soldiers were better armed and trained. Harold was killed in battle, and William marched with the army to London, where he was crowned on Christmas Day in 1066.
Question 4. Norman conquest ()
Hartaknut had no sons, so the English throne after his death was free.
The son of Ethelred the Unreasonable, who at that time lived in Normandy, became the king of England. Edward. An important role in this was played by Godwin, who came to the fore in the reign of Cnut I. Having become the king of England, Edward surrounded himself with Norman friends, giving them the most important government posts. Many Normans became English bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury. He planted Norman culture and language in England. Therefore, by the beginning of the 1050s. dissatisfaction with Edward reached its climax. The confrontation between the British and the Normans became open, however, during the armed turmoil that occurred in Dover, the advantage turned out to be on the side of the king and Edward continued to patronize the Normans.
After the death of Edward the Confessor, the English crown was supposed to pass to Edgar Etling, but at that time there was no clear law on succession to the throne, and the council of state, the Witanagemot, elected Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex as king.
However, Harold's main enemy was in Normandy - it was Duke William, son of Robert of Normandy. In addition, Tostig, Harold's brother, took the side of the duke.
In 1050, Edward the Confessor promised to appoint William as his heir, so when Harold Godwinson ascended the throne, William, not wanting to deviate from his goal, went to war with him.
Wanting to annex England to his possessions, William of Normandy decided to enlist the support of the Norwegian king Harald Garderada.
After an unsuccessful attempt to conclude peace, with the condition of transferring half of the land to England, both sides began to prepare for war. Opponents met in the battle on the Yorkshire river Derwent. On September 25, 1066, a fierce battle took place - the Battle of Stamford Bridge. It ended with the triumph of Harold - Tostig and Harald Garderada were killed.
Meanwhile, Wilhelm landed near Hastings. Harold fought the Normans on October 14, 1066 - it was the famous battle of Hastings, in which Harold was killed. Now William could declare himself King of England.
After the victory, he rushed to London, which surrendered to him without a fight, after which V. proclaimed himself king of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury and York swore an oath to him.
As a reward for the valor shown during the conquest of England, the Norman barons received from V. generous gifts, vast land. The Anglo-Saxon thanes were expelled from their lands - discontent grew among the common population. To protect themselves from the locals, the Normans began to build castles. Under William, the construction of the Tower and Windsor Castle began. The struggle against the dominance of the Normans was led by Hereward, but this movement was suppressed by William.
Having broken the resistance of the conquered people, William conducted the first census of population and property in the history of England. The results were recorded in the Doomsday Book. From this document it follows that at that time 2.5 million people lived in England. Of these, 9% are slaves, 32% are small-land peasants who are unable to pay the “geld” (property tax), 38% are villans, holders of large plots in communal fields, 12% are free landowners. The main population was rural. About 5% of the population lived in cities.
Henry tried to restore the good reputation of the English clergy. He wanted to somewhat limit the influence of the clergy, so he appointed his reliable friend Thomas Becket to the post of Archbishop of Canterbury.
Henry hoped that, having become the chief shepherd of England, a friend would pursue church policy in the interests of the king, but Thomas Becket did not justify the king's hopes.
The archbishop demanded that the churches return the lands seized or illegally transferred to secular feudal lords. Becket then declared that no secular ruler could interfere in the affairs of the church and appoint people to church positions at his own discretion. The intransigence of the archbishop turned him into an enemy of the king. In 1164, the king convened a council in Clarendon, which formulated the Clarendon Codes, according to which a clergyman guilty of a crime was to be brought before a secular court. Becket did not like this, and then the king sends him into exile.
However, Henry soon allowed the archbishop to return to England. At the same time, Henry secretly crowned his son Henry, with the help of the Archbishop of York. Becket was furious and asked the Pope to excommunicate the Archbishop of York. The king took this as an insult and, being angry, exclaimed: “….. Surely no one will ever save me from that scrawny belly!”.
At first, the numerical superiority of the French army affected, but soon the French suffered a series of serious defeats.
On June 24, 1340, the main battle at sea during the entire Hundred Years' War took place - the Sluys naval battle, where the French fleet was completely defeated.
The British won their next victory at the Battle of Crécy on August 26, 1346 (One of the flanks was commanded by Prince Edward, who liked to fight in black armor - hence the Black Prince). In this battle, about 30 thousand Frenchmen died, Philip of France shamefully fled from the battlefield.
After that, the British laid siege to Calais and he surrendered after 5 days of siege.
After this defeat, the French were forced to ask for a truce, which lasted 7 years. After the loss of Calais by the French, the British took control of Normandy.
Simultaneously with the war in France, Edward III had to fight in Scotland.
In 1355 hostilities in France resumed. On September 19, 1356, near the city of Poitiers in western France, the largest battle in the history of the Hundred Years War took place, in which the army of the Black Prince completely defeated the French army, among those taken prisoner was John II himself, the king of France.
Under the new peace treaty of 1360, England received Calais, Agenois, Periguet, Limousin, Angouleme, Saintonge and Poitou.
In 1369 the war resumed, and in 1377 Edward III himself died, and a year earlier his heir, Prince Edward, the Black Prince. With the death of the Black Prince, luck changed for the English, who were almost completely expelled from southwestern France.
The period of the reign of Edward III was the time of the true flowering of chivalric culture in England. In 1348 he founded the Order of the Garter, becoming its first knight.
Richard II (grandson of Edward III) is the last of the Plantagenets.
Richard was only 9 years old. State power was in the hands of the regent John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. The matured Richard subsequently had to seriously fight for power with his powerful relative.
The war with France continued, demanding more and more money. King three times - 1377, 1379, 1381 - Raise the poll tax. The injustice and severity of the tax caused the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 led by Wat Tyler. The rebels entered London, where pogroms and fires began. Then the 14-year-old king went out to the rebels and accepted a petition from them demanding the abolition of serfdom. Richard agreed to comply with these and other demands, after which the rebels left the city. However, as soon as the danger passed, Richard broke his promise and the rebels were attacked and sentenced to a cruel execution. Richard married Anne of Bohemia, sent John of Gaunt into exile, and appointed new ministers from among his friends.
A powerful opposition to the king soon formed, led by the Duke of Gloucester and John's son.
In 1396, peace was signed with France, the war was resumed only in 1416 at the initiative of the English king Henry V.
While Richard fought against the rebels in Ireland, Henry Bolingbroke managed to recruit an army and deposed Richard II, who agreed to abdicate on his return, and a few months later he was killed. At the same time, Parliament recognized Henry's claim to the crown of England.
Question 7. England under the Lancasters and Yorks. War of the Scarlet and White Roses ()
Lancastrian dynasty
Having ascended the throne, Henry IV first secured himself against attempts to enthrone Edmund, who was officially recognized by Richard II as heir to the throne. 9-year-old Edmund was placed under supervision at Windsor Castle.
At this time, an uprising against the British begins in Wales, led by Owen Gledower.
The riots in Wales coincided with the anti-English riots in Scotland.
The reign of Henry IV ended on March 20, 1413.
Under his reign, the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War entered a new phase.
At the beginning of his reign, he made claims to the French crown, which were rejected, which were rejected. Then Henry V recalled the English embassy from France and soon the war broke out with renewed vigor.
The goal of Henry V was the conquest of Normandy, which completely passed into the hands of the British in 1419. The success of Henry V was facilitated by the alliance he concluded with Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. In 1420, a peace treaty (“perpetual peace”) was signed, according to which the king married Princess Catherine, and Henry V became the legitimate heir to the French crown, to the detriment of the rights of the Dauphin Charles.
Henry V came closer than any of his predecessors and descendants to solving the main task of the Hundred Years War, the conquest of Normandy.
The death of Henry V dramatically changed the nature of the war. Gradually, the military initiative passed to the French.
Henry VI becomes king at the age of 9 months. His regents were the Duke of Bedford and Gloucester, who ruled in the name of the king until 1437.
Of all the English monarchs, Henry V is the only one who was also crowned King of France, but it was during his reign that England lost the Hundred Years War.
The reason for the resumption of the war was the claims of the French Dauphin, Charles, who declared himself King Charles VII.
In 1428, wishing to subdue the south of France, the English army, in alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, laid siege to the fortress of Orleans. However, the British were forced to lift the siege due to the appearance of Jeanne d'Arc in the ranks of the French. Thanks to her, the French were able to regain many cities, and in 1429 Charles VII was crowned. A conspiracy was arranged against Jeanne, after which she was captured by the British and was burned at the stake in Rouen.
The last 4 years of the war were for the British a period of military disasters. In 1450, the troops of Henry VI were defeated at the battle of Formigny, thereby forever losing Normandy, the duchy from which the English kings were descended.
In England itself, protests began to grow against the endless war and the taxes associated with it.
The unrest further undermined the strength of the kingdom, which hastened the inglorious end of the Hundred Years' War. Under Henry Vi, England lost all territory on the continent, except for the city of Calais, which remained in the hands of the British until 1558.
War of the Scarlet and White Roses
The weak-willed, soft King Henry VI constantly remained a toy in the hands of his relatives. The king was surrounded by aristocrats who pursued their own selfish interests. The king was dissatisfied with many influential persons who rallied around Richard, Duke of York, who, like Henry VI, belonged to the Plantagenet family. In 1453 - 1455. it was he who became the de facto ruler of the country, at a time when Henry VI's mental illness worsened, but with the recovery of the king, Richard and his supporters left London.
The confrontation between the two groups resulted in a dynastic feud - the war of the Scarlet and White Roses. A scarlet rose adorned the coat of arms of the House of Lancaster, a white rose for Yorks. The war began in 1455 and lasted three decades, ending with the ascension to the throne of the first king of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII /
This internal strife was not a civil war, the parties of the feudal lords fought among themselves. During the battles, Richard of York himself died, after which his eldest son Edward stood at the head of the Yorkists. On the side of the Lancasters, Queen Margaret herself intervened, who freed her husband, Henry VI, who had been captured. The bloodiest battle during the War of the Scarlet and White Roses took place in 1461 at Toughton, when Edward won (up to 60 thousand people died.). In the ensuing battles, the heir of Henry VI, Prince Edward of Wales, died, Queen Margaret was captured, Henry VI himself died - the history of the House of Lancaster ended.
The history of the English language began with the conquest of Britain by the Germanic tribes in the 5th century AD. At that time, the British Isles were inhabited by the Celts, who once arrived in three stages from the European continent. In economic and social terms, the Celts were a tribal society, which consisted of tribes, clans and their leaders. The Celts practiced primitive agriculture. Initially, the territory of the British Isles was inhabited by the Gaelic Celtic tribes and the British. The Celtic languages spoken by the inhabitants were not Germanic, although they were Indo-European.
The official beginning of the conquest of Britain by the Germanic tribes is considered to be the year 449, when the Germanic tribes arrived on the islands under the leadership of the kings Hengst and Horst, although the Teutonic raids on the islands began long before that.
The Celts offered fierce resistance to the conquerors, and the Anglo-Saxons managed to consolidate their positions in England only by the end of the 6th century. By about 700, the Anglo-Saxons captured most of England (with the exception of Cornwall and the area in the Northwest), as well as a large part of southern Scotland, but they did not succeed in conquering Wales. The conquerors represented more than one Germanic tribe; Beda the Venerable in 730 noted that among them were Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
Although the conquerors of Britain belonged to different Germanic tribes, they were closely connected by linguistic kinship and culture and considered themselves as a single people. Therefore, the word “Engle” (the Angles) began to be used in relation to all representatives of the Germanic tribes who settled in Britain, and the corresponding adjective “Enӡlisc” began to be used in relation to their language. Separated from mainland German, the West Germanic dialects spoken by the conquerors of England gave rise to a new Germanic language, English.
Although the common origin of the dialects spoken by the Germanic conquerors and their joint development in Britain led to their development into a single language, at an early stage of its development, English was represented by a number of disparate dialects spoken in separate kingdoms. Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians - German conquerors. They formed 7 German principalities: Northumbria, Mercia - Angles; East Anglia; Essex, Wessex, Sussex - Saxons; Kent - utes.
The Old English period was characterized by constant conflicts and wars for power. Various kings were able to periodically establish sovereignty over other kingdoms, but their power was temporary. In the 7th century, Northumbria was powerful and became a center of learning. In the 8th century, Wessex gained a leading position, and it was the kings of Wessex who eventually united the country. At the end of the 9th century, King Alfred saved the south and west of England from the Scandinavians, and in the 10th century Alfred's descendants again conquered the north and south of England. The unification of England by the Wessex kings led to the recognition of the Wessex dialect as the literary standard of its era. The Old English texts that have survived to this day are written in four main dialects: Wessex, Kentish, Mercian and Northumbrian.
Each of these dialects is represented by a number of written monuments.
Northumbrian dialect(The Northumbrian dialect): runic inscriptions on a cross found near the village of Rootwell and on a whalebone box, translations of the Gospel, the hymn of the monk Caedmon and the "Death Song of Beda".
Mercian(The Mercian dialect): translations of the psalter (9th century) and church hymns.
The West-Saxon dialect: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, writings of King Alfred (849-900), original and translations from Latin, Abbot Ælfric's sermons (tenth century) and Wulfstan's sermons (early 11th century).
Kentish(The Kentish dialect): Psalm translations (50 to 70) and old charters.
Old English poetic monuments such as Beowulf, Genesis, Exodus, Judith, and the works of the monk Cynewulf are difficult to attribute to one specific dialect, since along with Wessex forms they also contain a number of English forms. Professor B.V. Ilyish believes that these works were originally written in the English dialect, and later rewritten by Wessex scribes.
The predominance of written monuments in the Wessex dialect, both quantitatively and qualitatively, confirms the dominance of this dialect over all the others, which allows us to consider it a conditionally literary language of its era.
The British are a nation and an ethnic group that make up the main population of England and part of it in the former colonies; speak English. The nation was formed in the Middle Ages on the island of Great Britain from the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes, as well as the Celtic population of the island assimilated in the 5th-6th centuries.
The British ethnos absorbed many features of the peoples who migrated from the European continent to the British Isles. However, scientists are still arguing who is the main ancestor of the current inhabitants of the United Kingdom.
Settlement of the British Isles
For many years, a group of scientists led by Professor Chris Stringer of the Natural History Museum in London has been studying the process of settling the British Isles. Scientists have brought together archaeological data over the past centuries, thanks to which the chronology of the settlement of the islands has lined up most fully.
According to published data, people made at least 8 attempts to settle in what is now Great Britain, and only the last of them was successful.
For the first time, a person came to the islands about 700 thousand years ago, which is also confirmed by DNA analysis. However, after several hundred millennia, due to cold weather, people left these places. It was not difficult to carry out the exodus, since the islands were connected with the continent at that time by a land isthmus, which went under water around 6500 BC. e.
12 thousand years ago, the last conquest of Britain took place, after which people no longer left it. In the future, more and more waves of continental settlers ended up in the British Isles, creating a motley picture of global migration. However, this picture is still not clear. “The pre-Celtic substratum to this day remains an elusive substance that no one has seen, but at the same time, few will dispute its existence,” writes British scientist John Morris Jones.
From Celts to Normans
The Celts are perhaps the most ancient people whose influence can be seen in present-day Britain. They began to actively populate the British Isles from 500 to 100 BC. e. The Celts, who migrated from the territory of the French province of Brittany, being skilled shipbuilders, most likely instilled navigation skills on the islands.
From the middle of the 1st century A.D. e. began the systematic expansion of Britain by Rome. However, mainly the southern, eastern and partly central regions of the island underwent Romanization. The west and north, having put up fierce resistance, did not submit to the Romans.
Rome had a significant impact on the culture and organization of life in the British Isles.
The historian Tacitus describes the process of Romanization carried out by the Roman governor in Britain, Agricola, as follows: “He privately and at the same time providing support from public funds, praising the zealous and condemning the baggy, persistently encouraged the British to build temples, forums and houses.”
It was during Roman times that cities first appeared in Britain. The colonists also introduced the islanders to Roman law and military art. However, in Roman politics there was more coercion than voluntary impulses.
In the 5th century, the Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain began. Warlike tribes from the banks of the Elbe quickly subjugated almost the entire territory of the current Kingdom. But along with militancy, the Anglo-Saxon peoples, who had adopted Christianity by that time, brought a new religion to the islands and laid the foundations of statehood.
However, the Norman conquest of the second half of the 11th century had a radical effect on the political and state structure of Britain. A strong royal power appeared in the country, the foundations of continental feudalism were transferred here, but most importantly, political guidelines changed: from Scandinavia to central Europe.
Commonwealth of Four Nations
The nations that form the basis of modern Britain - the English, Scots, Irish and Welsh - have developed in the last millennium, which was greatly facilitated by the historical division of the state into four provinces. The unification of four distinctive ethnic groups into a single nation of the British became possible due to a number of reasons.
During the period of great geographical discoveries (XIV-XV centuries), a powerful unifying factor for the population of the British Isles was the reliance on the national economy. It helped in many ways to overcome the fragmentation of the state, which, for example, was in the lands of modern Germany.
Britain, unlike European countries, due to geographical, economic and political isolation, got into a situation that contributed to the consolidation of society.
An important factor for the unity of the inhabitants of the British Isles was religion and the associated formation of a universal English language for all British people.
Another feature manifested itself during the period of British colonialism - this is an emphasized opposition of the population of the metropolis and the native peoples: "There are us, and there are they."
Until the end of World War II, after which Britain ceased to exist as a colonial power, separatism in the Kingdom was not so clearly expressed. Everything changed when a stream of migrants poured into the British Isles from the former colonial possessions - Indians, Pakistanis, Chinese, residents of the African continent and the Caribbean. It was at this time that the growth of national consciousness in the countries of the United Kingdom intensified. Its climax came in September 2014, when Scotland held its first independence referendum.
The trend towards national isolation is confirmed by the latest sociological surveys, in which only a third of the population of Foggy Albion identified themselves as British.
british genetic code
Recent genetic research may offer new insights into both the British ancestry and the uniqueness of the four main nations of the Kingdom. Biologists from University College London examined a segment of the Y chromosome taken from ancient burials and concluded that more than 50% of English genes contain chromosomes found in northern Germany and Denmark.
According to other genetic examinations, approximately 75% of the ancestors of modern Britons arrived on the islands more than 6 thousand years ago.
So, according to Oxford DNA genealogist Brian Sykes, in many respects the modern Celts of the ancestry are connected not with the tribes of central Europe, but with more ancient settlers from the territory of Iberia who came to Britain at the beginning of the Neolithic.
Other data from genetic studies conducted in Foggy Albion literally shocked its inhabitants. The results show that the English, Welsh, Scots and Irish are genetically identical in many respects, which deals a serious blow to the pride of those who are proud of their national isolation.
Medical geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer puts forward a very bold hypothesis, believing that the common ancestors of the British arrived from Spain about 16 thousand years ago and originally spoke a language close to Basque.
The genes of the later invaders (Celts, Vikings, Romans, Anglo-Saxons and Normans), according to the researcher, were adopted only to a small extent.
The results of Oppenheimer's research are as follows: the Irish genotype has only 12% uniqueness, the Welsh - 20%, and the Scots and the British - 30%. The geneticist reinforces his theory with the works of the German archaeologist Heinrich Hörke, who wrote that the Anglo-Saxon expansion added about 250 thousand people to the two million population of the British Isles, and the Norman conquest even less - 10 thousand. So for all the difference in habits, customs and culture, the inhabitants of the countries of the United Kingdom have much more in common than it seems at first glance.
Pre-German population of Britain. Germanic tribes, their resettlement in Britain.
The first people in Britain were Iberians, according to the level of material culture related to the Neolithic (Late Stone Age), The next settlers were Celts- Indo-European tribes who settled in Britain in the 7th century BC. - Britons and Gaels (Gaels). They had a tribal system, but a transition to royal power was planned. The Celts of this period did not have a written language. They built the first cities of Britain. In Iv BC. The Roman legions invaded the British Isles and all of Britain, except for Scotland and Wales, became a colony of the Roman Empire. (J. Caesar undertook 2 campaigns in 55 BC and 54. The second campaign was successful). Roman culture and the Latin language had a great influence on Britain and the Celtic languages in use at the time. The Romans built roads and their military settlements later became cities (those containing the second element from castra - military camp - Lancaster, Manchester, Chester). Roman rule in Britain continued until the 5th century AD. in 449, the conquest of Britain by the Germanic tribes began. At the beginning of the 5th century Rome was under the threat of attack by Germanic tribes - ready; the internal economic and political contradictions that accompanied the collapse of the slave system were undermining it from within. Rome was unable to manage its distant colonies. In 408, the Roman legions left Britain, and in 410, Rome fell under the onslaught of the Germanic barbarian tribes.
At the beginning of a.d. West Germanic tribes occupied large territories in Europe (along the rivers Oder, Elbe, Rhine, along the southern coast of the Baltic and North Seas). West Germanic tribes were represented Angles(inhabited the peninsulas of Jutland - Denmark and the coast of the North Sea to the west of Jutland), Saxons(region of the rivers Rhine and Elbe), utami(North of the Jutland Peninsula) and friezes(the territory of the modern Netherlands and the Frisian Islands - the North Sea).
The Jutes occupied the south of Britain (the Kent Peninsula, the Isle of Wight), the Saxons settled along the south coast along the banks of the Thames and subsequently founded the kingdoms of Wessex, Essex and Sussex. The Angles moved along the rivers to the central part of the island and founded the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria. The Frisians mixed with the Saxons and Jutes. The crushing invasion of the Germans led to the fact that the Celts were defeated and most of them were driven back to the mountainous regions (Wells, Cornwall, Scotland). The surviving Celts and Germanic conquerors gradually merged into a single nation. West Germanic languages gradually spread throughout almost the entire territory of Britain, with the exception of those areas where the Celts made up the majority of the population (Cornwall, Wales, Scotland). The languages of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians turned out to be geographically separated from the related Germanic languages on the continent and, having much in common, are gradually developing into an independent Germanic language (English). At that time, English was not yet unified, but was represented by dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish and Wessex.
periods in the history of the English language.
Periodization based on historical (extralinguistic - events in the external history of England, which are milestones in the change of economic formations and political forms of government) factors:
3 periods: OE (Old English) 449 - the conquest of Britain by the Germanic tribes (VII - the first written records) - 1066 - the beginning of the Norman conquest, the battle of Hastings
ME (Middle English) 1066 - 1475 - the introduction of printing in English. Yaz William Haxton (1485 - the year of the end of the War of the Scarlet and the White Rose, the emergence of the bourgeoisie and the transition to absolute monarchy).
NE (New English) XVI – present
It distinguishes ENE (Early New English) XVI - XVII
ME (Modern English) XVIII – present
The English linguist Henry Sweet proposed periodization according to a different principle - based on the morphological features of the language:
OE - full edings: sittan, lufu
ME - leveled endings (reduced endings) sitten, love (luve)
NE - lost endings: sit, love (love).
This justification is fair, but one-sided: there are no considerations in favor of building periodization on the basis of the morphological structure, and not on the basis of the state of the phonological or syntactic structure, which do not fit into this periodization. Any periodization is always conditional, because it cannot cover all aspects of the language.
The place of English in the Indo-European language family and the Germanic group of languages.
English belongs to the Germanic languages (1 of 12 groups of languages of the Indo-European family). All Germanic languages are divided into 3 subgroups: East Germanic, North Germanic, West Germanic.
East Germanic - extinct languages (Gothic, Burgundian, Vandal)
North Germanic languages - Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese (North Sea island).
West Germanic - German, English, Dutch, Flemish (a variant of the Dutch spoken in Belgium), Afrikaans, Yiddish (Jewish - Germany, Poland 19th century).
The language of the Germanic group is spoken by over 400 million people, the most common - English - by more than 300 million speakers.
The history of the Germanic languages begins with the common Germanic language - the basis, which separated itself from the ancient Indo-European and acquired independent features between the 15th and 10th centuries BC. The common Germanic language is not reflected in written monuments. By the beginning of AD, it becomes less monolithic and dialects appear.
As you know, the Teutons made their pirate raids on the coast of Britain even before the withdrawal of the Romans in 410, but the situation escalated just after the departure of the Roman legions. The inhabitants of the British Isles began to fight with each other, were plundered by the Picts and the Scots. Left without support, the British could not for long contain attacks from literally all sides with their forces. In the 5th century AD the growth of the number of Germanic tribes begins. Around the middle of the century, several West Germanic tribes invaded Britain and settled most of it by the end of the century.
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which has come down to us, the resettlement of the Germanic tribes began in 449 AD. under the leadership of two kings Hengist and Horsa, who were invited by the British king Vortigern, as allies to help in a local war. In gratitude, they were granted a number of privileges that put them above the local population. Attracted by easy prey, other Germanic tribes began to move to Britain in increasing numbers and turned from allies into invaders. According to the chronicle, the foreigners were "of the three strongest Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons and Jutes."
The Jutes were the first to invade, they settled in the southeast - Kent and the Isle of Wight. The second wave was mostly composed of Saxons who settled to the west of the Jutes. With the last wave they settled all over the south bank and on both sides of the Thames. According to their locations they were called South Saxons, West Saxons and East Saxons (also known as Central Saxons). They formed several kingdoms, the strongest of which was Wessex (the West Saxons).
The last to come to Britain were the Angles from the lower Elbe valley and southern Denmark. They settled north of the mouth of the Humber River and, having annexed weak neighbors, founded several large kingdoms: East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. [Rastorgueva, 2003: 58]
The Celts resisted the invasion for a long time and stubbornly, but the Germans, having a numerical superiority, were the winners. The Celts were defeated, partially destroyed and driven back to the western and northwestern mountainous regions of the country: the Cornwall peninsula, Wales and Cumberland.
Living conditions for the Celts turned out to be so difficult that some of them were forced to move from Britain to the Armorica peninsula (in France), which has since been called Brittany.
The migration of Germanic tribes to the British Isles was a decisive event in the linguistic history of the English language. Geographic separation, mixing and unification of people of different ethnic groups have become important factors in linguistic differentiation and the formation of languages. Separated from their related Old Germanic languages, a closely related group of West Germanic dialects developed into a separate Germanic language, English. That is why the population of the British Isles by Germanic tribes can be considered the beginning of an independent history of the English language.
By the end of the 6th century, seven tribal kingdoms were formed on the territory captured by the Germanic tribes. This period lasted about 200 years and was called the heptarchy, or seven-power.
In the north, between the mouth of the Humber River and the Firth of Forth, the kingdoms of Deira (the territory of modern Yorkshire) and Bernicia (between the River Tees and the Gulf of Forth) developed. Later, these two states united and formed one, known as Northumbria. In the central part of England, the state of Mercia was formed, which in the northern part was inhabited mainly by the Angles, and in the south - by the Saxons. Over time, the population of this state mixes and forms a new ethnic group called the Mercians, and the dialect they spoke is called the Mercian. To the south of the Thames, three Saxon states are formed: in the east - Essex, in the southeast of Kent - Sussex, in the west of Sussex - Wessex, which was destined to play an important role in the history of England. The state of Kent, inhabited by the Jutes, is formed on the Kent Peninsula. [Arakin, 2003: 29]
The period of existence of the seven-power state is characterized by the disintegration of the tribal system and the transition to feudalism. During the period of resettlement, the Germanic tribes still retained a typical tribal system until the formation of the Anglo-Saxon states. But the growth of land ownership and the development of classes led to the disintegration of the tribal organization and the transition to a new structure of society. The former division into tribes was replaced by a division into territorial units, whose inhabitants, although they were not somehow connected economically, nevertheless considered themselves an integral part of a certain whole. From which we conclude that in the period from the 7th to the 10th century, a new community of people was formed, which can be called a nationality. A characteristic feature of the nationality is the absence of an internal single market, since the economy is still subsistence in nature, and each region is poorly connected economically with any other. In the same period, the language of the English people - English - was formed.
The relative authority between the kingdoms changed periodically. At various times, four kingdoms gained seniority (superiority) in the country: Kent, Northumbria and Mercia - in the early Old English, pre-literate period, and Wessex - the entire period of writing in the Old English period.
The predominance of Kent in the south of the Humber River lasted until the beginning of the 7th century. In the VII - VIII centuries. there comes the temporary rise of Northumbria and the dominion of Mercia, a large and prosperous kingdom in the rich Central Plains. As early as the reign of Mercia, Wessex gained control of Sussex and Kent and his influence continued to grow. The conquest of Mercia by Wessex at the beginning of the ninth century changed the position of these two states: Wessex took over the primacy and gained unsurpassed leadership until the end of the Old English period (11th century). He had vast fertile lands in the Thames valley. Control of London and the lower Thames valley, as well as expanding contacts with the Frankish Empire, helped establish Wessex as a leading kingdom. In addition to the internal factors that contributed to the unity of England under the leadership of Wessex, a new, no less significant one appeared - the impact of a common enemy. [Rastorgueva, 2003: 59]
