Christ seller! Why are you slurping the blood of Christian babies again, monster? Who asked you to write the Deer Breeder's Handbook, I ask you? And even dedicate it to the custodian of the age-old traditions of the Small Peoples of the North, Nibelung Karenovich Avanesyan?
You, two big-nosed representatives of the Small Peoples of the North, will now definitely be exposed and the certificates of the representatives of the Small Peoples of the North will be taken away. Well, then what will you feed on, backbones? Nibelung's Natasha, as soon as she saw this book in the store, she immediately burst into tears.
- We live, - he says, - we ride like cheese in butter. Two crafts of the Nibelung from mammoth tusks were even placed in the Solomon Guggenheim Museum. And here you write, insinuator, that the glorious family of mushers Avanesyanov has its roots in a time when herds of mammoths plied the tundra.
They will expose you - crooks, and throw everything out of the Guggenheim Museum as a fake. There will also be a criminal case. Are you getting it!? Nurse, well, I please you as best I can, even in the kitchen, even in the bedroom ...
- Doll Lena, I have long wanted to tell you: “You don’t work in the hallway” ...
- Gad! Mason and the world behind the scenes. Torturer and sexual slave owner overindulged in matzah.
- Stop crying, Lena doll. Each half-liter tear rolling down your ruddy cheek hurts my already not very healthy heart. Nobody will expose us. We, me and Avanesyan, are patriarchs, keepers of weights and measures of the Small Peoples of the North. A kilogram or a carat cannot be canceled - this is a conditional standard.
But at the expense of matzah, you guessed right. Let's say I again have a problem with the national question, and I will be expelled from the Small Peoples of the North. It's OK. Let's move to Jerusalem, where I will sell matzah.
- Who will buy from you? Yes, there are…
- There are such, doll Lena, I will be the only one. Because only I have a document stating that I come from the family of the official supplier of matzah to the Court of His Imperial Majesty Nicholas II.
And the suppliers of the Court of His Majesty, the Len doll, by the Highest Decree of 1862, were allowed to use the state emblem on signs and products. Moreover, the Title of Supplier of the Yard was assigned not to the company, but to the owner personally.
Moreover, since 1901, the image of the Supplier's sign was introduced. A ribbon was placed under the shield, which indicates what exactly the owner of this ribbon supplies to the imperial court.
In this case, the ribbon was inscribed "Supplier of matzah to the Court of His Imperial Majesty, as well as the Grand Dukes and Princesses."
This certificate was issued to my great-grandfather directly by the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. And on it there is a corresponding color image of the sign.
- Did you buy it in the underpass? Or did Nibelung Avanesyan sculpt on a moonless polar night?
- Original museum quality document. In it, only “merchant of the 2nd guild Aristarkh Dormidontovich Mudrozhenov” was corrected to “merchant of the 1st guild Moshe-Khaim Girshovich Makovetsky” and “sterlet” to “matzo”. The rest is authentic.
- And where did you get such a non-Russian surname, infidel?
- I have to ask you, Lena doll. Because Jewish surnames are purely Russian intrigues. The obligation of Jews to take a hereditary surname was legally established by the “Regulations on the Jews”, developed specifically for this by the Committee created in 1802 and approved by Alexander I of the Nominal Decree of December 9, 1804. Until that moment, Jews in the Russian Empire did not have surnames.
- And why Moshe-Chaim? Those are two names.
- Among the Ashkenazim, it is customary to replace any name with Chaim or give the name Chaim as an additional one if a person is dangerously ill. The people believed that the bearer of the name Chaim (life) would be more likely to survive. Usually seriously ill young children became Khaims in this way, adults rarely changed their names.
In the case of a girl, she was called Khava. The European version of this Hebrew name is "Eve". Hava is translated in the same way - "life".
- How is Elena in Hebrew? After all, you were going to transfer me to Jerusalem.
- Ilana. But it's in harmony. Actually, "Elena" is a Greek name, translated "luminous, brilliant." And Ilana in Aramaic and in Mishnaic Hebrew is “tree”, but in the good sense of the word. Like, stupid, of course, but so round, plump, strong.
This name is usually used by the Lenas who moved to Israel. Because in any case, a native Hebrew speaker will call Elena Ilana. No one will break the language of "Elena".
But let's get back to the document I have. Honored by the supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty was a document of special importance. Therefore, the Autocrat of All Russia signed it with a full title.
Nicholas II by title was the Tsar of All Russia, and by office he was God's hastening mercy “Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod; Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauride Chersonis, Tsar of Georgia, Grand Duke of Finland, and so on, and so on, and so on.
Moreover, “and others, and others, and others” was great and diverse. In particular, there was also “the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Ditmarsen and Oldenburg”, and something else related to Malta.
To be the official supplier of matzah to such a respected person is highly honorable. So in Jerusalem people will buy matzah from me, I am deeply convinced. Religious Jews are very conservative and use only what has been tested for centuries. Moreover, here we are not talking about something secondary, but about matzo.
- They will split you, Mason. The Jews, I suppose, are not as gullible as the Small reindeer herders of the North. The deeper the Jew is ignorant, the more assertive he calls himself "intellectual." You are a typical case. Anyway, I know everything about you, my mother told me.
It turns out that you have been taking revenge on the British for more than seven centuries for the expulsion of the Jews from Foggy Albion in 1290. In particular, Jewish bankers financed Oliver Cromwell, which ultimately led to a revolution and the execution of the rightful king, Charles I Stuart. And the tragic fate of Marie Antoinette!? What is it for, bitches??
- Antoinette is really sorry to tears. Like Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. But I won't be split. Because from childhood he was cunning and cunning. And he always paid a lot of attention to details (see the picture above the text).
This has always helped me out.

At the corner of Pyatnitskaya Street and Ovchinnikovskaya Embankment there is a mansion, as if frozen in time. This house was built in the middle of the 19th century by the merchant Morkovkin. Almost nothing is known about him, except that he came from the count's peasants.

The main history of the house is connected with the wine and vodka king of the Russian Empire. The side of the house still flaunts the inscription "Supplier of the court of HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY Pyotr Arsenievich Smirnov"

Pyotr Arsenyevich Smirnov arrived in Moscow in 1860, when he received his freedom, and immediately opened a small wine shop for nine employees. His dream was to establish the production of high-quality vodka instead of what they drank in taverns and taverns at that time. In 1863, he built a small vodka distillery near the Cast Iron Bridge on Ovchinnikovskaya Embankment, which immediately began to produce good quality goods and quickly became widespread.

Pyotr Arsenyevich Smirnov bought this three-story house from the merchant Morkovkin in 1867. Smirnov got a solid house with a large yard, several outbuildings and a deep cellar where barrels of wine could be kept. The mansion on Pyatnitskaya was purchased specifically so that Pyotr Arsenievich himself could control the quality of the production of drinks, as he valued his reputation very much. Nine years later, he rebuilds the building according to the design of the architect N. A. Heinz. The entrance was decorated with a cast-iron canopy with double-headed eagles, exactly the same as on the labels of Smirnovskaya vodka. In the Soviet years, this shed was demolished, and the entrance was blocked. And only in the late 1990s it was restored again.

In 1873, the hereditary honorary citizen Pyotr Smirnov decides to take part in the international industrial exhibition in Vienna, where he has an incredible success and receives a diploma and a medal of the exhibition participant. From that moment, the real recognition of the business of the merchant Smirnov began. Some time later, Tsar Alexander III personally wished that the merchant Smirnov became the Supplier of the Supreme Court. In 1886, Smirnov was awarded the Order of Stanislav III degree and marked this event on his house: on the facade from the side of Pyatnitskaya one can see the inscription “Supplier of twin engines. His Imperial Majesty Pyotr Arsenyevich Smirnov.

The range of goods and their quality amazed even the most serious foreign connoisseurs of alcohol: Cherry Vodka, Nezhinskaya Rowan, Finn-Champagne, not to mention everyone's favorite table wine No. 21. Empress Maria Feodorovna was very fond of White Plum liqueur , which was produced exclusively by Peter Smirnov. At the end of the 19th century, the assortment of the Smirnovsky plant consisted of more than four hundred items of products.

After the revolution in 1918, the plant and the house near the Chugunny Bridge became a “public property” and stopped their work. The son of Peter Smirnov sold the rights to the firm "P. A. Smirnov" to an American citizen, who began to produce Smirnoff vodka, however, using a completely different technology.

The house at the Cast Iron Bridge at the corner of Pyatnitskaya Street and Ovchinnikovskaya Embankment is still a real symbol of P. A. Smirnov’s vodka. Now the mansion houses a trading house and a shop selling drinks according to the recipes of the ancestor of a glorious merchant family.

IN Central House of Artists on Krymsky Val from March 28 to April 05, 2015 passes XXXVIII Antique Salon within the framework of which, a small exposition with products suppliers of the Court of His Imperial Majesty.
In 1856, Alexander II introduces the honorary title of "Supplier of the Highest Court and the Grand Duke's Courts", approves the regulations and the type of sign. Since 1862, the use of the state emblem on signboards and products has been allowed for manufacturers, artists and artisans who supplied the items they prepared to the Supreme Court or executed orders for the Court for 8-10 years. To obtain such a title, which in itself meant serious advertising, a number of conditions were required: to conscientiously supply the court "at relatively low prices" with goods or works of one's own production for 8-10 years, to participate in industrial exhibitions, not to have complaints from consumers, and etc. The title of the Supplier of the Yard was assigned not to the enterprise, but to the owner personally, in the event of a change of ownership, the new owner or heir needed to receive the title again.

Sculpture "The Bronze Horseman". Russia, St. Petersburg. Dipner's workshop. 1840-1850

For the first time, the technique called "Russian mosaic" was successfully used by Russian masters of the Peterhof grinding factory when decorating the interiors of the "Agate Rooms" in Tsarskoye Selo, designed by C. Cameron (1780s). Large vases, which were made according to the drawings of the architects of Russian classicism (now exhibited in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg), are also lined with plates of malachite and lapis lazuli using the "Russian mosaic" technique. The masters brought the most complex work on curved surfaces to perfection, thanks to which the cladding is perceived as a monolithic volume.

Fragment. Sculpture "The Bronze Horseman". Russia, St. Petersburg. Dipner's workshop. 1840-1850
Bronze, casting, patination, malachite "Russian Mosaic". Private collection.

The technology was the following process: a form, previously made of stone, copper or other material, was covered with hot rosin and wax mastic, on which malachite plates a few millimeters thick were glued, with almost imperceptible, carefully fitted seams, which gave the impression of a solid stone. If gaps formed between the plates - seams, they were rubbed with mastic mixed with malachite powder. Then the object was ground and polished.

One of the paired vases with a marine theme. Russia, St. Petersburg. IFZ. H-I, 1837 Performed by Stoletov.
Porcelain, overglaze painting, gilding. Private collection.

Fragment. Pair of vases with a marine theme. Russia, St. Petersburg. IFZ. H-I, 1837

The Imperial Porcelain Factory is one of the oldest in Europe, the first and one of the largest enterprises in Russia for the production of artistic porcelain products. Located in St. Petersburg, founded in 1744. We wrote more about this wonderful enterprise and its products when we covered the exhibition in Tsaritsyno (Read more).

Pair of vases with a marine theme. Russia, St. Petersburg. IFZ. H-I, 1837
Performer of the Centuries. Porcelain, overglaze painting, gilding. Private collection.

Tea-set. Russia Moscow. Firm K. Faberge. 1896 Silver, bone, enamel, gilding.
Sugar bowl height -9.5 cm.
Collection of the salon "On Kutuzovsky, 24".

In 1882, at the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition in Moscow, the products of the firm of Carl Faberge attracted the attention of Emperor Alexander III. Peter Karl received the patronage of the royal family and the title of "jeweler of His Imperial Majesty and jeweler of the Imperial Hermitage". In 1900, in Paris, Faberge received the title of "master of the Paris Guild of Jewelers", and he was also awarded the Order of the Legion of Honor.

Tea and coffee service. Russia Moscow. Firm I. Khlebnikov. 1891
Silver, engraving, gilding. Collection of the salon "On Kutuzovsky, 24".

The owner of the company Khlebnikov Ivan Petrovich worked in St. Petersburg until 1867, in 1870-1871. founded a company in Moscow. In the artistic culture of the second half of the 19th - early 20th century, the company played an outstanding role and made a huge contribution to the art of jewelry. Its masters have repeatedly been honored to carry out orders for the imperial family due to a combination of high professionalism, originality of ideas and knowledge of national traditions - the company was awarded the title "Supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty". On June 24, 1917, the factory closed. In 1918, the main enterprise was transformed into the Moscow Platinum Plant.

Tunic haute couture. Russia Moscow. 1906-1910 N.P. Fashion House Lamanova. Tulle, sequins, beads, glass beads.
The satin insert is embroidered with pearls, rhinestones, silk and metal thread. Private collection of Tatyana Abramova.

Nadezhda Petrovna Lamanova (December 14, 1861, Shutilovo, Russian Empire - October 14, 1941, Moscow, RSFSR) - Russian and Soviet fashion designer, theater costume designer. In 1900, she was honored to be the supplier of the court of Her Imperial Majesty. Also, N. Lamanova was the chief fashion designer of the Art Theater.

Performances of the Moscow Art Theater were only in her costumes. Ranevskaya's dress from The Cherry Orchard, in which Olga Knipper-Chekhova was successful, was made by her. Diaghilev's seasons with works by Lamanova were a resounding success in Paris. Performances of the Vakhtangov Theater "Turandot", "Zoyka's apartment" are performed in her costumes. We see her costumes in many Soviet films: Aelita, Generation of Winners, Circus, Alexander Nevsky.

Fragment. Tunic haute couture. Russia Moscow. 1906-1910 N.P. Fashion House Lamanova.

Lansere E.A. Mounted Arab in a rich national costume (Arab Sheikh).
Model 1878 Russia, St. Petersburg.
Casting of F.Yu. Chopin. 1878-1888 Bronze, casting, chasing, mount 48.5x50x23 cm. On the ground in casting in reproduction of the sculptor's signature: "E: LANCERE:", with the caster's glue: "OTLI. CHOPIN. I BERTO”, round stamp of the Ministry of Finance “OT: M.F. /1878/ FOR 10: YEARS:». From the collection of K.V. Zhuromsky.

Evgeny Alexandrovich Lansere (August 24, 1848, Morshansk - April 4, 1886, Neskuchnoye, Kharkov region) - Russian sculptor-animalist, Honorary free member of the Academy of Arts (1876). In 1883 he visited Algiers. In 1869 he received the title of class artist of the 2nd degree from the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1872, for his work, he received the title of class artist of the 1st degree from the Academy of Arts. Since 1879 he was a member of the Moscow Society of Art Lovers.

Lansere E.A. Fragment. Mounted Arab in a rich national costume (Arab Sheikh). Model 1878

1777 is considered the date of foundation of the Potemkinsky, and then (after the death of its owner passed into the jurisdiction of the treasury) - from 1792 the Imperial Glass Factory. The plant itself became an artistic landmark of St. Petersburg, it was included in the first guidebooks around the capital and recommended to all guests.

Cavalry glass. satellite. 1840-1850 Colorless crystal, polished.
Private collection. Mikhail and Ekaterina Gadzhikasimov.

The glory of Russian glassmaking is connected with this enterprise. In the 18th century, domestic craftsmen achieved real perfection in the manufacture of spectacular products, decorated with magnificent engraved or carved decor. The imperial factory practically did not put its works on sale - it provided the imperial court and the highest aristocracy with luxury items. Having excellent opportunities to conduct expensive research, the masters of the plant produced glass of excellent quality, capable of successfully competing with the most famous enterprises in Europe. You can read more about the products of glass factories in Russia.
These are the masterpieces on display at the XXXVIII Antique Salon in the Central House of Artists. Here you can see items of the highest craftsmanship, recognized by contemporaries. After all, the sign of the supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty was a guarantee of quality and many industrialists wanted to receive it.

Antique Salon will continue from March 28 to April 05, 2015.

The address: Krymsky Val 10, Central House of Artists. Travel to st. metro Park Kultury, Oktyabrskaya.
Working hours: Tuesday-Sunday from 11:00 to 20:00. Cash desks from 11:00 to 19:00.
Day off Monday.
Ticket price: adult — 500 rubles. Read more.

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© Zimin I. V., 2016

© Rt-SPb LLC, 2016

© Centerpolygraph, 2016

Introduction

For any politician, the health factor is the most important part of his political biography. It is quite obvious that only a healthy, emotionally stable person can withstand the busy schedule of the leader of the country, by definition associated with endless stressful situations.

In Russia, with its traditions of personified power, this medical component has always been especially significant, regardless of how the first persons of the country were called: tsars, emperors, general secretaries or presidents, since the health of the head of state is not his personal matter, but becomes the most important factor in state stability . An example of this is the political realities of the times of the "late" L. I. Brezhnev, Yu. V. Andropov, K. U. Chernenko and B. N. Yeltsin, when the leaders' personal medical problems turned into problems of a political nature.

The problem of the relationship between medicine and government in its political and psychological aspect is not narrowly national in nature, but is an international problem. Its essence is determined by the established or emerging traditions of the transfer of power, the model of the political system itself that exists in society in one or another segment of historical existence. At the same time, doctors inevitably and objectively enter the “inner circle” of communication with those in power, since by the nature of their activity they are privy to the most intimate secrets related to the health of their “master”.

Obviously, for a politician, the state of health is an important component of both his political appearance and the nature of his activities. This was repeatedly written by doctors associated with the powers that be. For example, E. I. Chazov, who for almost two decades headed the “Kremlevka” - the 4th Department of the USSR Ministry of Health, wrote that this is “a very important site: the most secret secrets of the country's leadership and its entourage are stored here - the state of their health, forecast for the future, which, under certain conditions, can become a weapon in the struggle for power. I emphasize that this quote is quite applicable both to the era of the Pharmaceutical Order of the 16th-17th centuries. or the Court medical part of the XIX-XX centuries, and to the present day.

Prof. B. G. Lukichev and prof. I. V. Zimin at a joint meeting of the SSS of the departments of propaedeutics of internal diseases and the history of the Fatherland of the St. Petersburg State Medical University. acad. I. P. Pavlova

The professional ethics of physicians determines their extreme reticence in communicating with others precisely on professional issues, in addition, these structures have always had special instructions that strictly regulated the behavior of doctors and the circle of their acquaintances. Actually, this largely explains the paucity of an array of medical data that would make it possible to confidently judge this or that disease in the first person.

It should be borne in mind that for Western politicians, health problems are, of course, a politically significant factor influencing their political activities. At the same time, existing democratic traditions and precedents make it possible to objectively inform public opinion about the state of health of the political leaders of these countries. Academician E. I. Chazov writes: “Demagogy is permeated with statements that discuss them (health problems. - FROM.) in the course of the pre-election campaign or upon appointment to executive bodies is incompatible with morality and the principles of individual freedom.”

Along with these rather general considerations, a few words should be said to preface the contents of the book. Firstly, information about the diseases of monarchs is very often fragmentary, so the determination of the nature of the disease, even by the joint efforts of doctors and historians, is probabilistic. Secondly, the division in the chapters of the book of doctors into nephrologists, cardiologists, pediatricians, and so on. is conditional, since narrow medical specializations were formed in Russia at different times, with most of them in the second half of the 19th century. Therefore, the same doctors are discussed in different chapters. Thirdly, the author-historian found it necessary to seek advice from the medical generals of the First St. Petersburg State Medical University named after I.I. acad. I. P. Pavlova. Their invaluable advice and consultations made it possible to clarify many positions related to various diseases of the first persons of the Russian Empire, therefore their names as scientific consultants are indicated at the beginning of each chapter. Fourthly, in preparing the book, the author relied on the historiographical achievements of colleagues, historians and doctors involved in this issue. Fifthly, numerous details, which are not of interest to everyone, are placed in footnotes, since they overloaded the text. Sixthly, the text presented is only partly of a historical medical nature, so many questions, undoubtedly important for the history of medicine, are omitted or traced by a dotted line. Seventh, the book is built in the form of answers to questions that were often asked to the author by students, fellow historians, doctors, television broadcasters and readers of my books on the everyday life of the Russian Imperial Court. These questions are very different (there are also "uncomfortable"), but I considered it possible for myself to try to answer them.

Once again, I want to express my gratitude to my colleagues at the 1st LMI (Academician I. P. Pavlov St. Petersburg State Medical University), who helped more than once not only in working on the text of this book, but also in peak life situations.

Chapter I
Who performed the duties of family doctors of Russian monarchs

Among the nobility there was a strong tradition that assumed the presence of a doctor in the family, who for decades treated the household for all diseases. Such a doctor, who knew many family secrets, eventually became almost a member of the family.

Did family doctors work in imperial residences

It was a long-standing and humanly understandable tradition, which in Russia was preserved for a very long time, not only among the aristocratic environment, but also among wealthy philistines. These doctors treated the entire family of the monarch for various age-related and seasonal illnesses, knowing full well the anamnesis of each of their "piece" patients. When, for one reason or another, serious or “specialized” illnesses appeared in members of the imperial family, the family doctor invited narrow specialists to the residence. Usually family doctors lived in the same residences in which their wards "lodged". Due to their official attachment to the family of the first person, they, as a rule, did not occupy large medical positions, but at the same time, they were well arranged in material and domestic terms. The family doctor, as a rule, held his position for decades, monitoring the health status of sometimes several generations of members of the imperial family.

Which of the court doctors treated the numerous entourage of the monarch in the imperial residences

The state of health of the servants, maids of honor and other numerous courtiers was controlled by the attendants. The scope of jurisdiction of the clergy was determined by the instruction "On medical supervision at the Highest Court", drawn up in 1818.

The family doctor of Emperor Alexander I, Ya. observe certain rules: with the daily duty of doctors at the Imperial Court, “the change of the doctor on duty at the court should be daily at the first hour in the afternoon”; with the doctor on duty there should be “two medical students who must also have both a bloodletting and paramedical surgical pocket set and a bandage”; if the doctor on duty needs to invite an obstetrician, dentist, ophthalmologist, chiropractor or callus healer, then “the duty officer has the right to invite them, which invitation they must unquestioningly follow,” and so on. Alexander I personally approved this instruction.

If the Imperial Court moved to suburban residences, the duty of the clergymen was transferred to these residences. This order was established in 1847. At that time, the Minister of the Imperial Court, ordering the organization of daily duty of hospital doctors, wrote from Peterhof to the leadership of the Court Medical Unit: “... to have one of the hospital doctors on duty here to provide assistance to court officials and servants.” To do this, they made a shift schedule for the duty of the hospital doctors, who were delivered to Peterhof on court steamers. In the following year, 1848, "following the example of the previous year... to provide assistance in case of illness," a daily shift duty of one of the on-duty gynecologists was established. In total, there were 48 such shifts in Peterhof during the 1848 season.

How was the monitoring of the health of the first persons

Monitoring the health of the monarch was the main duty of the family doctor of the imperial family. This practice, which had developed back in the period of the Muscovite kingdom, remained unchanged until 1917. In addition, not only the first person, but also the rest of the members of the imperial family had “attached” doctors.

For example, the notebooks of the future Nicholas I, covering the period from 1822 to 1825, testify that his family doctor V.P. Crichton every morning was among the people with whom the Grand Duke began his working day. Also, V.P. Crichton was the last of those whom Nikolai Pavlovich saw when he went to bed. The entries, which succinctly stated: "Crichton is leaving, lay down," are repeated almost daily. If necessary, the family doctor was constantly next to the sick patient. If Nikolai Pavlovich went on a business trip, then V.P. Crichton accompanied him or, for a number of reasons, remaining in the Anichkov Palace, regularly informed the Grand Duke about the state of health of the household.

The same order of daily observation was applied to the heir to the throne, the future Alexander II, in the 1840s-1850s. Palace legends testify that his family doctor I. V. Enokhin drank coffee with the heir every morning. When, after the accession of Alexander II to the throne in February 1855, I. V. Enokhin did not come to morning coffee, breaking a long tradition, “The sovereign immediately asked:“ Where is Enokhin? They answer him: "Waiting in the hallway." Emperor: "Call him!". Enokhin immediately appeared. Emperor: "Why didn't you order to report about yourself?" Enokhin: “I didn’t dare, Sovereign. I had the good fortune to drink coffee with the Tsarevich every morning, but I don’t dare to appear before my sovereign without an order.” Alexander II liked this very much, and he ordered Enokhin to sit down with him and drink coffee. Since then, in the morning, Enokhin drank coffee with the emperor face to face and could talk with him about whatever he wanted. Subsequently, the morning visits to Alexander II were made by the life physician S. P. Botkin.

The fact that such a procedure for monitoring the state of health of the first person was a kind of constant is also evidenced by the memoirs of I. Sokolov, an assistant to the life physician N. F. Arendt. The memoirist writes that during the time of Nicholas I, they “were obliged to appear before the Sovereign by 7–8 o’clock in the morning, when tea or coffee was prepared, and at this time, not a service, but a simple conversation was usually started.” It can be stated that daily or periodic visits of doctors were included in the weekly work schedule of the Russian emperors.

How closed was the information about the state of health of the monarch in the event of his illness

Such information has always been either strictly dosed or completely closed. But there were also nuances. So, in the XVIII century. such information was completely confidential. Even the slightest interest in the disease of the first person could be followed by the most severe reaction. For example, when in the winter of 1748/49. In Moscow, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna fell ill (“severe colic”), then the future Catherine II was informed about this in a whisper by her valet, as she recalled, “persuadingly asking me not to tell anyone about what they told me. Without naming them, I warned the Grand Duke, which greatly alarmed him.

Those who had access to the chambers of Elizabeth Petrovna pretended that nothing was happening, and the young court also did not dare to ask about the empress’s illness, “hence, they did not dare to send to find out how the empress’s health was, because, first of all, they would have asked , how and from where and through whom do you know that she is ill, and those who would be named or even suspected would probably be fired, exiled or even sent to the Secret Chancellery, the state inquisition, which everyone was afraid of more than fire. Only when Elizaveta Petrovna began to recover, “Countess Shuvalova was the first to talk to me about this illness, I expressed to her the grief that her condition causes me, and the participation that I take in it. She told me that the Empress would be happy to learn about my way of thinking on this matter. In the 19th century The interest of subjects in the state of health of the monarch, as a rule, was satisfied through official medical bulletins.

I. P. Argunov. Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Late 1750s

A. P. Antropov. Portrait of a lady of state Countess M. B. Shuvalova. Late 1750s

G. K. Groot. Portrait of Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna with a fan in her hands. 1740s

When official medical bulletins appeared, in which subjects began to be informed about the state of health or the causes of death of the monarch

Such bulletins began to appear in the first half of the 18th century. For example, when in March 1744 the future Catherine II fell ill with “flux fever”, bulletins about the state of health of the bride of the heir to the Russian throne were published in the Sankt-Peterburgskiye Vedomosti.

Probably, the first official bulletin on the death of the monarch can be considered the "Report" of the medical doctor J.F. Monsei, published in the supplements to the "St. Petersburg Gazette" on December 28, 1761, after the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna: was subject to painful seizures in the chest, swelling in the legs, in general, all signs of blockages in the abdomen turned out to be. The cold that followed on November 17, 1761, resulted in febrile attacks, which stopped on December 1. But on the 12th of the same month at 11 o'clock yesterday, vomiting with blood began, which resumed with great force the next morning at five o'clock. Although the doctors at first considered this disease to be an abnormal disturbance of the blood, proceeding from the hemorrhoids, they were very astonished during bloodletting, finding inflammation in the blood. The latter phenomenon serves them in some way as an excuse for the bloodletting they committed with tumors in the legs; and the next day they also opened the blood, but without any tangible benefit for the afflicted. On December 22, a new and strong vomiting of blood followed against the previous one, and the Empress died on the 25th of the same month at three o'clock in the afternoon. The doctors who used the monarch in her last illness were the life doctors Munsey, Schilling and Kruse.

Apparently, the main cause of the death of the Empress was portal cirrhosis of the liver, possibly associated with heart disease and prolonged cardiovascular failure (“tumors in the legs”) and complicated fatal bleeding from varicose veins of the esophagus (“vomiting blood”) (B. A. Nakhapetov).

Hood. G. F. Schmidt. Physician James Monsay. 1762

Bulletin on the state of health of AS Pushkin. 1837

Bulletin on the state of health of P. A. Stolypin. 1911

Bulletin on the state of health of Nicholas II. 1900

In the 19th century medical information about the disease of the first persons was also adhered to, but the practice of issuing official bulletins signed by life doctors has already developed. These bulletins were posted in the Winter Palace and published in newspapers. At the same time, official medical diagnoses could not at all correlate with the real state of affairs, as was the case, for example, with the “diagnosis” of the causes of the death of Paul I. When compiling official bulletins, court physicians primarily started from one or another political order, and not from medical realities.

Official medical bulletins began to be published in the case of prolonged illnesses of the first persons, as was the case in the winter of 1824, when Alexander I was seriously ill as a result of a leg injury.

Nicholas I, who systematically created the image of the "iron emperor", was a categorical opponent of the publication of official bulletins, considering this information an exclusive privilege of the St. Petersburg beau monde. For example, when Nikolai Pavlovich fell ill in October 1829, information was sent to the military governor-general "on the state of illness of the Sovereign Emperor." At the same time, it was explained that this information was subject to "announcement to the public, without, however, imprinting it in Vedomosti." Under the "public" the emperor had in mind the St. Petersburg beau monde. In the following days, the texts of the bulletins were invariably optimistic ("The head is fresh"; the emperor "can be considered recovering"), and on November 14 it was reported that the bulletins "will no longer be published" because the emperor recovered.

Bulletins were published in the newspapers about the treatment of Nicholas I, after he broke his collarbone in the autumn of 1836. Bulletins were published during the illness of Tsarevich Alexander Nikolayevich in 1845. Official bulletins also appeared during the transient illness of Nicholas I in February 1855: bulletins, “according to the model of past years”, hung out in the Winter Palace from February 17, 1855, and they began to be published literally a day before the death of the monarch.

The decision to inform the public was taken by the first persons. For example, the publication of medical bulletins on the state of health of Nicholas II, who became seriously ill with typhus in 1900, was allowed only after the approval of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna.

Were subjects informed of the medical circumstances leading to the monarch's death?

The death of the monarch was reported to the people in manifestos. But not always in them there were even hints of medical circumstances that led to his death. For example, in the manifesto on the death of Peter I (1725), only a "twelve-day cruel illness" was mentioned; in the manifesto on the death of Catherine I (1727), on behalf of Peter II, it was succinctly stated: “Our most kind Empress grandmother, from this temporary to eternal bliss, this month, on the 6th day, about the 9th hour in the afternoon, departed.” In the manifesto dedicated to the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, it was said that “The Great Sovereign Peter the Second, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, ill with smallpox, from January 7 from temporary to eternal bliss of the same January on the 18th, departed at 1 o’clock after midnight.”

As mentioned above, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna (1761), the subjects were not only informed about the fact of the death of the Empress, but also were told fragments from the history of her illness. Therefore, by virtue of the precedent that appeared, in July 1762, when Emperor Peter III Fedorovich was killed by the Orlov brothers in Ropsha, his “inconsolable widow” considered it necessary to identify certain medical circumstances that led to the death of her husband (July 7, 1762): “ On the seventh day after the assumption of our Throne of All Russia, We received the news that the former Emperor Peter the Third, with an ordinary and frequent hemorrhoid attack, fell into the most severe colic. Why… they immediately ordered to send to him everything that was necessary to prevent the consequences of that adventure, dangerous in His health, and to help him quickly by healing. But to Our extreme sorrow and embarrassment of the heart, yesterday We received another, that he died by the will of the Most High God. Note that the European correspondents of Catherine II made a lot of irony about this "hemorrhoidal attack."

Manifesto on the death of Paul I. 1801

Golden snuffbox, owned by Count N. A. Zubov

A similar manifesto signed by Alexander I appeared on March 12, 1801, immediately after the death of Paul I in the Mikhailovsky Castle at the hands of assassins. In the document, the “medical diagnosis” was formalized as follows: “It was pleasing to the Higher Fates to end the life of the dear Parent of Our Sovereign, Emperor PAVL PETROVICH, who died suddenly of apoplexy on the night of the 11th to the 12th of this month.” Since very many people knew about the circumstances of the death of the emperor, a joke immediately began to circulate in St. Petersburg that the emperor died "with an apoplexy blow to the temple with a snuffbox."

The most significant for the study were books and articles by Yu. A. Molin (Secrets of the death of the great. 1997; Reading death writings. 1999; Romanovs: The path to Golgotha. The view of a forensic expert. 2002; Romanovs: oblivion is canceled. 2005), B. A. Nakhapetova (In the care of the sovereign's health: life doctors of Russian emperors. 2003; Secrets of doctors of the Romanov dynasty. 2005) and a collective monograph edited by G. G. Onishchenko "Medicine and imperial power in Russia" (M., 2008).

Scientific consultant of the head - professor of the department of propaedeutics of internal diseases with the clinic of the St. Petersburg State Medical University. acad. I. P. Pavlova Doctor of Medical Sciences B. G. Lukichev.

For example, the doctor of Empress Maria Feodorovna (wife of Paul I), life physician I.F. Ryul lodged on the third floor of the Winter Palace. The apartment of the doctor of Alexander I, the life physician J. V. Willie, was also located there, and the apartment of the life physician of Nicholas I, V. P. Crichton, was located in the Freylinsky corridor.

The Minister of War of Alexander II D. A. Milyutin recalled that “rumors of the disease alarmed the whole city, but bulletins about the course of the disease were not printed, since the Sovereign did not like such publication, but were delivered only to members of the Royal Family and laid out in the reception room of the Winter Palace for persons who came to inquire about the condition of the patient. They started printing these bulletins only on the 17th.”

Along with the traditional version of the murder, there are several more bizarre versions about the causes of the death of Peter III. Among them, one of them is a transient illness, as evidenced by the surviving notes of Alexei Orlov to Catherine II: “Mother Gracious Empress, we all wish you good years. We are now well on the leave of this letter and with the whole team, only our freak fell very ill and an unexpected colic seized him, and I am afraid that he will not die tonight, but I am more afraid that he will not come to life. The first danger is that he speaks very healthy and it is somewhat cheerful for us, and the other danger is that he is really dangerous for all of us because he sometimes speaks like that, although in his former state to be ”(July 2, 1762). The violent nature of the death of Peter III is evidenced by another note by Alexei Orlov: “Mother, merciful Empress! How can I explain to describe what happened; you will not believe your faithful servant, but as before God I will tell the truth. Mother, ready to go to death; but I don't know how it happened. We died when you do not have mercy. Mother, he is not in the world, but no one thought of this, and how can we think of raising our hands against the Sovereign. But, Empress, a disaster happened: we were drunk, and he too, he argued at the table with Prince Fyodor; We didn’t have time to separate, but he was already gone. We don't remember what we did; but everyone is guilty, worthy of execution. Have mercy on me for my brother. I brought you a confession, and there is nothing to look for. Forgive me or order me to finish soon, the world is not sweet, they angered you and ruined your souls forever ”(see: Peskov A. M. Pavel I. M., 2005). Leaving aside the discussion about the authenticity of the last note, I note that deposed emperors do not live long.

Catherine II herself wrote about the “medical circumstances” of the death of her husband: “Fear caused him diarrhea, which lasted three days and passed on the fourth; he got too drunk that day, because he had everything he wanted, except for freedom. (He asked me, however, only for his mistress, a dog, a negro and a violin; but, fearing to cause a scandal and increase ferment among the people who guarded him, I sent him only the last three things.) He was seized by an attack of hemorrhoidal colic, along with hot flashes blood to the brain he was two days in this state, followed by a terrible weakness, and, despite the increased help of doctors, he expired, demanding [before that] a Lutheran priest. I was afraid that the officers had poisoned him. I ordered to open it; but it is quite certain that they did not find the slightest trace [of the poison]; he had a perfectly healthy stomach, but he died of inflammation in the intestines and apoplexy. His heart was unusually small and completely wrinkled” (see: Empress Catherine II. “On the Greatness of Russia”, M., 2003).

Today, the snuffbox that belonged to Count N. A. Zubov, which, according to legend, was stabbed in the head of Paul I, is exhibited in the State Hermitage in the Cathedral of the Savior Not Made by Hands. But this is only an established legend.

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Jewelry Treasures of the Russian Imperial Court Zimin Igor Viktorovich

Status and procedure for obtaining the title of supplier of the Supreme Court

The brilliance and splendor of the Russian Imperial Court was ensured by the efforts of the economic units of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. The Ministry, in turn, worked closely with Russian entrepreneurs who provided various services and necessary goods to the Imperial Court.

The system of relations between the economic divisions of the Imperial Court and entrepreneurs was formed over a long period of time. At the same time, both the economic situation in the country and the system of economic relations left their mark on these ties. At the heart of the relationship system was precedent principle. As a rule, if an entrepreneur from year to year complied with all the requirements set by the Ministry of the Court for the quality, range and timing of the supply of goods and services, then these orders were renewed from year to year, which was, of course, beneficial to suppliers.

It is beneficial because the maintenance of the Imperial Court cost huge amounts of money, the source of which was mainly the state budget. It was for these huge funds that there was a constant fierce competition. However, all efforts to obtain the status of a supplier to the Imperial Court were justified both by stable orders and by the very fact of having this high status.

At the turn of the XVII - early XVIII centuries. life in Russia began to change rapidly. The decrepit Muscovy was replaced by the young Russian Empire. The reforms of Peter I covered all aspects of life in Russia. Including completely changed the habitual appearance and order of life of the king's entourage. The patriarchal Moscow Imperial Court was replaced by the St. Petersburg Imperial Court.

The imperial court, which was being formed according to new standards, also needed a new “design”. An essential part of this design was the brilliance of diamonds, which then turned into the main official stone of the Russian Imperial Court. An important factor in this process was the fact that most of the XVIII century. there were women on the Russian throne. It was they who “naturally” brought the “diamond component” of the daily life of the court to a new level.

New needs were met by master jewelers, mostly foreigners, who, together with other craftsmen, settled in Russia. It was then, in the 18th century, that they gave a new impetus to the development of Russian jewelry art, which flourished at the turn of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Of course, one cannot say that Russian masters did not participate in this process. However, it must be admitted that in the XVIII century. they were in the background. However, some of their names have survived in business papers. Unfortunately, the peculiarities of jewelry production were such that even more names of Russian masters were lost.

Returning to the suppliers of the Imperial Court, we note that an important, but not always noticeable part of his life was economic activity associated with the uninterrupted provision of everything necessary and certainly of the best quality.

In 1800 to encourage merchants who distinguished themselves in trading activities, the title was established Commerce Advisor and then for encouragement industrialists- rank manufactories-advisers. These ranks were equated to the 8th class of the civil service (the rank of collegiate assessor). It is noteworthy that these titles were retained until 1917. Thus, in 1915 there were 45 commercial advisers. Among them were very well-known entrepreneurs: a merchant of the 1st guild, Grigory Eliseev (since 1863); merchant of the 1st guild Emmanuel Nobel (since 1894); jeweler Eduard Bolin (since 1905).

There were 17 manufactories-advisers. Among them, we can mention the merchant of the 1st guild Franz San Galli (since 1876), the merchant of the 2nd guild Georgy (Georges) Bormann (since 1905), the jeweler Carl Faberge (since 1910 .).

It is curious that the two most famous brands of the Russian jewelry community fell into different categories. So, the merchant of the 2nd guild, Carl Faberge, was included in the list of industrialists, since he had his own large-scale production, which employed about 500 craftsmen. Eduard Bolin did not have such a large production, so he went on the list of "merchants who distinguished themselves in trading activities."

In 1807, an honorary title was introduced top-notch merchants. This category included merchants who conducted only wholesale trade and sent their goods abroad. For eminent merchants, a special "velvet book" of eminent merchant families was brought. So the state encouraged, first of all, the export activity of individual merchants and industrialists, large-scale wholesale trade.

During the reign of Nicholas I, special attention was paid to the support of domestic producers, including by the emperor himself. The daughter of Nicholas I, Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna, recalls: “The Pope supported industrialists in every possible way, such as, for example, a certain Rogozhin, who made taffeta and velvet. To him we owe our first velvet dresses.” A major event for the business world of Russia was the reception at the Winter Palace, at which Nicholas I defiantly seated eight of the largest manufacturers in Moscow and St. Petersburg at his table.

All these one-time demonstrations eventually turned into a system of state promotion of the quality of goods produced by individual enterprises. In 1829, the first exhibition of domestic manufactured goods took place in St. Petersburg. Then there was a second exhibition in Moscow in 1831, a third in St. Petersburg in 1833 and a fourth again in Moscow in 1835.

As a result, an objective mechanism for selecting the best goods was gradually formed, which were awarded gold, silver and bronze medals, as well as honorary diplomas. On January 21, 1848, Nicholas I approved the "Regulations on exhibitions of products of manufactories, factories and plants in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw."

According to this "Regulation" manufacturers for the high quality of products and the rational organization of production could be awarded:

1) public praise and approval in the description of the exhibition;

2) cash prizes;

3) commendable medals, knocked out on purpose for this;

4) the right to use the state emblem on signs and products;

5) medals for wearing around the neck, on order ribbons, gold and silver;

6) orders.

It should be noted that in the 1840s - early 1850s. permission to use the state emblem in advertising was given by the Minister of Finance, who was in charge of industry and trade.

Since 1845, they began to be held All-Russian industrial exhibitions in St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw alternately every four years for the fifth. The first such exhibition was held in Warsaw in 1845, then in St. Petersburg - in 1849, in Moscow - in 1853, in Warsaw - in 1857, in St. Petersburg - in 1861, in Moscow - in 1865, etc.

Note also that in the first half of the XIX century. at the Imperial court began to bestow titles court manufacturer And court jeweler. To some extent, these ranks preceded or existed in parallel with the title of court purveyor. At that time, the assignment of one or another title depended entirely on the "highest will" and there were no regulatory documents for its receipt. As an illustration, here are the documents related to obtaining the title court manufacturer the famous Moscow merchant of the 1st guild, Ignaty Pavlovich Sazikov, who specialized in the manufacture of silver products.

In March 1838, the “President of the Moscow Palace Office” sent a report to the Minister of the Imperial Court, Prince P.M. Volkonsky, in which he supported the petition of I.P. Sazikov about "The Highest Sovereign Emperor's permission to be called the Court Silverware Manufacturer". This request was motivated by "gracious attention and praise, which Your Grace deigned to honor his product when viewed at the Grand Kremlin Palace of the exhibition during the stay of the Imperial Court in Moscow in the past 1837."

The report indicated the commercial niche that I.P. Sazikov: making silver items for court churches and imperial prizes. In addition, it was reported that Sazikov was “ready to accept a concession of 5 to 10% of the ruble against prices that may be charged for work by St. Petersburg craftsmen, without assuming a special payment for the delivery of things to St. Petersburg.”

In the 1840s rank appears in official documents Supplier to the Imperial Court, which allowed the State Emblem to be used on signs. It should be noted that the earliest date of obtaining the right to use the state emblem for advertising purposes is 1820, when a certain “shoemaker” Bruno began to be called the supplier of the Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna, and since 1833, the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. That is, the “de facto” formation of the procedure for obtaining the title of supplier of the Imperial Court can be attributed to the end of the first quarter of the 19th century. We also note that this title was immediately associated with the right to use the state emblem for advertising purposes.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. a procedure for conferring the title of court supplier developed, duplicating the procedure for conferring other honorary court titles introduced for entrepreneurs who collaborated with the economic structures of the Imperial Court. For example, the Moscow manufacturer I.M. Kondrashev, who already had the title of manufactory-adviser, sent in the autumn of 1842 the next petition to the Minister of the Imperial Court P.M. Volkonsky: “Having the happiness to repeatedly fulfill Your Grace’s instructions by manufacturing various materials for the Highest Court at my factory ... I humbly ask Your Grace to intercede for me from the Sovereign Emperor the title court purveyor(our italics. - Auth.) products of my factory, with the right to have the Russian Coat of Arms on both the products and the factory. By doing this, you will not only do the greatest good for me, but also aggravate the effort to improve products.

Strictly speaking, from that time a circle of people began to form, called suppliers of the Imperial Court. The "List of Suppliers", compiled in 1862 by the Ministry of Finance and "given in abbreviation", mentions 45 persons who supplied their goods and services to the Court. In reality, there were much more suppliers, since more than 12 different suppliers of the Court participated in the manufacture of the dowry for Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna in 1816 alone - from the silversmith Georges Pomo to the seamstress Maria Sokolova. It was also fundamentally important that all of them already in the first quarter of the 19th century. had the right to use on signboards and products the image of the State Emblem and the monograms of "the names of Their Imperial Highnesses the Grand Dukes and Grand Duchesses." It should be noted that among the suppliers of the Imperial Court there were traditionally many craftsmen who specialized in the manufacture of luxury items. Naturally, among them were jewelers.

As a result, until 1855, 22 entrepreneurs used the State Emblem on their signboards. The remaining 23 people received this right in the period from 1855 to 1862.

Why in the second half of the 1850s. began to rapidly increase the pace of expansion of the circle of official court suppliers who considered it necessary to obtain the right to use the state emblem on signboards and business documents? It can be assumed that even before the start of the great reforms of Alexander II, many entrepreneurs felt the approach of new times and new prospects and therefore sought to strengthen their positions in business in this way.

The reign of Alexander II marked the beginning of many changes in the life of the Russian Empire. Including in the economic activities of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. In the second half of the 1850s. the transition to the acquisition of civilian servants in the imperial palaces began, the palace kitchens were left to the head waiters, etc. The changes also affected the traditional relations between the economic structures of the Ministry of the Imperial Court and palace suppliers.

First of all, the fierce struggle among entrepreneurs for the right to supply supplies to the Imperial Court forced the bureaucratic structures of the Ministry of the Court to attend to the development of a clear procedure for obtaining the right to be considered a “supplier of the Highest Court”, with the accompanying right to use the state emblem for advertising purposes. This process began after the death of Nicholas I in 1855.

In a short time from 1855 to 1856, 10 entrepreneurs received the right to use the state emblem and, consequently, to be called the supplier of the Imperial Court. The grand ducal courts also had their official suppliers, whose names are also reflected in official documents.

We should especially note that there were no jewelers among these 10 entrepreneurs. The fact is that at that time the circle of jewelers working for the Imperial Court was rather narrow. All of them were well known both to the emperor himself and to his entourage. Perhaps they did not need any special advertising at that time, since all interested parties already knew very well who these or those master jewelers worked for.

Returning to the fact that there were more suppliers "de facto" than in the "List" of 1862, we will give the following example. In February 1856, the Moscow engraver Joachim was granted the highest permission to be called the “Engraver of the Court of the Sovereign Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich”, but this name is not in the “List” of 1862. But, one way or another, in 1855-1856. many entrepreneurs filed such petitions and, therefore, it became necessary to develop and legislate an appropriate procedure.

First of all, approved procedure for obtaining the title of court supplier And approved the form of the badge of the court supplier the Highest Court and the Grand Duke's Courts. In March 1856, the Ministry of the Imperial Court decided that the image of the State Emblem on signs would be provided only to “factories, artists, craftsmen and suppliers of His Majesty the Sovereign Emperor and the Empress Empress. Suppliers of the Grand Dukes and Grand Duchesses should have on the sign the state emblem with a special image of the names (initials) of the Grand Dukes, but with special permission from that Sovereign Emperor.

Sign of the supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty

The norms developed by the Ministry of the Court suggested that “the use of the State Emblem on signboards and products is allowed for manufacturers, artists and artisans who supplied the items they made to the Supreme Court, or executed orders for the court for 8 or 10 years, and those of them, who supply their products to the courts of the Grand Dukes and Grand Duchesses, it is allowed to use the monogram image of the names of Their Imperial Highnesses.

Monogram of suppliers of the Grand Duke's courts

It should be emphasized that the title of the supplier was given "to an individual", and not to a "legal entity" and completely depended "on His Highest Imperial Majesty's discretion." In addition, the most important provision was that the title of supplier was given only for real cooperation with the economic structures of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. At the same time, it was especially emphasized that the title of the supplier of the Court of E.I.V. not inherited by "individuals". To maintain this title, the heirs needed to ask for a special Highest permission. The entire procedure for reviewing and examining the documents of entrepreneurs for the right to be called "suppliers of the Imperial Court" was concentrated in the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. Actually, this procedure explains the appearance of several "eagles" on the products of well-known entrepreneurs.

Almost simultaneously with the Ministry of the Court, the Ministry of Finance fixes in the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire various forms of encouraging the best manufacturers of goods. Article 205 of the Charter of Industry, part 2 of the XI volume of the Code of Laws (ed. 1857) listed the awards that "manufacturers" could receive:

1) public praise and approval in the description of the exhibition;

2) cash bonuses;

3) commendable medals, specially embossed for this purpose, gold and silver, large and small;

4) the right to use the state emblem on signs and products;

5) Highest favor;

6) medals for wearing around the neck, on sashes, gold and silver;

7) orders.

All these positions repeated the norms adopted in January 1848.

Thus, at the turn of the 1850-1860s. there is a practice when two state structures - the Ministry of the Court and the Ministry of Finance - almost simultaneously legislate the right to allow the use of the State Emblem for advertising purposes, the best producers of goods and services.

However, despite the existence of a strictly prescribed procedure for obtaining the right to use the State Emblem in commercial activities, violations of this procedure immediately began. As a rule, they were associated with the personal patronage of one or another highest person to their suppliers. Apparently, the violations took on such a significant character that in 1862 they led to a correspondence between the Minister of Finance and the Minister of the Imperial Court.

The Minister of Finance sent a request to the Minister of the Imperial Court, in which he asked to confirm the right of "persons named in the statement" to use the state emblem in their commercial activities. The fact is that the Minister of Finance has received information that many of the owners of commercial and industrial establishments place the image of the coat of arms on signs and products, without having any right to do so. At the same time, the Minister of Finance stated that “the right to use the State Emblem on signs and products is one of the highest awards granted on the basis of Article 205 of the Charter of Industry, for manufacturing exhibitions, for products of excellent quality, with an extensive and completely rational organization of the establishments themselves”, and meanwhile, “most of the people use the State Emblem only because they supply their products to the Court and have received permission to be called courtiers.” Translated from bureaucratic language, this meant: we give a "coat of arms" for real merit to our protégés.

The above correspondence between the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of the Imperial Court had another important component. In fact, the discussion between the ministries in 1862 was a conflict of interest for the right to issue permits for the use of the State Emblem on signs and factory marks. The Ministry of Finance justified its right by referring to the provisions of the Charter of Industry (Article 205). In turn, the Minister of the Imperial Court V.F. Adlerberg pointed to the established practice of granting this right to persons who received the title of "supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty." He noted that this title is granted to manufacturers and artists who supplied items to the Imperial Court or completed orders for 8 or 10 years, and the determination of suppliers is the exclusive competence of the Ministry of the Imperial Court, and the assignment of this title is subject to the highest approval.

Certificate of supplier of the Court of His Imperial Majesty René Brizak. 1914

As a result, until 1917, the Ministry of Finance (since 1905 - the Ministry of Trade and Industry) retained the right to permit the use of the State Emblem on signboards and products by the winners of industrial exhibitions, and the Ministry of the Imperial Court - court suppliers.

Of course, the Minister of Finance did not have the right “weight category” to seriously conflict with the all-powerful Minister of the Imperial Court. But the very fact of departmental struggle is highly indicative. It testifies to the importance attached to the very fact of conferring the title of court supplier already in the early 1860s.

In the process of clarifying the status Supplier of the Supreme Court”, legally formalized in 1856, a serious contradiction was revealed associated with the more archaic titles of court suppliers. So, in 1862, in the correspondence of the Cabinet of His Majesty with the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court, it is indicated that the jewelers Bolin and Breiftus were awarded the highest title " court jewelers", respectively, in 1839 and 1859, and to master Keibel the title" court goldsmiths" in 1841. It was noted that "none of the above-named persons has the title of supplier of the Cabinet for the very reason that their products, by their nature, cannot be classified under the category of items received and supplied at auction." Apparently, as a result of consultations with legal services, it was decided to maintain the distinction between the titles of "court supplier" and "court jeweler", which remained until 1917.

In practice, the mechanism for obtaining the title of court supplier was reduced to the following algorithm:

firstly, a reasoned application of one or another firm was submitted to the office of the Ministry of the Imperial Court about the desire to receive the title of supplier of the Imperial Court;

secondly, a report from one or another interested economic structure of the Ministry of the Imperial Court (Cabinet of H.I.V., Hoff quartermaster office, Court office of H.I.V., later - the Main Palace Administration, etc.) with a request to support the petition firms were submitted directly to the name of the Minister of the Imperial Court;

thirdly, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court was "preparing documents."

There were requests to various authorities, up to the Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs about the "economic and moral character" of the company. If everything suited everyone, then the opinion of the “profile” business unit, with which the interested company worked directly for the required 8-10 years, was decisive in making the decision. Formally, the final decision was made by the Minister of the Imperial Court, but in reality the head of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court "prepared the documents". Judging by archival documents, it was really difficult to get the title of a supplier, since up to 50% of applicants' applications were rejected for one reason or another.

As a typical example, we can cite the history of awarding the title of court supplier to Carl Faberge. At first glance, the title of court supplier to the jeweler brought the success of his first Easter egg of the imperial series. Alexander III presented a Faberge Easter egg to Empress Maria Feodorovna for Easter 1885, and the talented jeweler received the title of court supplier in the same year. In fact, everything was more complicated.

On April 28, 1884, the director of the Imperial Hermitage, A. Vasilchikov, sent a letter to the Minister of the Imperial Court, Count I.I. Vorontsov-Dashkov’s report, in which he wrote: “The famous local jeweler Faberge was engaged for 15 years at the Imperial Hermitage free of charge in repairing various antique gold and silver items to separate antiquities and precious items, never refusing to be an appraiser in acquisitions: he was constantly invited as by me , and my predecessor, to accurately determine the dignity, qualities and value of stones, and also worked with me when moving and rearranging precious objects daily, for several months in a row.

Wishing to encourage Mr. Faberge for his tireless activity and the undoubted great benefit brought to the Imperial Hermitage by his gratuitous labors, I have the honor to humbly ask Your Excellency for the favorable solicitation of the Highest permission for him to be the Supplier of the Highest Court.

Two months later, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Court demanded documentary confirmation of the "free" 15-year collaboration between C. Faberge and the Imperial Hermitage. The director of the Hermitage wrote in his reply that “there are no official documents on Faberge's admission to the service in the Hermitage Archives. He was probably invited first once, then twice, finally, all the employees got so used to him that for 15 years he was considered one of his own, and the entire Hermitage owes him much and much ... Faberge throughout the long time of his activity, despite the long days devoted to them for the benefit of the Hermitage, did not submit a single invoice.

These documents highlight two points. Firstly, this is the period of Faberge's cooperation with the Imperial Hermitage - 15 years, which almost doubled the established period of cooperation between the supplier and a subdivision of the Ministry of the Court. During this time, the jeweler really became "one of his own" for the Imperial Hermitage.

Secondly, Prince A. Vasilchikov several times emphasizes the fact of “gratuitous” cooperation of the famous jeweler with the state structure. At the same time, Vasilchikov was well aware that the absence of an official document confirming the very fact of many years of cooperation could adversely affect the outcome of his application, so he insistently emphasized that Faberge "did not submit a single invoice" for his work.

Nevertheless, the "unfounded" assurances of the Director of the Hermitage did not suit the officials of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Court. Therefore, on May 31, 1884, Prince A. Vasilchikov received the following answer: “... Mr. Minister of the Imperial Court, according to the report of your petition for granting the Jeweler Faberge the title of Supplier of the Highest Court, deigned to reject such, and allow you to enter with a special idea of ​​rewarding him, Faberge, for services rendered to the Imperial Hermitage”. It is amazing, but for the 15-year free work (!!!) for the Imperial Hermitage, Faberge was only supposed to "reward ... for services." Thus, the first attempt to obtain the title of court supplier for a truly long-term and fruitful cooperation with very influential patronage ended in failure.

The second attempt was made in 1885, but already under the patronage of another influential structure - the Cabinet of His Imperial Majesty. At the same time, it should be noted that on Easter 1885, Emperor Alexander III already presented the first egg to Empress Maria Feodorovna, which marked the beginning of the imperial series. The gift delighted the Empress. Everyone, of course, was "in the know" of royal favor, and this was very important in the "undercurrents" of the Ministry of the Court. In addition, Carl Faberge really from 1866, i.e. 19 years, collaborated with the Cabinet of H.I.V., selling him "precious items for 47,249 rubles." In the report of the Cabinet of E.I.V. it was especially emphasized that Faberge exhibited "very conscientious prices", which "attracted special attention to themselves, and recently the Russian-style brooch made by him was awarded the highest approval." In addition, the report reported that in September 1884, C. Faberge was invited to assist the appraisers in the Commission “formed to receive the Cabinet of Imperial Regalia and Crown Diamonds, and (he) worked in this commission for almost 5 months free of charge. In the summary part, the Cabinet of E.I.V. petitioned "for the encouragement of the jeweler Faberge by granting him the title of Supplier of the Highest Court, with the award of the right to have on the sign the image of the State Emblem."

As a result of this report, on May 1, 1885, Carl Faberge was granted the title of court supplier.

“St. Petersburg 2nd guild merchant Karl Gustavovich Faberge, Bolshaya Morskaya, house 18, Kononova. The store has existed since 1840

In St. Petersburg

d. Correcting position

Chief Marshal

The Sovereign Emperor has deigned to allow: the jeweler of St. Petersburg of the 2nd guild, the merchant Carl Faberge, who has a shop at Bolshaya Morskaya, house 18, to be called the Supplier of the Imperial Court, to have on the sign the image of the State Emblem ...

Minister of the Imperial Court

Gr. Vorontsov-Dashkov.

Thus, it can be stated that the procedure for obtaining the title of court supplier was very, very difficult. For this, Carl Faberge needed 15 years of free work for the Imperial Hermitage and 19 years of cooperation with the Cabinet of H.I.V., selling his products “at reasonable prices” to him. In addition, he worked for free for many months as an appraiser of the Cabinet of E.I.V. But with all this, perhaps, the favor to the jeweler of Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna was of decisive importance. Therefore, it was not at all accidental that among entrepreneurs in the second half of the 19th century. the double-headed eagle supplied by the Imperial Court was valued higher than the double-headed eagle given by the Ministry of Finance.

Nevertheless, there were enough people who wanted to receive the title of court supplier, and the period of 8-10 years of impeccable business contacts seemed to many to be absurd. Representatives of domestic business had a natural desire to circumvent the legally enshrined norms. Therefore, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court considered it necessary to constantly remind the heads of departments of the Ministry of the Court of the basic conditions necessary to obtain the title of court supplier. So, in 1866, in a note addressed to the director of the Court Chapel, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Court reported “for guidance in the future” that “the title of court supplier, or commission agent, and the right to depict the State Emblem, associated with the above, is granted only to those persons who supplied any items for the Highest Court for a significant amount, or generally performed any work on the Imperial Court for 8-10 years in a row, and the advantage cannot be inherited or even from one person to another. The title is given to a person who has proven, for at least 8 years, conscientiousness, diligence and ability. The title is given only for the time of delivery.

After the tragic death of Alexander II in March 1881 and the beginning of the reign of Alexander III, it was decided that all former suppliers of the Tsarevich automatically acquire the status of suppliers of the Imperial Court. In 1884, the Imperial order followed to extend the rules for obtaining the title of suppliers of the Highest Court to suppliers of the Grand Duke's courts. This decree finally standardized the procedure for obtaining the title of court supplier and suppliers of grand ducal courts.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas II in October 1894 led to some changes in the procedure for obtaining the title of court supplier. The young Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, based on the fact that “before 1895, the title of supplier of the Imperial Court complained to persons who made deliveries or work on the requirements of the Empress”, immediately expressed her desire that her suppliers “be granted, with the Highest permission, the right to be called the supplier of Her Imperial Majesty and to have on the sign the image of the State Emblem. As a result, each of the empresses formed its own staff of suppliers. In the "List of Suppliers of Her Majesty the Empress Maria Feodorovna", compiled at the beginning of 1915, there are 31 names. At the same time, the earliest date of enrollment in this list dates back to 1895. It follows that until 1895, Empress Maria Feodorovna "managed" the services of the "main list" of suppliers of the Imperial Court, and only after the start of "hostilities" on the part of her daughter-in-law, did she also began to form its staff of suppliers.

"The list of suppliers of Her Majesty the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna" is more extensive. By the beginning of 1915, it contained 39 names. In 1895, she initiated "her" List, including a London tailor and barber. And then came a wave of suppliers from her native Darmstadt, who were not required for 8-10 years of impeccable cooperation with the economic structures of the Ministry of the Imperial Court.

In 1901, a new image of the sign of the supplier of the Highest and Grand Dukes was developed and approved (it has not changed since 1856). In the new sign of the supplier, under the shield there was a ribbon that indicated the status of the supplier: "The Highest Court", "Empress Maria Feodorovna", "Empress Alexandra Feodorovna" or the Grand Dukes and Duchesses. The year of awarding the title was also indicated. A special certificate was also issued from the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court with a color image of the badge.

A page from the List of the Highest Suppliers of 1902 (GA RF. F. 102. Op. 2. D. 57. Ll. 8–15 v.) with lists of Empresses Maria Feodorovna and Alexandra Feodorovna

It should be noted that cases of deviation from legislative norms when receiving the title of court supplier were of a fairly constant nature. The most "legitimate" violation of the legal procedure was the highest will, which in autocratic Russia was above any law. So, in 1910, in the business correspondence of the Cabinet of E.I.V. it was stated that “in former times, however, there were cases of conferring the titles of suppliers of the Highest Court and without observing the indicated conditions, only by special Highest permission. So, according to the Cabinet of His Imperial Majesty, without the Highest permission, without observing any conditions, the state emblem was provided to appraisers of precious things and soft junk, for the entire time when appraisers are in this rank. It was a kind of "bonus" for the free work of jewelers in the position of appraiser, for which they did not receive a salary. And then, as we see from the history of awarding the title of supplier to K. Faberge, it was not always so. Sometimes the titles of suppliers of the Imperial Court were bestowed by the monarchs during their visits to the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibitions.

On the new drawing of the monogram image for suppliers of the Grand Duke's courts

Were there any abuses in obtaining the title of court supplier? Yes they were. This is mentioned by the head of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court A.A. Mosolov, who was engaged in all the "rough" work in the Chancellery, being for 17 years the "right hand" of the Minister of the Imperial Court V.B. Fredericks. He writes that when he took office in 1900, he discovered that the officials of the ministry were, as a rule, the children of the grand dukes' valets. Being people "with connections", but on a modest salary, they went to various frauds in order to "make money". Abuses were especially frequent when awarding the title of court suppliers. The General had to, when he discovered this, "keep the correspondence on such matters in a desk, under the key." Therefore, he, as the head of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court, had to remind his subordinates again and again that “in order to grant the title of supplier of the Highest Court and the special sign associated with this title, the following conditions must be met: Request for the Highest permission; Execution of deliveries or works for the needs of the Supreme Court; Continuity of supply or work; Their known duration for at least 8–10 years; Making deliveries or works directly by the person applying for the said title; Manufacturing supply predominantly from items of own production or products from own factories, workshops and factories; The success of deliveries or works, that is, the correct execution of orders, certified by the authorities of the proper establishment; The title of supplier is granted only for the time that work is being done or deliveries are being made to the Supreme Court; This title complains to the owners or owners of trading establishments, workshops, factories, plants, and not to firms, and passes to the heirs or new owners of a trading house or firms only with the permission of the Highest every time.

However, these already established norms needed to be constantly clarified. This was due to the fact that people of various specialties were involved in the service of the Imperial Court. For example, in 1896, according to the most humble report of the Minister of the Imperial Court, Count I.I. Vorontsov-Dashkov was followed by the Highest permission “at the request of those who do not supply anything, but only perform certain work (polisters, adjusters, etc.) - to grant them, with a special for each time Highest permission, subject to certain conditions, the right to have on the signboard of their workshop there are only monograms of the Name of Their Highnesses, since the name of the supplier, for the persons of the mentioned category, is quite true. As a result, "floor polishers and tuners" were granted the right to place on their signs a sign with the inscription: "For work in the Court of His Imperial Majesty."

Every year, literally a wave of petitions for the title of court supplier fell upon the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. The bureaucratic correspondence on these issues was very voluminous. For example, the archival file "On bestowing the title of suppliers of the highest court" for 1883 has 200 sheets. In 1901 - 331 sheets. At the same time, the very fact of the petition did not at all mean its automatic satisfaction. Cases related to refusals to grant the title of supplier are no less voluminous.

This high title was given to heads of firms of various sizes. From owners of modest hat workshops to reputable enterprises. From time to time, checks were carried out among entrepreneurs regarding the eligibility of using the title of supplier of the Imperial Court. It must be admitted that there were few impostors. In 1884, a decision was made to remove the sign of the supplier of the Imperial Court from Tedeschi's tailor's shop. In 1898, the owner of one of the photographic studios was obliged to remove the image of the State Emblem from the photographs.

It should be emphasized once again that the title of the court supplier was considered the most honorable and respected among the figures of industry and trade. It was given twice a year: at Christmas and at Easter.

In the second half of the XIX century. it is the title of the court supplier of the Imperial Court that becomes the most prestigious title in the commercial and industrial community. The officials of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court were well aware of this and took advantage of this by holding tenders for various supplies and works for the Imperial Court. This directly affected the jewelers.

In turn, potential suppliers of the court fiercely fought for the title and sometimes made deliberate losses by lowering the prices of their goods and services. However, they were well aware that receiving the title of court supplier, one way or another, compensates for all losses, since the image of a double-headed eagle on the letterhead of the company testified to the impeccable quality of the goods. Thus, as a result of the prevailing during the second half of the XIX century. the practice of strict selection, the title of the supplier of the Imperial Court has become a trademark of the elite of the commercial and industrial world of Russia.

Letter from the Department of Trade of the Ministry of Trade and Industry about the company "Singer"

In August 1914 Russia entered the First World War. At the beginning of 1915, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court compiled a "List of Suppliers of the Imperial Court." This is due to the fact that Germany and Austria-Hungary, and then the Ottoman Empire, turned out to be Russia's opponents in the war. Consequently, the subjects of these countries could no longer be suppliers of the Russian Imperial Court.

In total, the List compiled by the beginning of 1915 included 1340 firms and persons. Of course, this list was not complete, and in compiling it, the officials of the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Court made many mistakes. One of the typical mistakes is the double mention of the same company or person. For example, the French car company Delaunay-Belleville is mentioned twice.

Calculations made on the basis of the materials of the List show that among the suppliers of the Imperial Court, Russian entrepreneurs prevailed (about 80%). Most of them were in St. Petersburg, Moscow, somewhat less in Warsaw, Riga, Yalta (due to the summer stay of the imperial family in the Crimea). However, in the lists of suppliers you can find the shoemaker Vasily Egorov from Kronstadt, the manufacturer of linen V. Konshin from Kostroma, the manufacturer of saddles Fedot Kalaushin from the village of Batalpashinskaya, the supplier of flour S.D. Rusanov from Yelets, fabric makers Syromyatnikov and Dyakonov from Nerekhta, supplier of metal products Abram Katz from the Ponevezhsky district of the Kovno province, etc.

Of the Russian suppliers, more than 50% were Russians, about 40% were Germans, French, Swiss (including those who had long been Russified) living in Russia, about 5% Jews, about 2% Poles, less than 1% Tatars (mainly Crimean, serving Livadia ), about 0.5% Armenians and about the same number of Greeks.

More than 50% of the suppliers of the Imperial Court accounted for the manufacturers of food and drinks, clothing and footwear, jewelry and luxury goods, furniture, dishes, perfumes. Including suppliers of food and beverages - about 16%; clothes, shoes and accessories - about 19%; jewelry, luxury items, etc. - about 9%; furniture - about 3%; dishes - slightly less than 3%; perfumery products - about 1.5%. The rest were suppliers of carriages and cars, stationery and books, various tools and appliances, pharmaceutical products, flowers and various exotic plants, etc. They were supplemented by hairdressers, photographers, manufacturers of all kinds of works and suppliers of building and finishing materials for them, artists, sculptors and other craftsmen.

There were many foreigners on the Supplier List. Their share in the total number of suppliers was about 20%. For them, "de facto" there were special rules for obtaining the title of supplier of the Russian Imperial Court. Nevertheless, in relation to foreigners, the Chancellery of the Ministry of the Imperial Court tried to adhere to the established rules, unless the royal will was expressed to do otherwise.

First place by the number of entrepreneurs awarded the title of court supplier, ranked Germany. In total, the List mentions 64 German entrepreneurs or firms that at the beginning of 1915 had the title of supplier of the Imperial Court. Such a large number of German entrepreneurs who had the title of supplier was due to the fact that from the second half of the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century, five of the six Russian empresses were Germans. Moreover, two of them were Hesse-Darmstadt princesses. This explains such a significant presence in the List of Entrepreneurs from the Grand Duchy of Hesse.

The earliest assignment of the title of supplier to German entrepreneurs dates back to 1856. These were two Berlin entrepreneurs. Apparently, this was a “trace” of the stay in Berlin of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, nee Prussian princess, wife of Nicholas I. The wife of Alexander II, Empress Maria Alexandrovna, nee Princess of Hesse, rarely visited her small homeland. Therefore, the traces of her visit to Germany was the granting of the title of suppliers to entrepreneurs of large industrial centers - Berlin and Frankfurt am Main. Only in 1871, Maximilian Poen, a pharmacist from the provincial Darmstadt, received the title of court supplier.

It should be noted that since 1870 Frankfurt am Main, located 27 km from Darmstadt, has become a major industrial center, which Russian monarchs willingly visited, making “shopping trips”. During the reign of Alexander II, three entrepreneurs from Frankfurt received the title of court supplier (1868, 1871, 1873).

After the Hessian princess became Empress Alexandra Feodorovna in 1894, the titles of court suppliers literally rained down on the entrepreneurs of her native Darmstadt. At the same time, of course, they were not required to have 8-10 years of impeccable cooperation with the economic divisions of the Ministry of the Imperial Court. By 1915, out of 64 German entrepreneurs, 24 Darmstadt entrepreneurs had the title of supplier to the Imperial Court. Of course, Darmstadt with a population of about 60 thousand people. at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. was not an industrial center. But it was the small homeland of the Empress, which she visited with pleasure. Therefore, each of her visits turned for very modest Darmstadt entrepreneurs into receiving the next titles of court suppliers.

From 1896 to 1899, nine Darmstadt entrepreneurs received this title, in 1903–1904. six more. In the autumn of 1910, the royal family spent two months in Darmstadt. As a result, in 1910-1911, five more firms received the title of court supplier. Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna also allowed themselves "shopping" in Frankfurt am Main. Of course, incognito. This personal acquaintance with the shops turned into a period from 1896 to 1910. titles of court purveyors for eight entrepreneurs from Frankfurt am Main.

It should be mentioned that among the German entrepreneurs there were representatives of new for the beginning of the 20th century. productions. So, in 1912, Daimler, who sold Mercedes cars for the Imperial Garage, received the title of supplier. In 1913, S. Vaap, who made boats in Kiel, became the supplier.

This text is an introductory piece.

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