Takhtadzhyan's flowering system. Modern phylogenetic constructions of angiosperms. Class Dicotyledons, Magnoliopsids

The world of living beings has at least 2 million species. All this diversity of organisms is studied by systematics. Modern taxonomy strives to create an evolutionary, or phylogenetic, systematic system developed for all taxonomics. levels, from species... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

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The root system of cycads is still poorly studied, and this is not surprising, since we are talking about plants that are relatively rare in nature. Compared to ferns, cycads have more differentiated roots. They are the ones... Biological encyclopedia

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• The newest directory of medicinal plants, A. A. Ryabokon. In this reference book, the author moved away from the formal practice of listing plants and families in alphabetical order, returning to the generally accepted world practice of considering plants taking into account their...

Among the numerous floristic systems of the regions, the most substantiated is the floristic system of A.L. Takhtajyan.

A.L. Takhtadzhyan - an outstanding Soviet botanist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1972) and the Armenian SSR (1971); author of numerous works on systematics, phylogeny, evolutionary morphology of higher plants and the theory of evolution. Author of a new phylogenetic system of plants and botanical-geographical (floristic) zoning of the Earth.

According to A.L. Takhtyadzhyan, the following floristic kingdoms are distinguished on the surface of the Earth:

• 1. Holarctic;
• 2. Paleotropical;
• 3. Neotropical;
• 4. Cape;
• 5. Australian;
• 6. Holantarctic.

Within the six kingdoms there are 34 regions. Two kingdoms - Holanthractic and Paleotropical - are divided into subkingdoms (4, 9, 15, 21, 38, 35, 39, 40, 43, 52, 53).

Galarctic kingdom

The Holarctic kingdom is the largest in area; it occupies more than half of all land. The Holarctic kingdom covers Europe, northern Africa, including the Sahara (up to approximately 200 N latitude), and the Arabian Peninsula (except for its southwestern part). Further, the southern border of the Holarctic kingdom runs along the Indus River, the Himalayas and approximately the northern tropic. In North America, the Holarctic Kingdom occupies the entire extratropical part of the continent, including the Mexican Highlands.

The flora of the Holarctic kingdom is represented by more than 30 endemic families, mostly small, including one genus each. The families of magnolia, laurel, ranunculaceae, barberry, beech, birch, walnut, clove, buckwheat, willow, cruciferous, heather, primrose, malvaceae, euphorbia, rosaceae, leguminous, umbelliferous, buckthorn, gentian, borage, labiaceae, campanaceae, asteraceae species are richly represented , lilies, iris, orchids, rush, sedges, cereals, pine, juniper, polyplodiaceae (ferns). Most of these families are endemic to the Holarctic kingdom.

Magnolia is a genus of trees in the Magnoliaceae family. In total, there are about 80 species of magnolias, growing in East and Southeast Asia, America and the West Indies. About 15 species of magnolia are cultivated as ornamental plants. Magnolia grandiflora leaf extract is used medicinally as a blood pressure lowering agent.

Ranunculaceae is a family of dicotyledonous plants with about 2000 species (50 genera). Ranunculaceae grow mainly in temperate and cold zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Some buttercups have a bipolar distribution, occurring in temperate and cold zones of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres (for example, ranunculus). Ranunculaceae also include aconite, buttercup, larkspur, etc. Many buttercup plants are poisonous.

Beech - a family of dicotyledonous plants; deciduous or evergreen trees and shrubs. In total, there are about 600 species (7-9 genera) of beech plants on Earth, growing in temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of both hemispheres (except for the tropics of South America and Africa). Many beech woody plants are forest-forming species: beech, oak, chestnut, etc.).

Beech is a genus of trees up to 50 m high in the beech family. There are 10 beech species in total, growing in the extratropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Beech forms mainly mountain forests. Beech wood is used to make musical instruments, parquet, bent furniture, etc. Beech fruits are edible (after roasting) and produce edible and technical oil; Cake - used as livestock feed.

Oak is a genus of trees, less often shrubs, of the beech family. In total, about 450 species are known, growing in the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as in the mountains of South America. Oak is an important forest-forming species. Oak wood is strong and durable, has a beautiful cut pattern; used in shipbuilding, for underwater structures, in the production of furniture, etc. Oak bark is used to obtain tanning substances and astringent medicinal preparations; Acorns are used as a substitute for coffee and animal feed. Cork oak produces a cork. Many types of oak are decorative.

Chestnut is a genus of trees in the beech family. There are 14 known species growing in North America, Eurasia, Japan, and the Mediterranean. Some types of chestnut (for example, chestnut sativum) are used as ornamental plants. The chestnut fruits are used for food, and the wood is used to make furniture.

Rosaceae (pink) - a family of dicotyledonous plants; trees, shrubs and herbs. More than 3,000 species (about 115 genera) are known, growing mainly in temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Among the Rosaceae there are:

• - fruit (apple, pear, quince, cherry, apricot, etc.);
• - berries (raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, cloudberries, etc.),
• - wild plants (spirea, hawthorn, etc.),
• - essential oils (rose, etc.);
• - medicinal (rose hips, burnet, etc.).

Willow is a genus of trees, shrubs and shrubs of the willow family. About 300 species are known, growing in the temperate zone of Eurasia and North America. Many types of willow are decorative; some species are also used to stabilize sands and ravines. The wood is used to make various crafts, and the branches are used for weaving baskets. Willow bark is rich in tanning substances.

Cruciferous plants are a family of dicotyledonous plants; herbs, less often shrubs and subshrubs. In total there are about 3,000 species (over 350 genera), which grow mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. Cruciferous vegetables include:

• - vegetables (cabbage, radish);
• - oilseeds (colza, rapeseed);
• - weeds (shepherd's purse, jarutka);
• - melliferous;
• - medicinal;
• - dyeing;
• - decorative.

Legumes are a family of dicotyledonous plants that have a fruit - a legume. About 12,000 (about 500 genera) of legumes are known, growing throughout the globe. Nodule bacteria live on the roots of legume plants. Legumes include:

• - food crops (beans, peas, soybeans, etc.);
• - forage (clover, vetch, alfalfa, etc.);
• - technical;
• - decorative (mimosa, etc.)..

Bean products are rich in proteins. Sometimes, under the name “legumes”, three families are combined (as subfamilies): 1) mothaceae, 2) caesalpiniaceae and 3) mimosa.

Compositae - a family of dicotyledonous plants: herbs, shrubs and subshrubs (in temperate zones), shrubs and trees (in the tropics). Inflorescences in the form of a basket consisting of a large number of flowers. In total, about 25,000 species (900-1000 genera) of Asteraceae are known, distributed over the entire surface of the globe. Among the Compositae there are many useful ones:

• - oilseeds (sunflower);
• - vegetables (salad);
• - medicinal (chamomile);
• - decorative (aster);
• - feed (jerusalem artichoke).

Malvaceae is a family of dicotyledonous plants; herbs and shrubs. About 1,600 species (about 90 genera) of malvaceae are known, most of which grow in the tropics and subtropics. Among the malvaceae there are:

• - spinning (cotton, kenaf, rope);
• - medicinal (marshmallow);
• - decorative (mallow).

A typical representative of malvaceae is mallow.

Mallow (kalachiki, mallow) is a genus of herbs in the mallow family. About 40 species of mallow are known to grow in the Northern Hemisphere. The basal leaves are petiolate, the stem leaves are sessile. The flowers are large, solitary. They bloom in early spring. Some types of mallows are eaten, used as livestock feed, and grown as ornamental and medicinal plants. Mallow mallow produces coarse fiber. There are two known species of mallows growing on the territory of Belarus (in dry pine forests): broadleaf lumbago (sleep grass) and meadow lumbago.

Sedges are a family of monocots, mainly herbaceous plants. In total, more than 3,500 species are known, growing mainly in the temperate and cold zones of the Northern Hemisphere. The sedges include reeds, sedges, cotton grass, cobresia, papyrus, etc.

Sedge is a genus of perennial grasses of the sedge family. About 1,500 species are known, distributed throughout the globe. 61 species grow in Belarus. The favorite habitats of sedge are swamps, meadows and banks of reservoirs. Some species of sedges are very rare. For example, shady sedge and bay sedge are listed in the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus.

Cereals (cereals) are a family of monocotyledonous plants: grasses, less often tree-like forms (bamboos). Cereals are characterized by the following characteristics:

• - small flowers are collected in simple inflorescences - spikelets forming complex inflorescences - spike, plume, panicle, etc.;
• - stem - straw, separated by nodes;
• - leaves are linear and succulent;
• - fruit - grain.

There are about 10,000 species (600 genera) known to grow throughout the globe. The greatest economic importance are grains (wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, sorghum, corn, etc.), feed (timothy grass, bluegrass, wheatgrass, etc.), and sugar cane.

Wheat is a genus of annual and perennial grasses of the grass family. About 20 species are known in Eurasia, Africa, North America and Australia. Mainly soft wheat and durum wheat (winter and spring forms) are cultivated. In culture, wheat has been cultivated since the 6th-7th millennium BC. (Forward Asia, Turkmenistan, Southern Europe). From the 17th century wheat is grown in North America. Wheat grain is used to make flour, semolina (semolina), pasta, starch, alcohol, and animal feed. Green mass, hay, straw, bran are used as feed for livestock.

Rice is a genus of annual and perennial herbs of the grass family. In total, 19 types of rice are known, growing in the tropics of Asia, Africa and America. Grown under irrigation. Rice is one of the oldest food plants. The homeland of rice is India (presumably), where this crop has been cultivated for several millennia. In Europe, rice has been grown since the 8th century. BC, and in North America - from the 15th-16th centuries. Cereals, flour, alcohol, and oil are obtained from rice grains; paper, cardboard, and wickerwork are obtained from straw.

Rye is a genus of annual and perennial herbs of the grass family. About 13 species are known, including 11 wild ones, mainly in Asia and Africa. Rye has been cultivated in culture since the 1st-2nd millennium BC. in countries with a temperate climate in the Northern Hemisphere. Mainly cultivated rye is grown - winter and spring forms.

Barley is a genus of annual and perennial herbs of the grass family. There are about 30 species, mainly in Eurasia, Africa and America. For the most part, barley is steppe grasses and weeds. In culture, barley is cultivated (winter and spring forms) - feed (grain) and food (cereals (barley), flour, malt for beer production, coffee surrogate).

Oats are a genus of annual and perennial herbs of the grass family, numbering about 70 species in Eurasia, Africa, America and Australia. Basically, oats are forage grasses and weeds (for example, wild oats). Grain crops are oats, Byzantine oats, etc., producing fodder and food grains.

Corn (maize) is an annual herbaceous plant of the grass family. The following 9 botanical groups of corn are distinguished:

• 1) siliceous,
• 2) tooth-like,
• 3) semi-dentate,
• 4) bursting,
• 5) sugar,
• 6) starchy,
• 7) starchy-sugar,
• 8) waxy,
• 9) membranous (not grown in culture).

Corn is native to Central and South America. Corn was introduced to Europe at the end of the 15th century. Flour, cereals, starch, alcohol, animal feed are obtained from grains; corn oil is obtained from germs. Green mass, silage and hay are used as livestock feed. Paper, cardboard, linoleum, viscose, etc. are made from dry stems and cobs.

Millet is a genus of annual grasses in the grass family. More than 400 species are known in Asia, America and Africa. Mostly millet is a forage grass and weed. Common millet and small millet are cultivated. Cereals (millet), flour and fodder are obtained from grain. The main millet cultivation areas are China, India and Nigeria.

Sorghum is a genus of annual and perennial grasses of the grass family, numbering about 50 species in Africa, Asia, America, Australia and Southern Europe. In most cases, sorghum is a weed (gumai), forage plants (sweet sorghum, Sudan grass) and grain crops (common sorghum, jugara, durra, kaoliang). The main growing areas for grain sorghum are China, the USA and Nigeria.

The Holarctic kingdom is divided into three subkingdoms: Boreal, Ancient Mediterranean and Madrean (Sonoran).

Each of these sub-kingdoms, in turn, consists of several regions:

I. The boreal subkingdom includes the following areas:

• 1. Circumboreal region;
• 2. East Asian region;
• 3. Atlantic-North American region;
• 4. Rocky Mountain region.

II. Ancient Mediterranean subkingdom:

• 1. Macaronesian region;
• 2. Mediterranean region;
• 3. Sahara-Arabian region;
• 4. Iran-Turan region.

III. Madrean (Sonoran) subkingdom:

1. Madrean (Sonoran) region.

I. The Boreal sub-kingdom is the most extensive of all the sub-kingdoms of the Holarctic kingdom; occupies most of Eurasia and North America.

1. The circumboreal region covers Europe (with the exception of the Mediterranean), Northern Anatolia, the Caucasus (with the exception of the arid regions of Transcaucasia and Talysh), the Urals, Siberia (with the exception of the southeastern part along the Amur River), Kamchatka, Northern Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands va (north of Iturup Island), Aleutian Islands, Alaska and most of Canada.

There are no endemic families. There are not very many endemic genera and they, as a rule, occupy only part of the region: alliaria, lunaria, hyverekia from cruciferous plants, soldanella from primroses, squash, kupir from Umbellaceae, lungwort from Borageaceae, telorez from Vodokrasaceae, gymnadenia and neottia from Orchids, dupontia from cereals, etc. The mountainous regions of Western Europe, the Caucasus and the Carpathians are especially rich in endemic genera and species. The mountains of Siberia and Canada are also characterized by rich and unique flora.

Of the conifers, the most typical species are pine, spruce, fir, larch, and in Canada also hemlock, pseudo-hemlock and thuja. Among deciduous species, the most common species are oak, beech, birch, alder, maple, hazel, poplar, willow, ash, elm, linden, walnut, celtis, hopshorne, dogwood, cherry, hawthorn, pear, apple, rowan, spirea, rhododendron, honeysuckle , elderberry, viburnum, buckthorn, lingonberry. Within this subkingdom lies the center of conifer diversity.

Conifers are a class of gymnosperms. Almost all conifers are evergreens and shrubs, usually with needle-shaped (needles) or scaly leaves and unisexual strobili (cones). In total, about 600 species (about 50 genera) of coniferous plants grow on Earth, most of which are concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, but some species and genera are also present in the Southern Hemisphere. For example, Araucaria, a genus of tall coniferous trees, is distributed mainly in South America and Australia. Many conifers (pine, spruce, larch, fir, etc.) are valuable forest-forming species. Coniferous species are used to produce wood, resin (resin), in shelter forestry, landscaping, etc. The fruits of some conifers are edible (for example, pine nuts).

Pine is a genus of coniferous evergreen trees and creeping shrubs of the pine family. About 100 species of pine trees are known, growing mainly in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. Pine is one of the main forest-forming species, a source of timber and many valuable chemical products (turpentine, rosin, tar, vitamin C (obtained from young needles), etc.). The seeds of the pine pine and the Italian pine (pinia) are edible. In Belarus there is one wild species - Scots pine, and five more species are cultivated.

Spruce is a genus of coniferous evergreen trees of the pine family. There are about 40 species in total, growing mainly in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. The most common are Norway spruce and Siberian spruce. All spruce trees have a dense, cone-shaped crown and a shallow root system. Spruce is one of the main forest-forming species; has soft wood, which is used in construction, in the production of pulp, and musical instruments. Resin, turpentine, rosin, tar, etc. are obtained from it. Tannins are obtained from spruce bark, and vitamin C is obtained from needles. Some types of spruce are used in landscaping, especially the “blue” forms of Canadian spruce.

Fir is a genus of coniferous evergreen trees of the pine family. There are about 50 species in total, growing mainly in the mountains of the Northern Hemisphere. In Belarus there is one rare relict species - white or European fir, listed in the Red Book of the Republic of Belarus. Some types of fir have a height of up to 100 m and are characterized by a dense cone-shaped crown, flat needles, and erect cones that ripen in the first year. Fir wood is used for the production of cellulose and in construction; Fir balsam is obtained from the bark, and fir oil is obtained from pine needles and branches.

Larch is a genus of deciduous coniferous trees of the pine family. There are about 15 species in total, growing mainly in the mountains and forest zones of the Northern Hemisphere. The most common is Siberian larch. In Belarus, larch is cultivated in forestry and as an ornamental plant. Hard, durable larch wood is used for underwater structures, shipbuilding, construction, pulp production, etc.

Hemlock is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees of the pine family. In total, about 10 species are known, growing mainly in North America and Asia. Some types of hemlock are cultivated.

Thuja is a genus of evergreen coniferous plants and shrubs of the cypress family. There are only 5 species, native to North America and East Asia. In Belarus, several types of thuja are cultivated as ornamental plants.

Juniper is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees and shrubs of the cypress family. About 60 species are known, growing mainly in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere. In Central Asia, juniper is called juniper. All junipers have needle-shaped leaves, opposite or whorled leaves, fruits in the form of succulent cones and are characterized by extremely slow growth. Some types of juniper are up to 1 thousand years old. In Belarus, common juniper is found, growing in the undergrowth of coniferous and mixed forests. Juniper is of great soil and water protection importance and is cultivated as an ornamental plant. Juniper wood is used to make pencils; Essential oils are obtained from the shoots of some species. An infusion of common juniper berries is used in medicine as a diuretic.

Saxifraga - a family of dicotyledonous plants; perennial, less often annual herbs or shrubs. The leaves are collected in a rosette, in many species with glands secreting lime. They reproduce by seeds, rhizomes or axillary bulbs. In total, about 350 species are known, growing in the temperate and cold zones of the Northern Hemisphere and in the Andes.

2. The East Asian region includes the Himalayas (approximately east of 830 E), the northeastern part of India, Northern Tonkin, Primorye, a significant part of mainland China and the Amur River basin, southeastern Transbaikalia, Northeastern and Eastern Mongolia, Korea, Taiwan, the southern islands of the Kuril chain, Sakhalin south of 510 N latitude.

The flora of the region is very rich and diverse: it includes 14 endemic families, more than 300 endemic genera and a huge number of endemic species.

Endemic gymnosperms are: the Ginkgo family with the genus Ginkgo, the Cephalotax family with the genus Cephalotaxus, the genera Pseudotaxus, Keteleria, Pseudolarix, Cryptomeria, Kuningamia, Metasequoia, Taiwania, Microbiota, Tuyopsis; from angiosperms - eriobothria, exochorda, maakia, phellodendron, calopanax, paulownia, aspidistra, liriope, sasa and many others.

Ginkgo is a class and genus of ancient deciduous woody gymnosperms. Ditochomic leaf venation is characteristic. Only one modern species of ginkgo is known, Ginkgo biloba, native to East Asia. The seeds are eaten and used in folk medicine. In many countries around the world, ginkgo is grown as an ornamental plant.

Cryptomeria is an evergreen coniferous tree of the Taxodiaceae family. Cryptomeria is native to China and Japan. In many countries of the world with subtropical and tropical climates, cryptomeria is grown as an ornamental plant.

Microbiota is a genus of plants in the cypress family. There is only one type. Evergreen shrub. It grows in the belt of high-mountain coniferous forests of the Sikhote-Alin. Rare relict plant.

Aspidistra is a genus of perennial stemless herbs of the lily family. There are 6-8 species in total, growing in the mountains of South and East Asia and Japan. One type of aspidistra is grown as a houseplant and ornamental plant.

Eremurus is a genus of herbaceous plants with over 60 species. Eremurus grows in the southeast of Europe and Asia: in the steppes, deserts, and mountains at an altitude of up to 3500 m. Many species are decorative. The roots of some species contain the polysaccharide eremurus, which is sometimes used to prepare glue. Paint is obtained from the leaves; young shoots and roots are edible. Some species are excellent honey plants.

The antiquity of the flora of the East Asian region is evidenced, in addition to the abundance of endemic species and genera, by the fact that many endemic genera belong to the very primitive subclasses of Magnoliaceae, Ranunculaceae and Hamamelidaceae. This area is one of the main centers for the development of higher plants in the Holarctic and Paleotropics. During the era of Quaternary glaciation, the territory of the East Asian region was a gigantic refuge of ancient forms.

3. The Atlantic-North American region extends from the Atlantic coast of North America to the Great Plains and from the Gulf Coast to southern Canada.

The region is characterized by one endemic family Leitneriaceae and about 100 endemic genera. Species endemism is very high. The Atlantic-North American region shows some similarities with East Asia, although the latter is richer and includes a larger number of primitive forms. Both regions are characterized by species of conifers (yew, pine, taxodium) and angiosperms (magnolia, hoofweed, kirkazona, voronets, aconite, buttercup, cornflower, swimmer, corydalis, elm, chestnut, oak, birch, walnut, rhododendron, lingonberry, linden, currants, mock orange, spirea, gravilata, roses, horse chestnut, groundsel, golden rose, onion, tulip tree, bearded man).

Yew is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees and shrubs of the yew family. About 10 species are known, growing in Eurasia and North America. Some species live up to 2 thousand years. Decorative. Reddish wood is highly valued in furniture production.

Taxodium (swamp cypress) is a genus of coniferous trees of the Taxodium family. There are three known species native to southeastern North America. Swamp cypress tolerates long-term flooding well and has valuable beautiful wood used in furniture production. In many countries of the world with a warm and humid climate, Taxodium vulgaris is cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Kirkazon is a genus of perennial herbs and woody vines of the Kirkazonaceae family. In total, about 350 species are known, growing in tropical, less often temperate, climates. Kirkazon clematis (kokornik) grows in central and southern Europe and the Caucasus; poisonous. Kirkazon broadleaf is a climbing ornamental plant.

Aconite (fighter) is a genus of perennial herbs of the ranunculaceae family. About 300 species are known to grow in the Northern Hemisphere. Many species of aconite are poisonous. In many countries, aconite species are grown as ornamental plants. Tubers of some aconites are used medicinally as an antipyretic and analgesic.

Tulip tree (lyriodendron). There are only two closely related species of trees in the magnolia family. One species grows in southeastern North America, the other in China. The flowers look like tulips. The wood is used for furniture. In many countries around the world, the tulip tree is grown as an ornamental plant.

Raspberry is a genus of trees, shrubs, vines, annual and perennial herbs of the Asteraceae family. There are over 1,500 species, growing from the Arctic to the tropics, but mainly in South Africa, the Mediterranean and temperate zones of Asia, South and North America. Some species are weeds, others are medicinal and ornamental.

4. The Rocky Mountain region covers the mountain systems of Western Canada and the Western United States from Alaska to New Mexico. The region contains several dozen endemic genera of flowering plants. Coniferous trees and shrubs dominate: pines, hemlocks, thujas, pseudo-hemlocks and spruce.

II. The Ancient Mediterranean sub-kingdom includes the following areas:

• 1. Macaronesian;
• 2. Mediterranean;
• 3. Sahara-Arabian;
• 4. Iranian-Turanian.

The ancient Mediterranean sub-kingdom stretches from Macaronesia in the west through the entire Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia to the Gobi Desert in the east.

The flora of this subkingdom is predominantly migratory and develops at the junction of boreal and tropical floras. The connections of the Ancient Mediterranean subkingdom with the flora of the African part of the Paleotropical kingdom are well expressed. It is likely that in ancient times there was intense floristic exchange between the Mediterranean and South Africa through the mountains of East Africa, the plains of Ethiopia and further through the Drakensberg Mountains (5).

• 1. The Macaronesian region includes the Azores, Madeira Island, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands. More than half of the flora in this area are Mediterranean species. The richest flora is the Canary Islands, where about 1600 - 1700 species of higher vascular plants grow, and the island of Madeira (about 1100 species).
• 2. The Mediterranean region includes most of the Iberian Peninsula to the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mountains in the north, coastal areas of France, the Apennine and Balkan Peninsulas, the islands of the Mediterranean Sea, Morocco, Northern Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, the coast of Lebanon, Western Syria, Western Anatolia, Black Sea coast of Crimea and the Caucasus.

The number of endemic genera is about 150; there is one endemic family. The majority of endemic genera are in families such as Cruciferae, Legumes, Apiaceae, Compositae, and Poaceae. Species endemism reaches 50%.

Cypress is a genus of coniferous trees, less commonly shrubs of the cypress family. In total there are 15-20 species growing in the warm temperate zone of Eurasia, North America and North Africa. Evergreen cypress, having a pyramidal shape and a height of up to 30 m, as well as some other species are cultivated as an ornamental plant. The wood is used for furniture and crafts.

In ancient Greek mythology, Cypress is a beautiful young man, the favorite of Apollo, who turned into a tree - a cypress. According to one version, Apollo turned him into a tree out of compassion after Cypress fell into hopeless melancholy, accidentally killing his beloved deer; according to another, Cypress became a tree, trying to avoid persecution by Apollo (61).

The Mediterranean region is characterized by thickets of hard-leaved shrubs formed in areas where oak and coniferous forests were cleared (maquis, garrigue and freegana).

Maquis (macchia) - impenetrable thickets of xerophytic hard-leaved evergreen shrubs and low trees (myrtle, oleander, strawberry tree, wild pistachio, fluffy oak, etc.).

Gariga (garriga) - thickets of low-growing evergreen shrubs, dwarf palms and perennial drought-resistant grasses on rocky areas of the Mediterranean coast.

Frigana is a plant community of thorny shrubs and subshrubs, often cushion-shaped, emerging in the place of reduced maquis. Freegana is characterized by tree-tree, spurge, astragalus, etc.

3. The Sahara-Arabian region occupies the tropical part of the Sahara, the Sinai Peninsula, the tropical part of the Arabian Peninsula, the southern part of Palestine, Jordan, the Syrian Desert, Lower Mesopotamia, and Southern Persia.

The flora of this area includes Holarctic and paleotropical floristic elements with a predominance of the first. The flora is not rich, the number of endemic genera is small. There are genera common to South Africa. The area is characterized by oases dominated by the date palm.

Date palm (phoenix) is a genus of palm trees with more than 50 species, growing in the tropics and subtropics of Africa and Asia. The date palm is cultivated for its edible fruit (dates). Many types of date palms are grown as ornamental plants.

4. The Irano-Turanian region includes Central and Eastern Anatolia, most of Syria, parts of Southern and Eastern Palestine, a small part of the Sinai Peninsula, part of Jordan, the northern part of the Syrian Desert, Upper Mesopotamia, most of the Armenian Transcaucasus, Talysh and adjacent areas along the Caspian coast on the territory of Iran, the Iranian Plateau (without tropical deserts), the southern spurs of the Hindu Kush, the southern slopes and spurs of the Western Himalayas west of 830 east. and the entire vast territory from the lower reaches of the Volga River and the deserts of Eastern Transcaucasia to the Gobi Desert.

Generic endemism is quite high. Species endemism is about 25%. Endemic genera: acanthophyllum, agriophyllum, artophytum, hamanthus, girgensonia, halostachys, comedium, nanophyton, ophaiston, acantholimon, tetrakme, ammodendron, eremosparton, dorema, gyrenkia, bungea, eremostachis, acanthocephalus, cusinia, eremurus, ixioli rion.

III. The Madrian (Sonoran) subkingdom (with the single Madrian region) extends from southwestern Oregon through California to northern Baja California and includes the hot deserts from Southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas south to the Mexican Highlands.

There are many endemic and almost endemic genera from the families Taxodiaceae (sequoia and mammoth tree), Laurel, Poppy, Cactus (Carnegia), Carnationaceae, Quinoaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Caperaceaceae, Crassulaceae, Saxifragaceae, Rosaceae, Legumes, Parifoliaceae, Umbellaceae, Borageaceae, Asteraceae, Liliaceae , cereals and others. Species endemism reaches 40%.

Sequoia is a genus of coniferous trees of the Taxodiaceae family, including only one species - evergreen sequoia, whose height reaches 100 m and diameter - 8.5 m. It grows in the coastal forests of California and Southern Oregon (USA). The wood is used for underwater structures and furniture production.

Mammoth tree (sequoiadendron, wellingtonia) is a giant (up to 100 m high and up to 10 m in diameter) coniferous evergreen tree of the Taxodiaceae family; lives up to 1.5 - 4 thousand years. Thickets of mammoth trees are found only in nature reserves in California. In some countries of Southern and Central Europe it is grown as an ornamental plant.

Cactaceae (cacti) are a family of dicotyledonous perennial plants, usually with fleshy, succulent stems covered with spines, hairs, or bristles. There are tree-like, shrub-like and liana-like forms. There are more than 2,000 species in total, growing mainly in the tropical and subtropical deserts of America. The fruits and pulp of some cactus species are edible. Used as fuel and building material; grown in rooms and greenhouses. The center of cactus diversity is the Mexican Highlands.

Carnegia is a genus of plants in the cactus family, which includes only one species - Carnegia gianta, or saguaro. The trunk is tree-like, columnar, height 10 - 12 m, diameter 30 - 65 cm. The flowers are white, open at night, each with about 3500 stamens. It grows slowly (in 20 - 30 years no more than 1 m). Some cornegias live for about 200 years and weigh 6 - 7 tons. Carnegia grows in the deserts of Sonora, Arizona and southeastern California.

Cygnaceae (Chenopodiaceae) is a family of dicotyledonous plants, numbering 1,500 species (about 100 genera). Quinoceae grow mainly in the Mediterranean, the deserts of Asia, Africa and Australia, the prairies and pampas of North and South America. Chenopodiaceae include beets, spinach, pigweed, solyanka, saxaul, etc.

Poppy is a genus of annual and perennial herbs of the poppy family. There are about 100 species in total. Subspecies of the soporific poppy are grown in culture: oil poppy (Europe, USA, Australia, etc.) to obtain edible oil; opium poppy (Asia, South America) to obtain opium (raw material for medicines). Some types of poppy are ornamental plants.

The flora of the Madrean subkingdom developed convergently with the flora of the Ancient Mediterranean. The following plants are common to both subkingdoms: strawberry tree, hawthorn, cypress, juniper, pine, pistachio, plane tree, honeysuckle, poplar, oak, buckthorn, rose, raspberry, sage, viburnum, etc.

Strawberry tree is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of the heather family. About 20 species are known to grow in the Mediterranean and North America. Some types of strawberry trees are used as ornamental plants. The fruits are similar to strawberries and are edible.

Sycamore is a genus of large deciduous trees of the plane family. About 10 species are known, growing in North America, the Eastern Mediterranean, and Indochina. In some countries with warm climates, plane trees are specially cultivated. Oriental plane tree, for example, or plane tree, has a height of up to 50 m, a circumference of up to 18 m; lives over 2000 years. Parquet, plywood, containers, etc. are made from wood.

Sage is a genus of perennial herbs and subshrubs of the Lamiaceae family. About 700 species are known, distributed throughout the globe. Some types of sage are cultivated as essential oil plants (clary sage, etc.), medicinal and ornamental plants (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23, 52, 53).

On November 13, 2009, at the hundredth year of his life, Armen Leonovich Takhtadzhyan died in St. Petersburg. For me and my colleagues, he personified modern botany. Perhaps, in terms of the scale of his personality and contribution to science, A. L. Takhtadzhyan is on a par with C. Lévi-Strauss, another outstanding centenarian who passed away in 2009. Each of them created an era in his field, whether in botany or anthropology; They both remained in the last century, but predetermined the current movement of their sciences.

The name A.L. Takhtadzhyan is familiar to everyone who studied botany at the university. He is known as the author of the system (i.e. classification) of flowering plants, on the basis of which floristic summaries of many countries and regions have been compiled, a number of botany textbooks have been written, and exhibitions have been organized in botanical gardens on different continents. Takhtadzhyan created, perhaps, the most successful of such systems, which has received wide recognition in the world.

The activity of a taxonomist is similar to assembling a puzzle from many poorly fitting fragments, sometimes changing their shape right under your hands. For such work, it is necessary not only to be attentive to the characteristics of organisms, but also to see a holistic picture of their diversity. And if the competence of most botanists does not extend beyond individual groups of plants, then A. L. Takhtadzhyan knew the entire plant world. Hence the scale of the problems that he posed and solved.

Any good system of organisms relies on knowledge of the evolutionary paths of their structure, and A. L. Takhtadzhyan sought to work on a solid morphological foundation. In his doctoral dissertation, he substantiated the original model of evolutionary transformations of the gynoecium (carpels) of a flower. In subsequent monographs, Armen Leonovich formulated an idea of ​​the main directions of evolution of various organs of flowering and other higher plants.

Back in the 19th century, an idea was formed about the similarity of ontogenesis (individual development) and phylogeny (historical development) of an organism. This idea turned out to be significant for the evolutionary taxonomy of animals, but for a long time it was almost useless for botany. A.L. Takhtadzhyan studied the evolutionary paths of plant ontogenesis and showed that many innovations arise as a result of neoteny, that is, the preservation of juvenile characteristics in adulthood. Thus, data on ontogeny entered the taxonomy of plants.

The directions of structural evolution or transformation of ontogenesis are, however, not yet a system, but only a conceptual framework for it. A. L. Takhtadzhyan added flesh to this backbone - a huge amount of factual material about the diversity of all groups of flowering plants (more than 200 families, some of them numbering many thousands of species). The system of flowering plants turned out to be logical and beautiful. Its first version was published in 1966, the latest - quite recently, in 2009.

The plant world cannot be considered without reference to the surface of our planet with its complex geological history. A. L. Takhtadzhyan developed a scheme for the floristic zoning of the Earth and proposed a similar scheme for the Cretaceous and Paleogene floras of the Northern Hemisphere. History, geography and classification of plants were for him different aspects of a holistic view of the plant world.

Not all of A.L. Takhtadzhyan’s developments have stood the test of time: he himself admitted that his constructions were only hypotheses to be tested. However, Armen Leonovich responded with dignity to the challenges of the time: the latest version of his system of flowering plants, published in 2009, takes into account many of the latest results of molecular phylogenetics. While many of his young colleagues criticized molecular methods, not giving themselves the trouble to really understand them, Takhtadzhyan got into the swing of things and adequately used these innovations in his work. But he was already in his tenth decade...

A scientist with such a broad outlook could not ignore philosophical questions. One of the most significant thinkers for A. L. Takhtadzhyan was A. A. Bogdanov (1873-1928), the creator of tectology - the predecessor of cybernetics and general systems theory. Back in 1971, Armen Leonovich dedicated an article to them in the collection “System Research”. This was an act: after all, Bogdanov was in disgrace (he was criticized by Lenin in “Materialism and Empirio-criticism”). And in 2001 the book “ Principia tectologica", in which A. L. Takhtadzhyan examines modern problems of science and society from the position of tectology.

Armen Leonovich Takhtajyan was born on June 10 (May 28), 1910 in the city of Shusha in Nagorno-Karabakh. His father Leon Meliksanovich was brilliantly educated: he studied agronomy and animal husbandry in Germany, France, Switzerland and Great Britain, and was fluent in Russian, Georgian, Azerbaijani and the main European languages. Armen Takhtajyan's mother, Herselia Sergeevna (nee Ghazarbekyan), was a native of Shusha; she was related to one of the branches of the famous Lazarev family (Lazaryan).

It is interesting that at the beginning of the 20th century, two other outstanding domestic botanists were born in Shusha - Alfred Alekseevich Kolakovsky (1906-1997), a remarkable expert on the flora of the Caucasus and director of the Sukhumi Botanical Garden, and Andrei Alekseevich Yatsenko-Khmelevsky (1909-1987), a famous anatomist plant and evolutionist. Takhtadzhyan was friends and collaborated with Yatsenko-Khmelevsky until his death. In 1932, Takhtajyan moved to Erivan (Yerevan), where he became a researcher at the Natural History Museum of Armenia, and from 1935 - at the Herbarium of the Biological Institute of the Armenian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1938, in Leningrad, Armen Leonovich defended his PhD thesis on the vegetation of Armenia. In 1941, Takhtajyan was called to the front, but in the very first months of his service he fell ill with severe tropical malaria, was demobilized and returned to Yerevan. In 1943 he defended his doctoral dissertation “The Evolution of Placentation and the Phylogeny of Higher Plants” and became a professor at Yerevan University. In 1944, Armen Leonovich was appointed director of the new Institute of Botany of the Academy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR, but in August 1948 the infamous session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences took place... Takhtadzhyan was accused of “Mendelism” and “Weismannism” and was fired from all posts. One of the graduate students was even offered the topic “Professor Takhtadzhyan’s Theoretical Errors”; as Armen Leonovich later joked, he himself could have become the best supervisor of this dissertation.

Fortunately, A.L. Takhtadzhyan found work in Leningrad: from November 1949 he took the position of professor at the Department of Plant Morphology and Systematics of the Faculty of Biology and Soil Sciences of Leningrad University, and from 1951 to 1954 he was the dean of this faculty. In 1954, Armen Leonovich became an employee of the Botanical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences (BIN), where he worked until the end of his life. At first he was the head of the department of paleobotany, and since 1963 he headed the department of higher plants.

In 1971, A.L. Takhtadzhyan participated in the Pacific sea expedition on the ship "Dmitry Mendeleev", during which he visited Fiji, Samoa, Singapore, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia and New Zealand. This was a unique opportunity under Soviet conditions to study in nature representatives of many groups of plants important for the creation of a flowering system. So, in Fiji, Armen Leonovich studied degeneration (Degeneria vitiensis)- a unique tree with leaf-shaped stamens, avascular wood and many other archaic features; He was the first to discover its pollinators—spear beetles, which belong to a new species for science.

On July 3-10, 1975, the XII International Botanical Congress was held in Leningrad. A.L. Takhtadzhyan was its President; He also coordinated the enormous work to prepare this forum. The choice of Leningrad as the venue for the main botanical forum on the planet was determined by the international authority of Armen Leonovich. The Congress was of enormous importance for Russian science: it helped Soviet botanists living behind the Iron Curtain to establish personal contacts with foreign colleagues for the first time.

In 1976-1986. A. L. Takhtadzhyan served as director of BIN. While in this position, he was able to set the research strategy of the institute for many years to come. Thanks to his participation and energetic support, such fundamental reports as “Comparative Embryology of Flowering Plants”, “Comparative Anatomy of Seeds” were published at the BIN, and work on “Fossil Plants of the USSR” was continued.

I would especially like to talk about “The Life of Plants”. A. L. Takhtadzhyan was one of the chief editors of this 6-volume (actually 7-volume) encyclopedia, published in 1974-1982. The result is a unique publication that combines fundamentality, academics and popularity. It was intended for teachers, but was also available to curious students. There are many biologists for whom the path to science began with “The Life of Plants.”

In the 80s and 90s. A.L. Takhtadzhyan continued to improve his system. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, he worked a lot in the herbariums of Kew, St. Louis, New York and other major botanical centers. At the age of 80, he mastered the computer and actively used it. Armen Leonovich spent the last years of his life in St. Petersburg; He very rarely appeared in the BIN, but with the help of his secretary-referent he kept track of all the literature on botany. And, of course, it worked. It seemed latently that he was with us forever, at least as long as our science existed. Alas, nature took its toll...

Modern ideas about the system of the organic world

The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin became the basis for the construction

phylogenetic systems.

The founders of phylogenetic systems were Engler and Eichmann. Development

of these systems from the end of the 9th century to the 20th century:

1. Species evolve, systems are deeply historical,

2. They are based on the ideas of evolution

3. Establishing kinship not on convergent similarity, but on idea

blood ties, genetic relationship.

4і In a graphical representation - a phylogenetic tree, which can be

several types: a) if there is 1 ancestor at the base - monophylithic, b) if

based on several ancestors - polyphilic, c) a pair of branches -

paraphylitic.

ylogenetic tree consists of phyla, phyla - group

closely related organisms that have a number of common features, phylogenetically

interconnected, to one degree or another advanced in their development.

As for natural systems, their development (from the mid-18th century to the mid-1800s)

* *" Lyat"I I L I.

19th century), features and differences from artificial ones:

1. single-level systems, i.e. evolution was denied.

2. the interaction between was established according to anatomy, i.e. on the basis

convergent similarity.

3. the idea of ​​blood ties was not traced.

A.JL Takhtadzhyan in 1940 tried to build a system of the organic world in

which is based on: v w . _ - . ~ - i r

1. divergence process

Complication of the world around us

Specialization of some groups and progressive development of others. This process

provided for by the monophylithic development of the organic world.

Takhtadzhyan is based on the concept of gradualism. Charles Darwin is at the heart of it

The theory lies in the progressive development of the organic world: from simple to complex.

Leading to a certain gradation, hierarchical subordination of individual groups

organic world. It is based on the way of changing the ideo-adaptive reactions of the body

powerful aromorphic rearrangements, because the main path of organic evolution

^ ^ rtb^.iv-^ L""»****" " * .. " ,| 1 |

^^m 1i.r a lay through the adaptation of some group of organisms to various environmental

environmental conditions. Each newly emerged group of organisms of high rank

testifies to the strengthening and complication of the general organization of the organic world,

about the structure of the biosphere as a whole.

Takhtajan took into account that the organic world develops unevenly, and one or the other

another group accumulated a lot of specific characteristics, and splitting also occurred

a single group into different phyla (divergence)

Gaps (hiatuses) between these groups can be expressed in greater or less

to a lesser extent. According to Takhtajyan, to more powerful layers between the two superkingdoms

prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In the last years of his life, Tdhtadzhyan came to the idea that

not so powerful hiats between these groups, perhaps in certain segments

evolution, a path of symbiogenesis arises that could erase these hiatus. First

had 2 superkingdoms: non-nuclear and nuclear.

Since 1983 Voronov included 1 more superkingdom: precellular

Today there are 3 superkingdoms:

1. Precellular (Procytobionta)

L and I I I J - J " I " I " - 1 H I I " 1 " 1 " " - 1 1 ! ! "

2. Nuclear-free (Procaryota)

3. Nuclear (Eucaryota)

General characteristics of the system

I. Superkingdom Protobionta (precellular) representatives of this superkingdom are not

^ ^ T and "h" 1"

have a cellular structure of the organism lead to s.dastida

They have a simple structure and one nuclear acid and a protein shell (capsid) -

kingdom Virobionta

II. Overkingdom of Procaryota

Kingdom Arhebionta - photosynthesis without oxygen release, bacteriorhodopsin,

the most archaic and ancient group

Kingdom Shizobionta (Mychota - shotguns)

Subkingdom Bacteriobionta - photosynthesis without oxygen release

_ _ _ * Subkingdom Cyanobionta - photosynthesis without oxygen release

Subkingdom Prohlorobionta - photosynthesis with the release of oxygen, chlorophyll a and

The basis of division 1. Features of the structure of the body, multiplication

Features of pigment.n.t.o. composition and stock products

III. Overkingdom Eucaryota

Kingdom Plantae (plants)

Subkingdom Rodobionta (red algae)

Subkingdom Euphycobionta (true algae)

Subkingdom Cormobionta (higher plants)

^>^Kingdom Mycobionta (fungi)

Subkingdom Phycomycota (lower fungi) multinucleate

Subkingdom Eumycota (higher fungi) fruiting body

Kingdom Animalia (animals)

Subkingdom Protozoa (protozoa)

Subkingdom Metazoa (multicellular)

(IV/Kingdom Mychota

Subkingdom Bacteriobionta

Subkingdom Cyanobiont

Bacteria are a widely represented group of organisms. The sizes of which are not

exceed YuOmkm. All bacteria are represented by a special type of cells that lack

true nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

The analogue of the nucleus in bacteria is the nucleoid. It is typical for bacterial cells

absence of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and also characterized by a special structure and composition

membrane structures and cell walls.

Bacteria inhabit all habitats, even the most extreme (polar

ice, deserts, etc.)

Wide ecological plasticity is due to the fact that as a result

biochemical evolution, they formed different types of metabolism -

photolithoautotrophs, photolithoheterotrophs, photoorganoautotrophs. Thereby

bacteria are able to master and process various substrates, organic and

inorganic. According to the type of nutrition, there can be both autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Depending on the type of substrate that is used for nutrition, the source

Their energies are divided into:

Chemoautotrophs, chemoheterotrophs - carry out photosynthesis without excretion

oxygen (anoxygenic), pigment - bacteriochlorophyll, green, purple, sulfur

bacteria

"Photoheterotrophs, photoautotrophs - photosynthesis with the release of oxygen

(oxygenic), pigment - chlorophyll a, cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria are separated into an independent subkingdom because these are the only ones

representatives of the superkingdom Procaryota, capable of performing oxygenic photosynthesis

in the absence of a true nucleus and other organelles (including chloroplasts) in the cell.

Unicellular representatives of the group are characterized by a coccoid form

body structure.

The role of cyanobacteria in the biosphere:

Capable of assimilating nitrogen

Develop infertile substrates

Participate in the formation of primary soils

Component of the thallus of many lichens

Kingdom Archebacteriobionta

The most archaic and primitive group. Mycoplasma-like, because no cellular

Arche is the oldest group of organisms, ancestral to both prokaryotes and

eukaryotes, photosynthesis without oxygen release (methane-producing bacteria) - place

habitat anaerobic zone. (silt deposits, ocean sediments)

Superkingdom Eucaryota - organisms with a true nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane.

There is a typical sexual process (with alternating fusion of nuclei and reduction

division), sometimes apomixis (reproduction without fertilization, but in the presence of sexual

organs, for example parthenogenesis). Many representatives have centrioles. Flagella

and cilia, when present, usually have a complex structure: they consist of 9 paired tubes

fibrils along the periphery of the sheath + 2 single central tubular fibrils.

They cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen. Are or rarely secondary

anaerobes.

Tsarstaological group of primary aquatic organisms

(photoautotrophs). The body is represented by a thallus or thallus, not differentiated into

organs. These are the oldest representatives of the plant world (35,000 species).

Many algae are not obligate autotrophic at the same time.

organisms and are characterized by high plasticity.

There are species with a type of nutrition. Distributed throughout

to the globe -

Subkingdom Higher plants.

G Gametangia and sporangia are multicellular or reduced gametangia. Zygote

turns into a typical multicellular organism. Plants with epidermis, stomata and

most with a stele. Includes departments: Psilophytes, Bryophyta,

Lycopodiophyta, Horsetails_(&^

Kingdom of Fungi.

YISHSHtShіiDi. - . I » - .

Fungi are independent thallus or thallus organisms, with

Heterotrophic and o s i ^ independent i-t11e lye i group

characterized by a number of

1. the body is represented by mycelium, consisting of hyphae. Among the lower ones

Fungal hyphae do not have partitions, i.e. HecgnTHj)OBaHHbm mycelium, in some

the body is single-n^ hyphae separated by septa

those. septate mycelium.

module system

in zh.u. special structures are formed - fruiting bodies

(modifications of mycelium)

4. the presence of a rigid cell wall,

K S impregnated chitonem

reserve product - glycogen, the result of carbohydrate metabolism

During nitrogen metabolism, urea is formed

Lower fungi are characterized by 3 methods of reproduction:

vegetative^asexual, sexual

spore bearing

for higher ones vegetative and a special type - sexual

The sexual process of higher fungi consists of 3

successive stages: plasmagushya, dikaryon - stage of nuclear convergence,

karyogamy

Fungi are widely distributed in nature on various substrates.

Conclusion

Play a role in the cycle of substances

In the decomposition of animal and plant remains

They form organic matter, increasing soil fertility.

Kingdom Animalia (animals)

Primary heterotrophic organisms. Dense root system is usually

absent. The diet is predominantly holozoic. Storage carbohydrates in the form

glycogen. Reproduction and dispersal without the help of spores (the exception is

l A - - l-** "

protozoa from the class Protozoa).

Like any system, this has its drawbacks:

There are no transitional forms. The presence of hiatus between the superkingdoms, which

contradicts the phylogenetic system.

.», - - ,

The positive point is that shobaya can be built into Takhtajyan’s system

I. J I M . J. . I I I Ill і in t I T » Mill і in i w t g - - - - - * - - - - - T T * - M G G Sh ^ I ^ ^ I “H "**""

The essence of the system: there is one ancestor, i.e. the system is monophylthic!__

Related information.

A.L. Takhtadzhyan’s system, in his own words, is “dynamic”, i.e. is constantly being refined and improved, but these modifications and clarifications do not affect its main idea, adopted from Gallier: the monophyletic origin of angiosperms and the unconditional primitiveness of polycarpids with their relatively large bisexual entomophilous flowers, closest to the ancestral group common to all flowering plants. A.L. Takhtadzhyan, like other modern taxonomists, strives to identify as “links” of the system such taxa that have absolutely a single origin and, therefore, are integral in phylogenetic terms. Therefore, many families, previously understood more broadly, turn out to be fragmented in his system: he counts 533 families instead of 343 listed in the latest edition of Engler’s “Syllabus”; the number of orders increases to 166 instead of 62 for Engler. A.L. Takhtadzhyan, like A. Kronquist, counts 8 subclasses among dicotyledons: Magnoliidae, Ranunculidae, Hamamelididae, Caryophyllidae, Dilleniidae, Rosidae, Lamiidae, Asteridae, and among monocotyledons 4: Alismatidae, Triuriidae, Liliidae, Arecidae (Fig. 9 ) (in earlier versions of the system, the number of subclasses and their scope differ from the latest edition of 1987). He makes extensive use of the categories of superorder and suborder. All this makes his system harmonious and quite easy to “read”, although it does not remove objections to some “deductions” and approximations. One of the “external” features of the system of A.L. Takhtadzhyan and A. Cronquist is the application of the principle of typification to taxa of all ranks (the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature provides for classification from taxa of the lowest rank to the family inclusive). Therefore, the name of each group is derived from the name of the type genus with an ending corresponding to the rank - for example, division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida (Dicotiledones), subclass Magnoliidae, superorder Magnolianae, order Magnoliales, family Magnoliaceae - for all the genus Magnolia is chosen as the nomenclatural type; class Liliopsida (Monocotyledones), subclass Liliidae, superorder Lilianae, order Liliales, family Liliaceae (Magnolia is the type genus for all angiosperms and dicotyledons, and for monocotyledons the genus Lilium is chosen as such).

A.L. Takhtadzhyan’s system is built according to the usual type of “phylogenetic tree”, in which the lines connecting taxa are considered as lines of genealogical continuity, although, of course, it is clear that we are not talking about the derivation of modern taxa from modern ones; it is assumed that modern systematic groups originate from some ancestral forms unknown to us. Many taxonomists are inclined to believe that, in general, the relationships between taxa at the current level of our knowledge cannot be expressed in the form of a “tree” or “bush,” since now we are not dealing with phylogeny itself, but only with its results. Therefore, it may be more correct to imagine a graphical representation of the system in the form of a section of the crown of a phylogenetic tree or its projection onto a plane. Schemes of this kind, more objective than any “trees” of varying degrees of branching, were proposed, for example, by Stebbins (