Peasants in the era of Peter I made up the overwhelming majority of the population of Russia - about 95% (3% were townspeople, 1-1.5% were nobles). Although during the 17th century. almost all peasants were attached to the land (deprived of the right to change their place of residence), however, according to the conclusions of historians, the position of serfs in Russia before Peter I was very different from what we see in the 18th century.
As the historian E.F. Shmurlo wrote in his “History of Russia,” “According to the Code of 1649, the peasant was deprived of the right to leave the land, but in all other respects he was completely free. The law recognized his right to property, the right to engage in trade, enter into contracts, and dispose of his property according to wills.”
The American historian D. Blum, who prepared a special treatise on the peasant question in Russia. Thus, he points out that the status of the serf in the 17th century. was very different from the status of a slave or serf. Serfs were subject to state (and not landowner) court, could make transactions, and own property. Until the reign of Peter I, the purchase and sale of serfs was prohibited by a number of decrees and the Code of 1649; he was the first to sanction this practice. During the 17th century. There was a gradual deterioration in the status of serfs and increased arbitrariness on the part of the landowners. However, significant differences remained between the status of serfs and serfs (slaves), the number of which was generally insignificant. Finally, in the 17th century. existed large category actually free peasants who lived not on the lands of the nobles, but on state land or their own and had no relation to the landowners. In particular, almost all peasants of the Urals, Siberia and the North of Russia belonged to this category.
According to the conclusions of the historian A.G. Mankov, in the last 10-20 years before the start of the reign of Peter I, there was a rapid degradation of the status of patrimonial peasants: they were increasingly deprived of their rights, cases of their purchase and sale appeared, and, finally, by decree of March 30, 1688 all previous bans and restrictions on buy and sell patrimonial peasants. However, the number of patrimonial peasants was many times smaller than the estate peasants (estates were considered state property), whose status was still quite high, and their purchase and sale was prohibited.
Under Peter I, strong changes occurred in the status of peasants. First of all, as A.G. Mankov points out, by the decree of April 7, 1690, the purchase and sale of local peasants was for the first time officially permitted, which was previously prohibited: as stated in the decree, “every landowner and patrimonial owner on his estates and patrimonial estates and peasants shall sacrifice and you are free to hand over and exchange.” It was from this moment that the mass trade of serfs began - for example, the number of transactions in the Novgorod region in the 1690s. increased by 20-30 times compared to previous decades, which, according to historians A.G. Mankov, A.A. Shilov and E.I. Kamentseva, was a consequence of the decree of April 7, 1690.
In addition, during the reign of Peter I, a number of other measures were taken in this direction:
The owners of factories and manufactories were allowed to buy peasants to work in the factories - Decree of January 18, 1721; - even earlier it was allowed to buy peasant recruits for enlistment in the army.
In addition, under Peter, the practice of “assigning” peasants to factories and manufactories was widely used, which, according to D. Blum, was tantamount to enslaving them and forcing them to do hard and unpleasant work. Most often, they “attributed” not even serfs, but actually free peasants, as was the case in the Urals. Usually peasants were “assigned” to the plant by special decrees of the tsar.
According to the historian B.N. Mironov, the laws of 1719 became an important milestone in the social history of Russia: “In 1719, all the peasants living on his estate were forever assigned to each nobleman personally, and his rights over the peasants were significantly increased: they came closer to the rights that until then the master had in relation to his slave, which put the peasant on the brink of landowner property”; “a huge negative impact on the position of the landowner peasants was had by the destruction in 1719 of the legal boundary between slaves, whose position was really close to slavery, and serfs, whose position before that was close to the position of free peasants...” The historian E shares the same opinion .V.Anisimova.
Peter I introduced the practice of donating state peasants to private individuals, which automatically turned them into serfs. In just 11 years (1700-1711), he gave, mainly to his favorites and nobles, 340 thousand acres of arable land and 27.5 thousand peasant households.
Measures against runaway peasants were sharply tightened. In 1698, the fine for keeping or harboring a fugitive was doubled - from 10 rubles. according to the Code of 1649 up to 20 rubles, and in 1721 it was increased to 100 rubles. in 1721 - in total, the fine for harboring a fugitive during the reign of Peter I increased 10 times. As historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, “... the legislation of the first quarter XVIII V. replete with decrees on the search for fugitives. Suffice it to say that during this time 46 decrees on fugitives were promulgated and references to them in instructions, manuals, etc.”
Since 1724, a rule was established according to which serfs could leave their villages to work and for other needs only with the written permission of the landowner, certified by the zemstvo commissar and the colonel of the regiment that was stationed in the area.
Thus, the landowner's power over the personality of the peasants received even more opportunities to strengthen, taking into its unaccountable disposal both the personality and property of the serf. This meant the final loss of freedom by the peasants, in this case even the right to leave their village. As historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, “Every peasant who did not have a passport or a vacation certificate from the landowner was declared a fugitive if he was found in an area more than 30 miles away from his permanent place of residence. The passport system complicated the migration of the peasant population and slowed down the formation of the labor market for many years.”
Freedom of movement was again granted to the peasants only 100 years later, at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. At the same time, they were allowed to own land, strict bans on the purchase and sale of serfs were introduced, the state began to monitor the observance of their rights by landowners, and their status returned approximately to the situation that existed in the 17th century.
In general, according to the conclusion of the American historian D. Blum, “the status of the serf in the 18th century. was reduced to a slave."
According to the historian L.N. Gumilyov, Peter “established slavery in Rus', introduced flogging and the sale of people.”
The historian A.M. Burovsky writes about “slavery” in the era of Peter I.
“The beginning of slavery of the Russian peasantry... was laid by Peter,” writes the writer-historian Boris Bashilov.
According to the historian E.V. Anisimov, slavery and slave psychology were the result of authoritarianism and violence imposed by Peter.
Other historians are more reserved in their assessments. Thus, historian N.I. Pavlenko, without using the word “slavery,” writes that under Peter there was a “tightening of the regime of serf-dominated exploitation of the working population.”
B.N. Mironova writes about the approach of the status of serfs under Peter to the status of serfs, which “put the peasant on the brink of landowner property.
At the end of his life, Peter I tried to take measures aimed at alleviating the situation of serfs: the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724); it is forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them to the right for the debts of the owner; restrictions on the purchase and sale of serfs (purchase and sale are permitted only “in the event
needs" and if the entire family is sold - decrees of 1721 and 1724); serfs were given the opportunity to enroll in the ranks of “free carpenters” to work in shipyards, etc. However, these decrees did not have any significant consequences.
As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “When implementing decrees “against all criminals and saboteurs of state interests” that infringed on the interests of the peasants, the tsar did not show his inherent persistence and inflexibility, which is not difficult to detect, for example, in cases with decrees on the incontinence of fugitives peasants or the destruction of old-style courts."
As E.V. Anisimov points out, under Peter “the corvee labor of serfs sharply intensified, the norm of which, according to Yu.A. Tikhonov, was approaching the maximum physical ability exploitation of man."
Serfs made up more than half of Russia's population (in 1724 - 55% of the total adult male population). In addition to them, there were other categories of peasants. Thus, from different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state.
State peasants in the 18th century had rights personally free people(could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to class bodies, etc.), but were, in comparison with the 17th century, limited in movement and could be (until mid-19th century, when this category was finally established as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs.
In Russian historiography since the 19th century. There were different views on the causes and results of Peter's reforms and assessments of the personality of Peter I. Some historians believed that he wanted to “make Russia Holland,” disrupted the “natural” course of development, and “turned Russia away from its historical path.” Other researchers believed that Russia, through the course of history, was prepared for transformation. This was figuratively expressed by the greatest Russian historian S. M. Solovyov: “The people were getting ready to go on the road. They were waiting for the leader, and the leader appeared.” V. O. Klyuchevsky examines the activities of Peter and its influence on the subsequent course Russian history both in positive and negative manifestations. Modern historiography develops a predominantly multilateral assessment of this period, paying main attention to the ability of the authorities to modernize society and respond to the challenge of the time in new historical conditions.
Predecessors of Peter I, the first steps of modernization
The reign of Peter I (as well as that of another reformer, Ivan IV) was preceded by a significant period of “dynastic uncertainty.” After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, 14-year-old Fedor (1676 - 1682) was elevated to the throne; the Miloslavsky boyars (relatives of Alexei Mikhailovich's first wife) took the leading place under him. Painful Fedor Alekseevich active participation in government affairs did not accept, loved reading books, composing music. Raised by Simeon of Polotsk, he knew Latin and Polish. There was a noticeable Western influence in his environment. Under Fyodor, localism was abolished and access to public administration was opened to people from the nobility and orderly people (prikaz officials). In 1682, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was established. The reorganization of the army continued.
Wars with our western neighbors prompted, and the general economic recovery and growth of state revenues allowed in the second half of the 17th century. to have “regiments of a foreign system” - soldiers (infantry), reitar (cavalry), dragoons (mixed system), which were formed during the war from Russian free “willing” people and were trained by hired foreign officers. The Streltsy army (permanent) was increasingly intended for internal tasks. A major event in the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich was the war with Turkey (1677 - 1681). Türkiye, which had conquered Podolia from Poland, tried to establish itself in Right Bank Ukraine. Russia, together with the Cossacks, defended Ukrainian lands. According to the Treaty of Bakhchisarai in 1681, Turkey recognized the reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia, the neutrality of the lands between the Dnieper and the Bug, and the citizenship of the Zaporozhye Cossacks to the Russian Tsar.
After the death of Fyodor, Patriarch Joachim and the boyars decided to proclaim tsar not the next-oldest sick brother Ivan, but the son from Alexei Mikhailovich’s second wife N.K. Naryshkina, the healthy and intelligent Peter. The Miloslavskys entered the struggle for power using the uprising of the Streltsy. At their request, Ivan was proclaimed the first king, Peter the second, and until they came of age, a regent was appointed - Princess Sophia. The Streltsy tried to install the head of the Streltsy order, Prince Khovansky, at the head of the state, but he was captured by Sophia’s supporters and executed. Under Sophia (1682 - 1689), her favorite, Prince V.V. Golitsyn, actually ruled. Sophia and Golitsyn were well-educated people. Sophia's plays were later highly appreciated by the historian and writer Karamzin. Golitsyn showed himself to be a capable diplomat and military organizer. In 1686 it was concluded “ Eternal Peace"with Poland. The Russian army undertook two large campaigns against Crimean Khanate. They did not bring success, but showed Russia’s ability to conduct combat operations on the southern borders of the state and a change in the balance of forces in the region.
During the reign of Sophia, Peter I experienced both the shock of the Streltsy revolt and the omnipotence of the boyars. During the war games, the teenager Peter created “amusing regiments” from the peasants of the palace villages - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky (which later became guards), as well as a “amusing fleet” on Lake Pereyaslavl. Under the threat of Streltsy massacre on an August night in 1689, Peter, with the help of his “amusing regiments” with the support of boyars, nobles and the Moscow Patriarch, imprisoned Sophia in a monastery. The throne passed to Peter and brother Ivan. With the death of Ivan, the autocracy of Peter I was established.
On the formation of Peter I as statesman Already in his youth, the Western European influence of the German settlement affected him (Gordon, Bruce, Lefort, including Anna Mons). But a special role in this was played by his trip to Europe as a private person (incognito) in 1697 - 1698, when he visited Holland and England (at that time already bourgeois states). The struggle with Sophia and the Streltsy riots strengthened autocratic despotism (like Ivan IV) in the character of the future first emperor of Russia. This despotism became a weapon for breaking the medieval foundations in Russian society. The last, third Streltsy revolt in 1698 was brutally suppressed by reigning Peter, after which the Streltsy army was liquidated. Peter and his associates took personal part in the execution of the archers.
Warriors of Peter, formation of the Russian Empire
All stormy government activity Petra is connected with the urgent national task of the Russian state - access to the sea coast. The first stage of this struggle was an attempt to reach the Black Sea in the fight against Turkey. Azov campaigns with the participation of the young tsar determined the creation of the first in the history of Russia regular fleet. After unsuccessful first Peter created the campaign and siege of Azov from land at the shipyards of Voronezh in 1695 - 1696. Azov flotilla. Azov was taken by land siege and sea blockade in 1696, and in October of this year Boyar Duma decided: " Russian fleet be". The Azov campaigns showed Peter the need for radical reforms in the army and society as a whole and began important stage in his development as a military and statesman.
During a trip to Western Europe Peter realized that largest states Europe is busy preparing for the War of the Spanish Heritage, which broke out in 1701 - 1714. This made it possible to enter into a fight with Sweden for access to the shores of the Baltic. Having concluded a truce with Turkey, Russia, in alliance with Saxony (its monarch, Elector Augustus II, was also the Polish king) and Denmark declared war on Sweden in 1700. King Charles XII of Sweden (one of the great European commanders of the feudal period) first took Denmark out of the war, then repelled Augustus II’s attempt to take Riga and defeated the Russian army near Narva, after which he moved troops to Poland. When in 1704 power in Poland passed into the hands of Sweden's protege Leszczynski, Russia was forced to fight the war with Sweden alone.
After the defeat at Narva, Peter took extraordinary measures to reorganize the army (to recreate the artillery, he ordered the bells to be removed from many churches and poured into cannons). In 1702, a new offensive of Russian troops began off the coast of the Gulf of Finland. May 16, 1703 at the mouth of the river. The city of St. Petersburg was founded on the Neva (“from here we will threaten the Swede”), the construction of the fleet and its access to the Baltic Sea began. “The window to Europe was cut.” The offensive continued, in 1704 Narva was taken, then Dorpat (Tartu). The main battle took place in Ukraine, where Charles XII, counting on the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa, planned to inflict a decisive defeat on the Russian army. The victory near Poltava on June 27, 1709 determined the victory of Russia in the Northern War. Poland and Denmark, as well as Prussia and Hanover, again went over to her side. Military operations against Sweden continued for another 12 years. Russia has firmly established itself in the Baltics, Finland and the Baltic Sea through a successful offensive on land and at sea.
After the victory over Sweden, Peter transferred military operations against Turkey, which had entered the war. But the Prut campaign (1711) turned out to be unsuccessful for the Russian army; peace with Turkey was achieved by transferring Azov to it and destroying the Taganrog fortress. The Caspian campaign in 1722 - 1723. led to the consolidation of the western coast of the Caspian Sea with the cities of Baku, Rasht and Astrabane to Russia.
During a long-term Northern War(1700 - 1721) Peter carries out radical reforms, modernizing medieval Russian society. The victory over Sweden, the expansion of territory and the transformations carried out determined a new quality of the Russian state, which began to be called the Russian Empire in 1721. The Moscow Tsar became the emperor of Russia - a Euro-Asian power of world importance with its capital on the shores of the Baltic Sea, called St. Petersburg.
The victory in the Battle of Poltava brought Peter I the glory of a great commander. It was the result of a long and purposeful preparation of the Russian army. The recruiting system became the most advanced form of creating armed forces of that time. The Russian national army in this battle showed its superiority over the first-class European mercenary army of Sweden. The strategy and tactics of Peter I surpassed the art of the previously invincible Charles XII. The Swedish king lost his entire army, 19 thousand people, all the generals and more than a thousand officers surrendered. Russia received recognition as a great European power.
The creation of a powerful fleet in the Baltic and skillful interaction between the army and navy made it possible to transfer military operations to Swedish territory. Victory in naval battle at Cape Gangut became the basis for the recognition of Peter I as a great naval commander. This is a rare case in military history. The victorious Peace of Nystad with Sweden in 1721 secured the Baltic lands for Russia. Russia received wide access to Europe through Baltic Sea, relying on a powerful fleet.
Reforms of Peter I. Strengthening serfdom, Europeanization of noble culture
The main goal and core of all the reforms of Peter 1 was the creation of a regular modern army practically “from scratch” navy, capable of achieving superiority over the first-class Swedish fleet. The historical role of Russia as a major land and sea power is clearly formulated by Peter: “Every potentate that has an army has one hand, and every potentate that has a fleet has two hands.” To achieve this, Peter needed to carry out a set of reforms affecting all aspects of the organization and life Russian society. Reforms in economic life became the basis for the economic growth of the state. On his initiative, they are creating shop organizations handicraft and industrial production, and numerous manufactories are being built according to the Western European type with the involvement foreign specialists. Mining and metallurgical industries are being organized; the textile, cloth industry, cannon and weapons production are developing; powder factories. By the end of his reign, Russia was fully self-sufficient in the products of all modern production, having taken first place in the world in the smelting of cast iron. The number of enterprises has reached over 100 (from several dozen). However, the bulk of them belonged to the treasury (state), and almost all of them worked on the basis of serf labor (workers of manufactories and factories were assigned to them), in contrast to Western Europeans, who had free labor.
Peter paid great attention to expansion foreign trade, seeing in it a source of financial savings and opportunities to expand ties with Europe. Agricultural production was one of the leading sources of exports. It developed mainly due to the development of new lands and increased exploitation of peasant labor. By decree of Peter I, innovations were also introduced into rural labor - the use of scythes (instead of sickles) and rakes, growing potatoes as a new food crop; the cultivation of industrial crops expanded.
Reforms - social, public administration and military - brought developed Russian feudalism to its highest form. Serfdom was further tightened as a result of the introduction of a poll tax (instead of a household tax), conscription from the peasant community into the regular army and revision censuses. Serfs and serfs were equal in status; all “free, walking people” also became required to pay taxes; city residents were assigned to the place where the poll tax was paid. Serfs could be sold, exchanged by landowners, and state peasants could be transferred to estates along with the land. However, it was pointed out that it was inadmissible to separate families, since “this does not happen anywhere in Europe.” The European “second edition of serfdom” also appeared in Russia.
In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate, which meant the final merger of the two estates into a single feudal class (estate) - nobles (landowners, “gentry”). Estates were inherited only by one of the sons. Nobles are obliged to serve in the army or the state apparatus, to manage the economy on their estates, ensuring that the peasants comply with established state taxes. The entire class society is subordinate to the sovereign. The “Table of Ranks” established a strict hierarchical service system. At the same time, it had the opportunity social movement depending on personal merit to the state.
Administrative reform created a strong structure of the feudal state, allowing society to be governed primarily in the interests of strengthening military power and the inviolability of autocracy. There was a drastic breakdown of the entire state apparatus. The Boyar Duma and orders were cancelled. Supreme government agency became the Senate appointed by Peter, which had judicial, administrative, and sometimes legislative powers. Decisions were made collectively, but the Senate was under the personal control of Peter and the prosecutor general appointed by him. Peter led the country through the Senate, central institutions (collegiums) subordinate to it, and regional institutions.
The country was divided into 8 provinces. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the emperor, in whose hands all the power was concentrated: administrative, political, judicial, financial. The governors had their own apparatus. An army unit was stationed and formed in each province. To control officials and combat bribery, a “fiscal service” was organized - fiscal positions were introduced in central institutions and locally. They reported to the Senate and the Tsar about violations and negligence (principle: punishment for failure to inform, and not for the falsity of the denunciation).
Military reform has become the main core of the transformation. From the permanent mercenary army (streltsy), Peter I switched to recruiting regular army and the navy based on conscription (military conscription of peasants) and compulsory officer service for nobles. The creation in a short time of a permanent, powerful, trained army with a unified organization, uniform modern weapons, uniforms, clear management, developed tactics and an education system is one of Peter’s main achievements.
In 1708, at the height of the Northern War, Peter brought the army to 52 infantry and 33 cavalry regiments (130 thousand people), built and equipped a powerful modern sailing and rowing fleet. State system and the economy ensured the maintenance of the army and navy and their conduct of military operations long time. For his services to Russia, the Senate awarded Peter the title of “Great” and “Father of the Fatherland.”
Conducted and church reform in the interests of strengthening centralized management feudal society. With the formation of the Synod, the church was finally subordinated to the state, since the composition of the Synod was determined by the decision of the emperor. This position of the church as part of the state apparatus continued until 1917.
Reform activities affected education, science and culture. First of all, military educational institutions have been opened - artillery, naval, engineering, and studies abroad have also been organized. Peter took everything that the West could give for Russia, but adapting his experience to Russian reality. As V. O. Klyuchevsky notes, the implementation of reforms did not have a pre-conceived plan. Often they were introduced without sufficient elaboration. The decrees were in some cases contradictory and had unclear wording, which led to serious costs.
When carrying out reforms, Peter I relied on a galaxy of associates devoted to duty and to him personally (“chicks of Petrov’s nest”). “The Serene Highness Prince” A.D. Menshikov, a genius from the “low class,” became an outstanding commander and administrator of the Peter the Great era. A recklessly brave man and equally recklessly devoted to his master, the Tsar, he became famous as the most outstanding embezzler of Peter the Great's time. Generalissimo and de facto head of government after the death of Peter, with the accession of Catherine I he became a “semi-sovereign ruler.” Second bright representative of this era, Field Marshal B.P. Sheremetev is the complete opposite of Menshikov, a slow and cautious man, prudent, but an extraordinary commander who won battles with the Swedes more than once. Peter widely attracted foreigners to his service. But by the end of his reign, he did not appoint them to senior positions in the army and navy. Peter himself served as an example of fulfilling his duty to the Fatherland, efficiency and skill in production activities necessary for the state (“both the king and the carpenter”). At the same time, his cruelty, unbridled despotism, hasty decisions and rampant drunkenness affected his style. public life and the moral character of the upper strata of society. These qualities, combined with an offensive disdain for the church and Slavic traditions were condemned in society.
Through the efforts of Peter, the cultures of Russian civilization and Western European (German, Dutch, English) were brought closer together - introduced new calendar, civil font. He also instilled a European way of life with mechanical imitation in clothing and behavior, especially in the highest circles of the Guards nobility. The active Europeanization of the upper noble layer began the process of dividing the unified Russian culture into a Europeanized noble and patriarchal culture of the peasantry. This deepened the division of society along social lines and created, along with the social antagonisms of serfdom, cultural alienation between the upper and lower classes.
The strengthening of serfdom caused resistance from the population. In 1705 - 1706 There was an uprising in Astrakhan, then in Bashkiria (1705 - 1711). The largest was the uprising on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), to suppress which regular troops led by Prince V. Dolgoruky were sent.
The Peter the Great era became a turning point in Russian history. Reforms in all areas of public life modernized Russian medieval feudalism using the achievements of Western European civilization. IN short time the growth of the country's military-economic power, education and development of science has been achieved, which has made it possible to largely overcome the gap with European countries. With victory over Sweden and establishment in the Baltic Russian empire established strong economic and cultural ties with Europe and established itself as a great European power.
The modernization of society, however, was only of a technical, economic, cultural and educational nature. She didn't touch social structure Russian society of developed feudalism, and brought it to highest form at a time when capitalist relations were developing in Europe in those countries where Peter studied the European experience (Holland and England). The implementation of reforms with the strengthening of serfdom led to the impoverishment of the population.
“Having cut a window to Europe,” Peter at the same time “opened the doors” for the penetration of foreigners into Russia - into public administration, army, economy, trade, finance. As shown modern research historians (E.V. Anisimova, O.O. Serova), he created difficult conditions for the Russian merchants, since the main goods for export fell into the hands of foreigners, bringing them enormous wealth. The era of Peter's reforms bred a mass of bribe-takers and embezzlers, and the practice of transferring wealth to foreign (London and Amsterdam) banks arose. Menshikov kept a huge sum in them - 9 million rubles and jewelry worth 1 million rubles. The Solovyov brothers (one purchased goods from the state for export, and the second was in charge of their sale in Europe) not only kept their capital from smuggling in English bank, but also bought real estate in Holland. Osip Soloviev also had citizenship in Amsterdam (in modern terms - dual citizenship).
IN state structure under Peter I, the Russian autocracy finally lost its class-representative character and took the form of absolutism, which survived until the beginning of the 20th century. The church lost its independence and became part of the state, completely subordinate to the absolute monarch, ensuring the ideological dominance of the feudal class. The bureaucracy has grown and strengthened. The standing army and especially the guards' higher nobility became a political force capable of influencing government decisions and succession to the throne. Peter's change in the order of succession to the throne exposed the dynastic succession of power to chance. All the innovations of the Peter the Great era, both positive and negative, had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian society.
DEVELOPMENT OF SERfdom AFTER PETER I.
LECTURE LXXX
The development of serfdom after Peter I. - Changes in the position of the serf peasantry under Peter I. - Strengthening serfdom after Peter I. - The limits of landowner power. - Legislation on peasants under the successors of Peter I. - A view of the serf as the full property of the owner. - Catherine II and peasant question. - Serfdom in Ukraine. - Serfdom legislation of Catherine II. - Serfs, as the private property of landowners. - Consequences of serfdom. - Growth of quitrent. - Corvee system. - Yard people. - Landowner management. - Trade in serfs. - The influence of serfdom on the landlord economy. - The influence of serfdom on the national economy. - The influence of serfdom on the state economy.
The wide participation open to the nobility in local government during the reign of Catherine was a consequence of the landowning importance of this class. The nobility led the local government, because almost half of the local population - the serf peasantry, in addition to the government significance of the nobility, was in its hands, living on its land. This landowning significance of the class was based on serfdom. This connection between serfdom and the structure of local government forces us to dwell on the fate of this institution.
There is a legend that Catherine, having issued letters of grant for the rights of two classes, also conceived a third, in which she thought to define the rights of free rural inhabitants - state peasants, but this intention was not fulfilled. The free rural population under Catherine constituted a minority of the total rural population; the decisive majority of the rural population in Great Russia under Catherine II consisted of serfs.
We know what a change took place in the position of the serf population during the reign of Peter I: the decrees on the first revision legally mixed two serfdoms, previously distinguished by law, serfdom and serfdom. The serf peasant was strong in the face of the landowner, but at the same time he was still attached to his condition, from which even the landowner could not remove him: he was an eternally obligated state tax collector. The serf, like the serf peasant, was personally strong to his master, but did not bear the state tax that lay on the serf peasant. Peter's legislation extended the state tax of serfs to serfs. Thus, The source of strength has changed: as you know, previously this source was the personal agreement of a slave or peasant with his master; has now become such a source state act - audit. A serf was considered not the one who entered into a serfdom obligation under a contract, but the one who was recorded as a famous person in the audit tale. This new source, which replaced the previous agreement, gave the serfdom extreme flexibility. Since there were no slaves or serfs, and both of these states were replaced by one state - serfs, or shower, it became possible at discretion to reduce or expand both the number of serfs and the boundaries of serfdom. Previously, the peasant state was created by an agreement between person and person; now it was established on the basis of a government act.
Since the death of Peter, the serfdom expanded both quantitatively and qualitatively, i.e., simultaneously an increasing number persons became subject to serfdom and More and more The boundaries of the owner’s power over serf souls expanded. We must follow both of these processes.
Main articles: Russian peasants, Society under Peter I
see Tax reform of Peter I
First population census and introduction of passports
In order to take into account the number of people in the country who must pay the per capita tax, a census (audit) of the population was conducted for the first time in the history of Russia. These lists were called revision tales. In 1724, passports were introduced, which allowed the state to provide a system of control over its subjects and limit the possibilities of movement around the country.
Demidov factories. During the time of Peter I, one of the largest private owners of manufactories was Nikita Demidov. He produced iron at the Ural Nevyanovsky factories, which he sold to the state for the needs of the army. Often fugitives were used at Demidov's factories. In this way they evaded justice, and Demidov did not pay taxes for them, because they were not accounted for anywhere. The life of such workers was very difficult. They lived in basements that could easily be flooded if a government check on the number of workers suddenly came.
State peasants
Under Peter the Great, the composition of state peasants changed. These included, as before, the black-growing peasants of the Russian North; local population and Russian settlers in Siberia; peoples of the Volga region. However, some of the former service people also switched to the position of state peasants, who paid a per capita tax. Thus, under Peter, all rural residents who did not belong to secular and church owners were united into a single estate. State peasants bore the burden. They were considered free subjects of the state.
Serfs
However, the monarch could “grant” (donate) state lands to his associates for their merits. And the state peasants who lived on them could thus become serfs. This began to happen in post-Petrine times.
Privately owned peasants (patrimonial, monastic, patriarchal, etc.) became as a single group serfs. Servitude as a class was eliminated. Serfs merged with serfs. The country became almost entirely serfdom.
Assigned peasants
The increase in the number of state-owned manufactories under Peter I required ensuring their labor force. A decree from the tsar followed - to “assign” black-powder peasants to manufactories so that they would work there for several months a year. And what is due to them wages counted as a tax to the state. Such serfs were called “assigned”. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru
Possessional peasants
Tsar Peter I encouraged the development of private manufactories, the owners of which were close to him. Their owners were allowed to buy entire villages, own them and use the peasants of these villages to work in factories. Such peasants began to be called possessions (from the word “possession” - I own). “Eternally given” were the students who were enslaved by their owners “in payment” for training in blue-collar skills.
Life of people under Peter I
see Life of people under Peter I
Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru
On this page there is material on the following topics:
State peasants under Peter the Great
Rights and obligations of peasants under Peter 1 table
Life of local residents under Peter 1
Life of peasants in the 18th century in Shadrinsk
What did peasants eat during the time of Peter 1?
Transformations required constant Money. The tax burden constantly increased and reached such proportions that almost immediately after the death of the emperor (who, by the way, was proud that he was giving the power to his heirs without public debt), the Senate (an unprecedented case) recognized the impossibility of fulfilling all financial obligations before the state in full, i.e.
e. “de facto” he wrote off a significant part of the existing debts to the treasury.
Since the agricultural sector remained the economic basis of budget formation, land policy activities were oriented in the interests of increasing the efficiency of tax collection.
Instead of estates and estates, a new concept of “real estate” or “estate” was introduced.
In 1714, landowners received the right to complete and unlimited disposal of land, without being obliged, as before, to serve in government positions and maintain a local army.
In order to strengthen feudal land ownership and protect it from fragmentation in order to maintain the profitability of estates, the Decree “On Single Inheritance in Real Estate” was issued, according to which land ownership was to be inherited by one (usually the eldest) of the owner’s sons.
(This innovation did not take root in life. Until 1917, fragmentations and mergers (but more often, still fragmentations) were an “economic scourge” that did not allow landowners to switch to capitalist production, and led to the impoverishment of a significant part of the nobility.
Under Peter I, the collection system was changed land tax. With the introduction of the per capita tax instead of the land tax, the tax collection system was significantly simplified, since the need for quantitative and qualitative land records was eliminated, the costs of collecting taxes were reduced, and the entire working population was involved in payments, which served to increase state revenues.
Another transformation of land relations carried out by Peter I was the secularization (withdrawal in favor of the state) of part of the monastic, church and synodal lands; a number of decrees were issued limiting the growth of church and monastic land ownership.
Previously, the government protected peasants from a direct transition into servitude by establishing “peasant eternity,” that is, a ban on the transition of peasants to other class categories, not excluding serfs.
Slaves did not pay taxes. By protecting the peasants from becoming serfs, the government retained state tax payers.
In 1695, by decree of Tsar Peter, they began to take taxes from the lands cultivated by slaves. By imposing on the arable slaves the same burden that the peasants bore, the government, one might say, equated one to the other.
By decree of January 22, 1719, only peasants and arable slaves were included in the tax lists. In subsequent years, the census further expands its scope and includes slaves of all types in its lists or tales.
peasants under Peter 1
In 1723, all household servants were included in the census, even if they did not plow the land and were only in the personal service of their masters.
In 1722, after the states of the clergy were established in rural and urban churches, all clergy and clerics were recorded in the poll tales of the owners on whose lands they lived)
