Home Fruit trees Division of Germany and Germany. Ours in the GDR: Group of Soviet troops in Germany. How do they treat Russians?

Fruit trees

Division of Germany and Germany. Ours in the GDR: Group of Soviet troops in Germany. How do they treat Russians?

MOSCOW, April 1 - RIA Novosti, Anton Lisitsyn. The Bundeswehr received a directive asking what examples from the military past German soldiers should be proud of. As far as the GDR army is concerned, only those who “revolted against the rule of the SED or have special merits in the struggle for German unity” are supposed to be honored. In a united Germany there live two culturally different peoples - from the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. Why are citizens of the former German Democratic Republic experience “nostalgia” for the times of “totalitarianism” - in the RIA Novosti material.

"They want to show how their parents lived"

Ostalgie Kantine - the Ostalgie buffet is located in the state of Saxony-Anhalt in the territory of the former GDR. Buffet is a conditional name. Rather, it is a park of the socialist period. There are interiors from those times, exhibitions of Soviet military equipment and “people’s democracy” cars, including the legendary “Wartburg” and “Trabant”, shelves with toys.

Manager Mike Silabecki says that 80 percent of visitors are former East German citizens. “They often come with children to show them what the GDR was like, how their parents lived. Schoolchildren are brought in classes for history lessons,” he explains.

Silabecki believes that Socialism Park is popular because many from the former GDR " good memories about those times, about socialism and the USSR."

From the same Saxony-Anhalt, the Mitteldeutsche Zeitung reports alarming news. In the town of Börde, the local GDR era museum is closing. The building housing a collection of artifacts from the times of socialism is being demolished.

East is east, west is west

Germany reunified in 1990. Legally, it looked like this: in August, the parliament of the German Democratic Republic made a decision (long ago agreed upon by East Berlin, Bonn and the interested powers) to join the Federal Republic of Germany. On October 3, all government bodies of the GDR and its armed forces were abolished. The German Constitution of 1949 came into force throughout the country. That is, the GDR was disbanded, its lands were included in West Germany.

The united Germans called each other diminutively - “Ossi” and “Wessy”, from german words ost and west, "east" and "west", respectively. Soon the term “ostalgia” arose - longing for the times of “people's democracy”.

In terms of economic development, the GDR lagged behind the Federal Republic of Germany, however, East Germany in the 1980s was in sixth place in terms of industrial production in Europe. Enterprises such as Robotron and ORWO operated in the republic; they produced trucks, wagons, locomotives, and cranes exported abroad. Most of the industrial potential of the "people's democracy" was destroyed in the 1990s. Vessey's business behaved like a winner on the annexed lands.

The GDR existed for only 41 years, but, as it turned out, left a deep mark on the collective German conscious and unconscious.

One of the Russian bloggers interviewed Ossi in 2015, and he described to him the economic realities of a united Germany. “About 15 years later, in 2003-2004, some managers realized the mistake: why ruin part of their own country? And get the problem of subsidies? — the former citizen of the GDR was surprised.

How much does German unity cost?

In 2014, Germany decided to calculate how much it cost to reunify the country. On the eve of the 25th anniversary of the unification, Welt am Sonntag published the results of a study by experts from the Institute of Economics: “Two and twelve zeros - German unity is currently worth two trillion euros.”

“According to the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW), the five eastern states and their populations have consumed approximately 1.5 trillion euros more than they produced themselves since reunification,” the journalists continued.

Gorbachev: The USSR did the right thing regarding the unification of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic RepublicAccording to Mikhail Gorbachev, everyone in the Politburo was in favor of the unification of Germany and the GDR. Various forms of unification were proposed, including a confederation, he said.

Two years later the situation has not changed much. In 2017, Berlin officially recognized that the lands of the former East Germany in terms of social economic development still lag behind Western Germany. The government expressed fears that the gap between the former GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany would not narrow, but widen. The volume of gross domestic product per capita in the East does not exceed 70 percent of West Germany. And, what is extremely significant, 30 companies - the flagships of the German economy, included in the main German stock exchange index DAX, do not have headquarters in the east.

"Everyday Racism"

In the German segment of the Internet, popular tests are “Who are you - a Wessie or an Ossie?” Sociologists record the negative attitude of citizens of the former GDR and West Germany towards each other. Thus, in 2012, it turned out that East Germans consider their Western compatriots arrogant, overly greedy, and prone to formalism. And many Vessies characterize Ossies as always dissatisfied, suspicious and fearful.

How seriously this problem is taken in Germany can be judged by the title of the sociological article - “Vessi vs. Ossie: Everyday Racism?” There are also common stereotypes - “Wessies are just using Ossies”, “But these Ossies are simply not capable of anything!”

“According to German politicians, in 1990 they hoped that they would be able to “digest” the east in five years, well, not in five, but in ten, not in ten, but in fifteen. However, twenty-eight years have passed, and politicians admit: the difference between the two parts of the country remains. One spoke directly: we still, in fact, live in two countries,” says the presenter. Researcher Department of European Political Studies, IMEMO RAS, Candidate of Historical Sciences Alexander Kokeev. “And this, of course, concerns politics. For example, in the former GDR, right-wing populist parties such as the Alternative for Germany enjoy greater support.

At the same time, as the expert emphasizes, this problem is not as acute now as it was immediately after reunification. Berlin solves it and treats it with the utmost care. “There is a so-called ostalgia, but it is largely irrational. The standard of living of East Germans has increased significantly, it’s just that many compare it with higher indicators in the western part of the country, and, naturally, this causes dissatisfaction among some. In addition, part former citizens The GDR, mostly elderly, feel like second-class citizens who have been put out on the stairs from their apartment and at the same time are being taught how to live correctly,” Kokeev sums up.

Thus, back in 1945, at a meeting in Potsdam, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill divided Germany into four occupation zones and established quadripartite control of Berlin. This agreement was to remain in force until the Soviet Union, the USA, England and France agreed on the creation of a pan-German state and concluded a peace treaty with it.

The Cold War “buried” these plans. In September 1949, a new state emerged on the territory of the three western occupation zones - the Federal Republic of Germany. In response, in October of that year, Stalin created the German Democratic Republic.

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

In September 1949, the ruling circles of the USA, England and France completed the split of Germany, forming a separate state in the western part of the country. The West German monopolies were given the opportunity to create their own state as payment for Germany's participation in the aggressive imperialist blocs led by the United States. Simultaneously with the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, on September 21, 1949, the occupation statute developed by the governments of the United States, England and France came into force, which retained the supreme power in the Federal Republic of Germany for these powers.

The Statute of Occupation defines the powers that are retained by the occupying authorities in the exercise of their supreme power, which is exercised by the governments of France, the United States and the United Kingdom.

In order to ensure the achievement of the main goals pursued by the occupation, these powers (to the occupying powers) are specifically specified.

The governments of the USA, Great Britain and France took the path of refusing to implement the decisions of the Potsdam Conference (July - August 1945), which provided for the demilitarization of Germany, the eradication of German militarism and Nazism, the elimination of monopolies and the broad democratization of the country.

In the western zones of German occupation, demilitarization and denazification were practically not carried out. Many former Nazis returned to important positions.

The Soviet Union consistently advocates the development of friendly relations with the entire German people. Considering that the normalization of relations between the USSR and Germany will help strengthen peace in Europe, the decision German problem and the development of mutually beneficial trade, the Soviet government turned on June 7, 1955 to the government of the Federal Republic of Germany with a proposal to establish direct diplomatic, trade and cultural relations between both countries. And in September 1955, both governments exchanged letters on the establishment of diplomatic relations and the establishment of embassies.

Having set a course for restoring the power of monopoly capital in West Germany and dividing the country, the Western powers set as their goal the revival of German militarism in order to then use it in their interests against the USSR and other socialist countries. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Soviet Union's repeated proposals aimed at preserving German unity were rejected by the Western powers, who viewed West Germany as their future political and military ally.

The occupation authorities of the Western powers contributed in every possible way to the restoration and strengthening of the economic and political positions of the West German bourgeoisie and helped it consolidate its forces. Parties were created to represent the interests of monopoly capital. In Germany, a state apparatus was created with the help of which monopoly capital could strengthen and expand its positions and control the entire life of the country. The Western powers banned the organization of the Socialist single party in West Germany. These policies, combined with the anti-communist stance of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), prevented the unification of communists and social democrats.

The labor movement was also in the process of re-establishing proletarian organizations. The lack of unity of the West German labor movement seriously hampered the struggle of progressive forces against the split of the country. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany formally proclaimed the basic democratic rights of citizens - their equality before the law, personal freedom, equality of men and women, freedom of political views, press, meetings, etc. The adoption of these points to a certain extent took into account the intensification of the struggle of West German workers for their interests .

An expression of the systematic line of the Western powers aimed at splitting Germany was the creation in 1947 of the so-called “Bisonia”, which united the American and British zones of occupation, and then “Trizonia” (in 1948), as well as the implementation of a separate monetary reform.

After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Western powers set a course for restoring the military-industrial potential and rearmament of West Germany, and for involving it in military blocs directed against the USSR and other socialist countries.

Chancellor Konradom Adenauer did everything possible to implement the plans for the remilitarization of the Federal Republic of Germany, which were hatched by the West German monopolies. In August 1950, he handed over a memorandum to the American High Commissioner in which he “reiterated his readiness to contribute in the form of a German contingent in the event of the creation of a Western European army.” The Western powers agreed to this proposal of the German Chancellor. Revanchist demands aimed at revising the results of the Second World War increasingly became the basis of the official policy of the ruling circles of Germany.

Taking a course towards the remilitarization of the country, the Adenauer government rejected all peace initiatives of the Soviet Union, in particular, its draft peace treaty with Germany of March 10, 1952. And on March 26, 1952, the Western powers signed a general agreement on relations with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany, but US, British and French troops remained on its territory. But the entire working class, all the democratic forces of the country resisted the policy of restoring West German monopoly capital and its course towards the remilitarization of West Germany. And despite the persecution, the communists continued to fight against the remilitarization of the country and to overcome the division of Germany.

As for the development of economics and politics, by the beginning of the 60s, Germany was increasingly asserting itself as the leader of Western European states. Its ruling circles have increased their foreign economic and foreign policy activity. But by the end of the 60s, Germany was affected by economic and political crises.

In 1969, the SPD-FDP coalition government was formed. Chairman of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany) Wili Brandt became Federal Chancellor, and Chairman of the FDP (Free Democratic Party) Walter Scheel became Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs. In area foreign policy The government took a realistic approach to assessing the situation in post-war Europe; it took into account the desire of broad sections of the West German population for détente, their desire to put an end to the dangerous remnants of the Cold War. The Brandt-Scheel government moved to improve relations with socialist countries and accepted the Soviet Union's proposal to hold negotiations. As a result, on August 12, 1970, the Moscow Treaty was signed between the USSR and Germany. Both sides expressed their desire to promote peaceful relations between all European states, pledged to resolve their disputes exclusively by peaceful means and to refrain in their mutual relations from the threat or use of force. The third article of the treaty, which established the inviolability of the borders of all states in Europe, was of key importance. The Moscow Treaty created the necessary political preconditions for a serious turn in Soviet-West German relations, which were normalized on the basis of Germany's renunciation of claims to change the existing European borders.

Great importance to ease tensions in Europe, there was an agreement signed in September 1971 by four powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA and France on West Berlin, an important point of which was the provision that West Berlin is not integral part the Federal Republic of Germany and will not continue to be governed by it.

The conclusion of the Moscow Treaty, the negotiations of L. I. Brezhnev with W. Brandt in Crimea in September 1971, especially the visit of L. I. Brezhnev in May 1973 to Germany gave impetus to the development of economic relations between the Soviet Union and the Federal Republic of Germany, put them at high quality new level. Of great importance was the signing in May 1973 of an agreement between the USSR and Germany on the development of economic, industrial and technical cooperation for a period of 10 years.

German Democratic Republic (GDR)

In October 1949, the Western imperialist powers completed the division of Germany, creating a separate West German state. Under these conditions, the democratic and patriotic forces of Germany decided that the time had come to take the fate of the country into their own hands, to repel the reviving German militarism, and to prevent the spread of power of revanchists and fascists throughout Germany. To this end, the democratic forces of East Germany, on October 7, 1949, proclaimed the creation of the German Democratic Republic. The GDR emerged as the first state of workers and peasants in German history. Exercising supreme power here, the Soviet Military Administration (SVAG) carried out a number of measures for demilitarization, denazification and democratization, and created favorable conditions for the formation of a united, peace-loving, democratic Germany.

The struggle of peace-loving forces German people for a new Germany was led by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Immediately after the legalization of its activities on June 11, 1945, the Central Committee of the KKE addressed the people with an appeal containing a program for democratic reforms throughout the country. The KKE oriented the working class and the working masses towards establishing an anti-fascist-democratic system in Germany. She called for the creation of new government bodies from below, to punish war criminals, to expel the Nazis from administrative and economic bodies and replace them with anti-fascists, to liquidate monopolistic associations and transfer large industrial enterprises, junker estates, as well as banks and the hands of the people. The appeal of the KPD received the approval of the working class and other sections of the German people, as well as all democratic parties and organizations.

The unity of action of the working class in East Germany was the basis for the establishment of a strong alliance of the working class with the peasantry, petty and middle bourgeoisie.

With the defeat of fascism, the old state apparatus was liquidated. In East Germany, the Nazis were removed from administrative and economic institutions. On the initiative of the communists and other anti-fascists and with the support of the SVAG, new government bodies (Landtags) were created on the ruins of Hitler's Reich, which expressed and defended the interests of the broad masses.

Of great importance for strengthening the new anti-fascist-democratic system in East Germany was the liquidation of the property of monopoly capital, this most important support of fascism. Carrying out the Potsdam decisions, SVAG in October 1945 imposed sequestration on all property belonging to the Hitlerite state, war criminals, active Nazis, as well as monopolies that participated in the outbreak of the war.

The most important distinctive feature The development of Germany after liberation was an interweaving of the social (class) struggle of the masses with the struggle against the schismatic actions of the American-British imperialists and German reactionaries, who prevented the creation of a single independent German state. The decisions of the 2nd German People's Congress, held in March 1948, were of great importance in the struggle for the national unity of the country. It proclaimed the slogan of the struggle for a united German Democratic Republic and elected the governing body of the movement - the German People's Council. He adopted the draft constitution of the GDR and proclaimed the formation of the German Democratic Republic on October 7, 1949.

The government of the GDR declared as its program the struggle for further democratic reforms, the economic and cultural rise of the German people, for national unity, for friendship and cooperation with the Soviet | Union and all peace-loving peoples of the world. The formation of the GDR met with full support and approval from the Soviet government, which immediately recognized it and transferred all administrative functions belonging to SVAG to the GDR government. The formation of the GDR was a turning point in the history of the German people, a powerful blow to German imperialism and militarism.

Thus, with regard to relations between the Soviet Union and the GDR, in 1954 the Government of the Soviet Union was invariably guided by the desire to promote the settlement of the German problem in accordance with the interests of strengthening peace and ensuring the national reunification of Germany on a democratic basis.

In view of this situation and as a result of the negotiations that the Soviet government held with the government of the German Democratic Republic, the government of the USSR recognizes the need to take further steps to meet the interests of the German people, namely:

1. The Soviet Union establishes the same relations with the German Democratic Republic as with other sovereign states.

The German Democratic Republic will be free to decide at its own discretion its internal and external affairs, including questions of relations with West Germany.

2. The Soviet Union retains in the German Democratic Republic functions related to ensuring security arising from the obligations assigned to the USSR under the agreements of the four powers.

The Soviet government took note of the statement of the government of the German Democratic Republic that it would comply with the obligations arising for the German Democratic Republic from the Potsdam Agreement on the development of Germany as a democratic and peace-loving state, as well as the obligations associated with the temporary presence of Soviet troops on the territory of the GDR.

Germany

The split of Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic

The geopolitical results of World War II were catastrophic for Germany. It lost its statehood for several years and its territorial integrity for many years. 24% of the territory Germany occupied in 1936 was torn off, including East Prussia, divided between Poland and the USSR. Poland and Czechoslovakia received the right to evict ethnic Germans from their territories, as a result of which a stream of refugees moved into Germany (by the end of 1946, their number was about 9 million people).

By decision of the Crimean Conference, German territory was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet, American, British and French. Berlin was similarly divided into four sectors. At the Potsdam Conference, the basic principles of the occupation policy of the Allied states were agreed upon (demilitarization, denazification, decartelization, democratization of Germany). However, the lack of firm agreements on the German problem led to the fact that the administrations of the occupation zones applied the Potsdam principles at their own discretion.

The leadership of the Soviet military administration in Germany immediately took measures to form an obedient regime in its zone. Local committees spontaneously created by anti-fascists were dissolved. To solve managerial and economic issues, they were created central departments. The main role in them was played by communists and social democrats. In the summer of 1945, 4 activities were permitted political parties: Communist Party Germany (KPD), the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDP). In theory, all permitted parties enjoyed equal rights, but in practice Soviet authority openly preferred CNG.

Based on the idea that Nazism was a product of capitalism and denazification implied a struggle against capitalist influence in German society, Soviet power seized the “commanding heights” of the economy in the first months of the occupation. A bunch of large enterprises were nationalized on the grounds that they belonged to the Nazis or their supporters. These enterprises were either dismantled and sent to the Soviet Union to pay for reparations, or continued to operate as Soviet property. In September 1945, land reform was carried out, during which more than 7,100 estates with an area of more than 100 hectares were expropriated free of charge. From the created land fund, about 120 thousand landless peasants, agricultural workers and migrants received small plots. WITH civil service The reactionaries were fired.

The Soviet administration forced the SPD and the KPD to merge into a new party called the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In subsequent years, communist control became increasingly harsh. In January 1949, the SED conference decided that the party should become a Leninist "party of a new type" on the model of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Thousands of socialists and communists who disagreed with this line were expelled from the party in a purge. In general, the same model was used in the Soviet zone of occupation as in other Eastern European countries. She meant the Stalinization of the Marxist party, the deprivation of the independence of the “middle class” parties, further nationalization, repressive measures and the virtual elimination of the competitive electoral system.

Western states acted in Germany as authoritarianly as the Soviet administration in its zone. Anti-fascist committees were disbanded here too. Land governments were created (in the American zone during 1945, in the British and French - in 1946). Appointment to posts was carried out by a strong-willed decision of the occupation authorities. In the western occupation zones, the KPD and SPD also resumed their activities. The CDU was created, with which it established a “commonwealth” relationship; the Christian Social Union (CSU) was created in Bavaria; this party bloc began to be called the CDU / CSU. The liberal democracy camp was represented by Svobodnaya democratic party(FDP).

The US and UK soon became convinced that a revival of the German economy was vital to the recovery of Western Europe. The Americans and the British moved to coordinated actions. The first steps towards the unification of the western zones were taken at the end of 1946, when the American and British administrations agreed to unite the economic management of their zones from January 1, 1947. The so-called Bisonia was formed. The Bisonia administration received the status of parliament, i.e. purchased political rice. In 1948, the French also annexed their zone in Bisonia. The result was Trizonia.

In June 1948, the Reichsmark was replaced by the new “Deutsche Mark”. The healthy tax base created by the new currency helped Germany join the Marshall Plan in 1949.

Currency reform led to the first clash between West and East as the Cold War began. In an effort to isolate their occupation zone from the influence of the Western economy, the Soviet leadership rejected both assistance under the Marshall Plan and the introduction of a new currency in its zone. It also relied on the introduction of the German mark in Berlin, but the Western Allies insisted that the new currency become legal tender in the western sectors of the city. To prevent the new brand from entering Berlin, the Soviet administration prevented cargo transportation from the west to Berlin by rail and highway. On June 23, 1948, the supply of Berlin by rail and road transport was completely blocked. The so-called Berlin crisis arose. The Western powers organized an intensive air supply (“air bridge”), which provided everything necessary not only to the military garrisons of Berlin, but also to its civilian population. On May 11, 1949, the Soviet side admitted defeat and ended the blockade. The Berlin crisis is over.

Increasing confrontation between the USSR and Western countries makes it impossible to create a unified German state. In August 1949, a general parliamentary elections, which brought victory to the CDU/CSU party, and on September 7 the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed. In response, on October 7, 1949, the German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in the east of the country. So, in the fall of 1949, the split in Germany received legal formalization.

1952 The USA, England and France signed an agreement with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany ended, but their troops remained on German territory. In 1955, an agreement was signed between the USSR and the GDR on the full sovereignty and independence of the GDR.

West German "economic miracle"

In the parliamentary elections (Bundestag) of 1949, two leading political forces were determined: the CDU/CSU (139 mandates), the SPD (131 mandates) and the “third force” - the FDP (52 mandates). The CDU/CSU and FDP formed a parliamentary coalition, which allowed them to create a joint government. This is how a “two-and-a-half” party model developed in Germany (in contrast to the two-party model in the USA and Great Britain). This model continued in the future.

The first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany was the Christian Democrat K. Adenauer (he held this position from 1949 to 1963). Characteristic feature his political style was a desire for stability. An equally important circumstance was the implementation of an exceptionally effective economic course. Its ideologist was the permanent Minister of Economics of the Federal Republic of Germany L. Erhard.

The model of social market economy created as a result of Erhard's policies was based on the concept of ordoliberalism (from the German "Ordung" - order). Ordoliberals advocated the free market mechanism, not despite, but because of government intervention. They saw the basis of economic well-being in the strengthening of economic order. The state was given key functions. Its intervention was supposed to replace the action of market mechanisms, and create conditions for their effective functioning.

Difficult period economic reform occurred in 1949-1950, when the liberalization of pricing caused an increase in prices with a relative decrease in the level of income of the population, and the restructuring of production was accompanied by a surge in unemployment. But already in 1951 there was a turning point, and in 1952 the rise in prices stopped and the unemployment rate began to decline. In subsequent years, unprecedented economic growth occurred: 9-10% per year, and in 1953-1956 - up to 10-15% per year. Germany came to second place among Western countries in terms of industrial production (and was only pushed aside by Japan in the late 60s). Large exports made it possible to create a significant gold reserve in the country. The German currency has become the strongest in Europe. In the second half of the 50s, unemployment practically disappeared, and real incomes tripled. Until 1964, the gross national product (GNP) of Germany increased 3 times, and it began to produce more products than the entire pre-war Germany. At that time they started talking about the German “economic miracle”.

The West German “economic miracle” was due to a number of factors. Selected by Erhard has proven its effectiveness economic system, where liberal market mechanisms were combined with targeted tax and credit policies of the state. Erhard managed to achieve the adoption of strong anti-monopoly legislation. A significant role was played by revenues from the Marshall Plan, the lack of military spending (before Germany joined NATO), as well as the influx of foreign investment ($350 billion). In German industry, which was destroyed during the war, there was a massive renewal of fixed capital. The introduction of new technologies that accompanied this process, combined with the traditionally high efficiency and discipline of the German population, caused fast growth labor productivity.

Agriculture developed successfully. As a result agrarian reform 1948-1949, carried out with the assistance of the occupation authorities, a redistribution of land property was carried out. As a result, most of the land fund passed from large owners to medium and small ones. In subsequent years, the share of people employed in agriculture steadily decreased, but widespread mechanization and electrification of peasant labor made it possible to ensure an overall increase in output in this sector.

The social policy that encouraged direct relationships between entrepreneurs and workers turned out to be very successful. The government acted under the motto: “Neither capital without labor, nor labor without capital can exist.” Pension funds were expanded, housing construction, a system of free and preferential education and vocational training. Rights have expanded labor collectives in the field of production management, but their political activities were prohibited. The remuneration system was differentiated depending on the length of service at a particular enterprise. In 1960, the “Law for the Protection of the Rights of Youth at Work” was passed, and since 1963, minimum leave for all workers was introduced. Tax policy encouraged the transfer of part of the wage fund into special “people's shares”, which were distributed among the enterprise’s employees. All these government measures made it possible to ensure adequate growth in conditions of economic recovery purchasing power population. Germany was in the midst of a consumer boom.

In 1950, Germany became a member of the Council of Europe and began to take an active part in negotiations on European integration projects. In 1954, Germany became a member of the Western European Union, and in 1955 joined NATO. In 1957, Germany became one of the founders of the European Economic Community (EEC).

In the 60s, a regrouping of political forces took place in Germany. The FDP supported the SPD, and, having formed a new coalition, these two parties formed a government in 1969. This coalition lasted until the early 80s. During this period, the chancellors were the Social Democrats W. Brandt (1969-1974) and G. Schmidt (1974-1982).

A new political regrouping occurred in the early 80s. The FDP supported the CDU/CSU and left the coalition with the SPD. In 1982, Christian Democrat G. Kohl became chancellor (he held this post until 1998). He was destined to become chancellor of a united Germany.

German reunification

For forty post-war years, Germany was divided into two states by the Cold War front. The GDR was increasingly losing to West Germany in terms of economic growth and living standards. The symbol of the Cold War and the division of the German nation was the Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to prevent the citizens of the GDR from fleeing to the West.

In 1989, a revolution began in the GDR. The main demand of the participants in the revolutionary uprisings was the unification of Germany. In October 1989, the leader of the East German communists, E. Honecker, resigned, and on November 9, the Berlin Wall fell. The unification of Germany became a practically feasible task.

It was no longer possible to contain the process of German unification. But in the West and East the countries were formed different approaches towards future unification. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany provided for the reunification of Germany as the process of the annexation of the lands of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany and assumed the liquidation of the GDR as a state. The leadership of the GDR sought to achieve unification through a confederal union.

However, in the elections in March 1990, the GDR won the non-communist opposition led by the Christian Democrats. From the very beginning they advocated the speedy reunification of Germany on the basis of the Federal Republic of Germany. On June 1, the German mark was introduced into the GDR. On August 31, an agreement was signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic on the establishment of state unity.

All that remained was to agree on the unification of Germany with 4 states - the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France. For this purpose, negotiations were held according to the “2 + 4” formula, that is, between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, on the one hand, and the victorious powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain and France), on the other. The Soviet Union made a fundamentally important concession - it agreed to the continued membership of a united Germany in NATO and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from East Germany. On September 12, 1990, the Treaty on the Final Settlement regarding Germany was signed.

On October 3, 1990, 5 lands restored on the territory of East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, and the GDR ceased to exist. On December 20, 1990, the first Spilnonym government was formed, headed by Chancellor G. Kohl.

Economic and social achievements, problems of the 90s

Contrary to optimistic forecasts, the socio-economic consequences of German unification turned out to be ambiguous. The East Germans' hopes for the miraculous economic effect of unification were not justified. The main problem was the transfer of the command-administrative economy of the 5 eastern lands to the principles of a market economy. This process was carried out without strategic planning, through trial and error. The most “shocking” option for transforming the economy of East Germany was chosen. Its features include the introduction of private property, the decisive denationalization of state-owned enterprises, the short transition period to a market economy, etc. Moreover, East Germany received socio-economic and political forms organization of society immediately and in finished form.

Adaptation of the economy of the eastern lands to new conditions was quite painful and led to a reduction in industrial production in them to 1/3 of the previous level. The German economy emerged from the state of crisis caused by the unification of the country and negative trends in the world economy only in 1994. However, the structural restructuring of industry and adaptation to the new conditions of a market economy caused a sharp increase in unemployment. In the mid-90s, it covered more than 12% of the workforce (more than 4 million people). The most difficult employment situation is in East Germany, where the unemployment rate exceeded 15% and the average wage significantly lagged behind the “old lands”. All this, as well as the influx of foreign workers, caused growing social tension in German society. In the summer of 1996, mass protests organized by trade unions broke out.

G. Kohl called for comprehensive savings. The government had to make an unprecedented tax increase, amounting to more than half total earnings, to a decisive reduction in government spending, including economic support for the eastern lands. All this, as well as G. Kohl’s policy of further reduction social programs ultimately led to the defeat of the ruling conservative-liberal coalition in the next parliamentary elections.

Social Democrats coming to power

The 1998 elections brought victory to the new coalition, which was formed by the SPD (received 40.9% of the vote) and the Green Party (6.7%). Before formally joining the coalition, both parties developed a large, well-executed government program. It included measures to reduce unemployment, revise the tax system, close 19 nuclear power plants, the remaining ones, etc. The government of the “pink-green” coalition was headed by Social Democrat G. Schröder. In the context of the economic recovery that began, the policies of the new government turned out to be very effective. The new government did not abandon savings in government spending. But these savings were achieved not by curtailing state social programs, but mainly through land budgets.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Germany, with its 80 million population, became the largest state in Western Europe. In terms of industrial production and level of economic development, it ranks third in the world, second only to the USA and Japan.

From Masterweb

11.04.2018 22:01

The German Democratic Republic, or GDR for short, is a country located in the Center of Europe and has been marked on maps for exactly 41 years. This is the westernmost country of the socialist camp that existed at that time, formed in 1949 and became part of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.

German Democratic Republic

In the north, the border of the GDR ran along the Baltic Sea; on land it bordered on the Federal Republic of Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Its area was 108 thousand square kilometers. The population was 17 million people. The capital of the country was East Berlin. The entire territory of the GDR was divided into 15 districts. In the center of the country was the territory of West Berlin.

Location of the GDR

The small territory of the GDR had sea, mountains and plains. The north was washed by the Baltic Sea, which forms several bays and shallow lagoons. They are connected to the sea through straits. She owned the islands, the largest of which were Rügen, Usedom and Pel. There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Oder, Elbe, their tributaries Havel, Spree, Saale, as well as the Main, a tributary of the Rhine. Of the many lakes, the largest are Müritz, Schweriner See, and Plauer See.

In the south, the country was framed by low mountains, significantly indented by rivers: from the west the Harz, from the south-west the Thuringian Forest, from the south the Ore Mountains with the highest peak Fichtelberg (1212 meters). The north of the territory of the GDR was located on the Central European Plain, to the south lay the plain of the Macklenburg Lake District. To the south of Berlin lies a strip of sandy plains.

East Berlin

It was practically restored from scratch. The city was divided into occupation zones. After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, its eastern part became part of the GDR, and the western part was an enclave, surrounded on all sides by the territory of East Germany. According to the constitution of Berlin (West), the land on which it was located belonged to the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital of the GDR was a major center of science and culture in the country.

The Academies of Sciences and Arts and many higher educational institutions were located here. Concert halls and theaters have hosted outstanding musicians and artists from all over the world. Many parks and alleys served as decoration for the capital of the GDR. Sports facilities were built in the city: stadiums, swimming pools, courts, and competition grounds. The most famous park for residents of the USSR was Treptow Park, in which a monument to the liberating soldier was erected.

Big cities

The majority of the country's population were urban residents. In a small country, there were several cities whose population exceeded half a million people. Large cities of the former German Democratic Republic tended to have quite ancient history. These are the cultural and economic centers of the country. The largest cities include Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig. The cities of East Germany were heavily destroyed. But Berlin suffered the most, where fighting took place literally for every house.

The largest cities were located in the south of the country: Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen), Dresden and Leipzig. Every city in the GDR was famous for something. Rostock, located in northern Germany, is a modern port city. World-famous porcelain was produced in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen). In Jena there was the famous Carl Zeiss plant, which produced lenses, including for telescopes, and famous binoculars and microscopes were produced here. This city was also famous for its universities and scientific institutions. This is a city of students. Schiller and Goette once lived in Weimar.

Karl-Marx-Stadt (1953-1990)

This city, founded in the 12th century in the state of Saxony, now bears its original name - Chemnitz. It is the center of textile engineering and textile industry, machine tool manufacturing and mechanical engineering. The city was completely destroyed by British and American bombers and rebuilt after the war. Small islands of ancient buildings remain.

Leipzig

The city of Leipzig, located in the state of Saxony, before the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany was one of largest cities German Democratic Republic. 32 kilometers from it there is another Big City Germany - Halle, which is located in the state of Saxony-Anhalt. Together, the two cities form an urban agglomeration with a population of 1,100 thousand people.

The city has long been the cultural and scientific center of Central Germany. It is famous for its universities as well as fairs. Leipzig is one of the most developed industrial areas in East Germany. Since the late Middle Ages, Leipzig has been a recognized center of printing and bookselling in Germany.

The greatest composer Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as the famous Felix Mendelssohn, lived and worked in this city. The city is still famous today for its musical traditions. Since ancient times, Leipzig has been a major trading center; until the last war, famous fur trades took place here.

Dresden

A pearl among German cities is Dresden. The Germans themselves call it Florence on the Elbe, as there are many Baroque architectural monuments here. The first mention of it was recorded in 1206. Dresden has always been the capital: since 1485 - of the Margraviate of Meissen, since 1547 - of the Electorate of Saxony.

It is located on the Elbe River. The border with the Czech Republic runs 40 kilometers from it. It is the administrative center of Saxony. Its population numbers about 600,000 inhabitants.

The city suffered greatly from US and British air raids. Up to 30 thousand residents and refugees, most of them old people, women and children, died. During the bombing, the residence castle, the Zwinger complex, and the Semper Opera were severely destroyed. Almost the entire historical center lay in ruins.

To restore architectural monuments, after the war, all surviving parts of the buildings were dismantled, rewritten, numbered and taken out of the city. Everything that could not be restored was cleared away.

The old city was a flat area on which most of the monuments were gradually restored. The GDR government came up with a proposal to revive the old city, which lasted almost forty years. New neighborhoods and avenues were built for residents around the old city.

Coat of arms of the GDR

Like any country, the GDR had its own coat of arms, described in Chapter 1 of the constitution. The coat of arms of the German Democratic Republic was a superimposed golden hammer, representing the working class, and a compass, representing the intelligentsia. They were surrounded by a golden wreath of wheat, representing the peasantry, intertwined with the ribbons of the national flag.

Flag of the GDR

The flag of the German Democratic Republic was an elongated panel consisting of four stripes of equal width, painted in the national colors of Germany: black, red and gold. In the middle of the flag was the coat of arms of the GDR, which distinguished it from the flag of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Prerequisites for the formation of the GDR

The history of the GDR covers a very short period of time, but it is still studied with great attention by scientists in Germany. The country was in strict isolation from Germany and all Western world. After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, there were occupation zones, there were four of them, since the former state ceased to exist. All power in the country, with all management functions, was formally transferred to the military administrations.

The transition period was complicated by the fact that Germany, especially its eastern part, where German resistance was desperate, lay in ruins. The barbaric bombings of British and US aircraft were aimed at intimidating the civilian population of cities that were liberated by the Soviet army and turning them into a pile of ruins.

In addition, there was no agreement between the former allies regarding the vision of the future of the country, which is what subsequently led to the creation of two countries - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Basic principles for the reconstruction of Germany

Even at the Yalta Conference, the basic principles of the restoration of Germany were considered, which were later fully agreed upon and approved at the conference in Potsdam by the victorious countries: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. They were also approved by the countries participating in the war against Germany, in particular France, and contained the following provisions:

Complete destruction of the totalitarian state.
Complete ban on the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it.
Complete liquidation of the punitive organizations of the Reich, such as the SA, SS, and SD services, since they were recognized as criminal.
The army was completely liquidated.
Racial and political legislation was repealed.
Gradual and consistent implementation of denazification, demilitarization and democratization.

The solution to the German question, which included the peace treaty, was entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the victorious countries. On June 5, 1945, the victorious states promulgated the Declaration of the Defeat of Germany, according to which the country was divided into four occupation zones governed by the administrations of Great Britain (the most large area), USSR, USA and France. The capital of Germany, Berlin, was also divided into zones. The resolution of all issues was entrusted to the Control Council, which included representatives of the victorious countries.

Parties of Germany

In Germany, to restore statehood, the formation of new political parties that would be democratic in nature was allowed. In the eastern sector, the emphasis was on the revival of the Communist and Social Democratic Parties of Germany, which soon merged into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (1946). Its goal was to build a socialist state. It was the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic.

In the western sectors, the main political force was the CDU (Christian Democratic Union) party formed in June 1945. In 1946, the CSU (Christian Social Union) was formed in Bavaria on this principle. Their main principle is a democratic republic based on market economics with private property rights.

Political confrontations on the issue of the post-war structure of Germany between the USSR and the rest of the coalition countries were so serious that their further aggravation would have led either to a split in the state or to a new war.

Formation of the German Democratic Republic

In December 1946, Great Britain and the USA, ignoring numerous proposals from the USSR, announced the unification of their two zones. They began to call it “Bisonia” for short. This was preceded by the refusal of the Soviet administration to supply agricultural products to the western zones. In response to this, transit transportation of equipment exported from factories and factories in East Germany and located in the Ruhr region to the USSR zone was stopped.

At the beginning of April 1949, France also joined “Bizonia”, resulting in the formation of “Trisonia”, from which the Federal Republic of Germany was subsequently formed. So the Western powers, conspiring with the big German bourgeoisie, created a new state. In response to this, the German Democratic Republic was created at the end of 1949. Berlin, or rather its Soviet zone, became its center and capital.

The People's Council was temporarily reorganized into the People's Chamber, which adopted the Constitution of the GDR, which was subject to popular discussion. On September 11, 1949, the first president of the GDR was elected. It was the legendary Wilhelm Pieck. At the same time, the government of the GDR was temporarily created, headed by O. Grotewohl. The military administration of the USSR transferred all functions for governing the country to the government of the GDR.

The Soviet Union did not want the division of Germany. They were repeatedly made proposals for the unification and development of the country in accordance with the Potsdam decisions, but they were regularly rejected by Great Britain and the United States. Even after the division of Germany into two countries, Stalin made proposals for the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, provided that the decisions of the Potsdam Conference were respected and Germany was not drawn into any political or military blocs. But Western states refused this, ignoring the decisions of Potsdam.

Political system of the GDR

The form of government of the country was based on the principle of people's democracy, in which a bicameral parliament operated. Political system The country was considered to be bourgeois-democratic, in which socialist transformations took place. The German Democratic Republic included the former German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The lower (people's) house was elected by universal secret ballot. The upper house was called the Land Chamber, the executive body was the government, which was made up of the prime minister and ministers. It was formed through an appointment made by the largest faction of the People's Chamber.

The administrative-territorial division consisted of lands consisting of districts divided into communities. The functions of the legislative bodies were performed by the Landtags, the executive bodies were the state governments.

The People's Chamber, the highest body of the state, consisted of 500 deputies who were elected by secret ballot by the people for a period of 4 years. It was represented by all parties and public organizations. The People's Chamber, acting on the basis of laws, adopted major decisions for the development of the country, dealt with relations between organizations, compliance with the rules of cooperation of citizens, government organizations and associations; adopted the main law - the Constitution and other laws of the country.

Economy of the GDR

After the division of Germany, the economic situation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was very difficult. This part of Germany was very much destroyed. The equipment of plants and factories was exported to the western sectors of Germany. The GDR was simply cut off from its historical raw material bases, most of which were located in the Federal Republic of Germany. There was a shortage of natural resources such as ore and coal. There were few specialists: engineers, executives who left for Germany, frightened by propaganda about the brutal reprisals of the Russians.

With the help of the Union and other commonwealth countries, the economy of the GDR gradually began to gain momentum. Enterprises were restored. It was believed that centralized leadership and a planned economy served as a restraining factor for economic development. It should be taken into account that the restoration of the country took place in isolation from the western part of Germany, in an atmosphere of fierce confrontation between the two countries and open provocations.

Historically, the eastern regions of Germany were mostly agricultural, and in the western part, rich in coal and metal ore deposits, heavy industry, metallurgy and mechanical engineering were concentrated.

Without financial and material assistance from the Soviet Union, it would have been impossible to achieve a rapid restoration of industry. For the losses that the USSR suffered during the war, the GDR paid it reparation payments. Since 1950, their volume has been halved, and in 1954 the USSR refused to receive them.

Foreign policy situation

The construction of the Berlin Wall by the German Democratic Republic became a symbol of the intransigence of the two blocs. The Eastern and Western blocs of Germany increased their military forces, and provocations from the Western bloc became more frequent. It came down to open sabotage and arson. The propaganda machine was working at full capacity, taking advantage of economic and political difficulties. The Federal Republic of Germany, like many Western European countries, did not recognize the GDR. The aggravation of relations peaked in the early 1960s.

The so-called “German crisis” also arose thanks to West Berlin, which, legally being the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, was located in the very center of the GDR. The border between the two zones was conditional. As a result of the confrontation between the NATO blocs and the countries belonging to the Warsaw bloc, the SED Politburo decided to build a border around West Berlin, which consisted of a reinforced concrete wall 106 km long and 3.6 m high and a metal mesh fence 66 km long. It stood from August 1961 until November 1989.

After the merger of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, the wall was demolished, leaving only a small section that became the Berlin Wall memorial. In October 1990, the GDR became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. The history of the German Democratic Republic, which existed for 41 years, is intensively studied and researched by scientists of modern Germany.

Despite the propaganda discrediting of this country, scientists are well aware that it gave Western Germany a lot. In a number of parameters, it has surpassed its Western brother. Yes, the joy of reunification was genuine for the Germans, but to diminish the importance of the GDR, one of the most developed countries Europe is not worth it, and many in modern Germany understand this very well.

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