Home Preparations for the winter The history of the development of the geographical shell. The evolution of the geographic envelope

Preparations for the winter

The history of the development of the geographical shell. The evolution of the geographic envelope

Geography is the science of the internal and external structure of the Earth, studying the nature of all continents and oceans. The main object of study are various geospheres and geosystems.

Introduction

The geographic shell or GO is one of the basic concepts of geography as a science, introduced into circulation at the beginning of the 20th century. It denotes the shell of the entire Earth, a special natural system. The geographic shell of the Earth is called an integral and continuous shell, consisting of several parts that interact with each other, penetrate each other, constantly exchange substances and energy with each other.

Fig 1. Geographical shell of the Earth

There are similar terms, with narrow meanings, used in the writings of European scientists. But they do not designate a natural system, only a set of natural and social phenomena.

Stages of development

The geographic shell of the earth has gone through a number of specific stages in its development and formation:

geological (prebiogenic)– the first stage of formation, which began about 4.5 billion years ago (lasted about 3 billion years);
biological– the second stage, which began about 600 million years ago;
anthropogenic (modern)- a stage that continues to this day, which began about 40 thousand years ago, when humanity began to exert a noticeable influence on nature.

The composition of the geographic shell of the Earth

Geographic envelope- this is a system of the planet, which, as you know, has the shape of a ball, flattened on both sides by the caps of the poles, with a long equator of more than 40 tons km. GO has a certain structure. It consists of interconnected environments.

Upper and lower bounds

In the entire structure of the geographic envelope and geographic environments, a clear zoning can be traced.

The law of geographical zoning provides not only for the division of the entire shell into spheres and environments, but also for the division into natural zones of land and oceans. It is interesting that such a division naturally repeats itself in both hemispheres.

Zoning is due to the nature of the distribution of solar energy over latitudes and the intensity of moisture (different in different hemispheres, continents).

Naturally, it is possible to determine the upper boundary of the geographic envelope and the lower one. Upper bound located at an altitude of 25 km, and bottom line The geographic envelope runs at a level of 6 km under the oceans and at a level of 30-50 km on the continents. Although, it should be noted that the lower limit is conditional and there are still disputes over its setting.

Even if we take the upper boundary in the region of 25 km, and the lower one in the region of 50 km, then, in comparison with overall dimensions Earth, it turns out something like a very thin film that covers the planet and protects it.

Basic laws and properties of the geographical shell

Within these boundaries of the geographical envelope, the basic laws and properties that characterize and determine it operate.

Interpenetration of components or intra-component movement- the main property (there are two types of intra-component movement of substances - horizontal and vertical; they do not contradict and do not interfere with each other, although in different structural parts of GO the speed of movement of components is different).
Geographic zoning- the basic Law.
Rhythm- repetition of all natural phenomena(daily, annual).
The unity of all parts of the geographical shell due to their close relationship.

Characteristics of the Earth's shells included in the GO

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is important for keeping warm, and therefore life on the planet. It also protects all living things from ultraviolet radiation, affects soil formation and climate.

The size of this shell is from 8 km to 1 t km (and more) in height. It consists of:

gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases);
dust;
water vapor.

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into several interconnected layers. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

All shells of the earth are similar. For example, they contain all types of aggregate states of substances: solid, liquid, gaseous.

Fig 2. The structure of the atmosphere

Lithosphere

The hard shell of the earth, the earth's crust. It has several layers, which are characterized by different power, thickness, density, composition:

upper lithospheric layer;
sigmatic sheath;
semi-metallic or ore shell.

The maximum depth of the lithosphere is 2900 km.

What is the lithosphere made of? From solids: basalt, magnesium, cobalt iron and other.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is made up of all the waters of the Earth (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and even groundwater). It is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies more than 70% of the space. Interestingly, there is a theory according to which large reserves of water are contained in the thickness of the earth's crust.

There are two types of water: salt and fresh. As a result of interaction with the atmosphere, during condensate, the salt evaporates, thereby providing the land with fresh water.

Fig 3. Earth's hydrosphere (view of the oceans from space)

Biosphere

The biosphere is the most "living" shell of the earth. It includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower atmosphere, the land surface and the upper lithospheric layer. It is interesting that living organisms inhabiting the biosphere are responsible for the accumulation and distribution of solar energy, for migration processes. chemical substances in the soil, for gas exchange, for redox reactions. We can say that the atmosphere exists only thanks to living organisms.

Fig 4. Components of the Earth's biosphere

Examples of the interaction of media (shells) of the Earth

There are many examples of media interaction.

During the evaporation of water from the surface of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, water enters the atmosphere.
Air and water, penetrating through the soil into the depths of the lithosphere, makes it possible for vegetation to rise.
Vegetation provides photosynthesis by enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.
From the surface of the earth and oceans, the upper layers of the atmosphere are heated, forming a climate that provides life.
Living organisms, dying, form the soil.

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The concept of "geographical shell"

Remark 1

The geographic shell is a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, consisting of the earth's crust, troposphere, stratosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere. All components of the geographic envelope are in close interaction and penetrate each other. Between them there is a constant exchange of matter and energy.

The upper boundary of the geographical envelope is the stratosphere, located below the maximum ozone concentration at an altitude of about 25 km. Bottom line passes in the upper layers of the lithosphere (from 500 to 800 m).

Mutual penetration into each other and the interaction of the components that make up the geographical shell - water, air, mineral and living shells - determines its integrity. In it, in addition to the continuous metabolism and energy, one can also observe the constant circulation of substances. Each component of the geographic shell, developing according to its own laws, is influenced by the other shells and itself affects them.

The impact of the biosphere on the atmosphere is associated with the process of photosynthesis, as a result of which there is an intensive gas exchange between living matter and air, as well as regulation of gases in the atmosphere. Green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen, without which the life of most living organisms on the planet is impossible. Thanks to the atmosphere, the earth's surface is not overheated by solar radiation during the day and does not cool significantly at night, which is necessary for the normal existence of living beings.

The biosphere influences the hydrosphere. Living organisms can affect the salinity of the waters of the World Ocean, taking from the water some substances necessary for their life (for example, calcium is needed for the formation of shells, shells, skeletons). Water environment- the habitat of many living beings, water is necessary for the normal course of most of the life processes of representatives of the flora and fauna.

The influence of living organisms on the earth's crust is most pronounced in its upper part, where the accumulation of plant and animal remains occurs, and rocks of organic origin are formed.

Living organisms take an active part not only in the creation of rocks, but also in their destruction. They secrete acids that destroy rocks, affecting the roots, forming deep cracks. As a result of these processes, hard and dense rocks turn into loose sedimentary ones (pebbles, gravel). All conditions are created for the formation of one or another type of soil.

A change in any one component of the geographic shell is reflected in all other shells. For example, the era of the great glaciation in the Quaternary period. The expansion of the land surface created the prerequisites for the onset of a drier and colder climate, which led to the formation of a layer of ice and snow that covered large areas in the north. North America and in Eurasia. This, in turn, led to a change in the flora, fauna, and soil cover.

Geographic Shell Components

The main components of the geographic envelope include:

Earth's crust. Upper part of the lithosphere. It is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovich boundary, which is characterized by a sharp increase in seismic wave velocities. The thickness of the earth's crust ranges from six kilometers (under the ocean) to 30-50 km (on the continents). There are two types of earth's crust: oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust consists mainly of mafic rocks and sedimentary cover. Basalt and granite layers, sedimentary cover are distinguished in the continental crust. The earth's crust is made up of individual lithospheric plates moving relative to each other.
Troposphere. The lower layer of the atmosphere. The upper limit in polar latitudes is 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes 10-12 km, in tropical latitudes 16-18 km. In winter, the upper limit is somewhat lower than in summer. The troposphere contains 90% of the total water vapor in the atmosphere and 80% of the total air mass. It is characterized by convection and turbulence, cloudiness, development of cyclones and anticyclones. As the altitude increases, the temperature decreases.
Stratosphere. Its upper limit is at an altitude of 50 to 55 km. As the altitude increases, the temperature approaches 0 ºС. Features: low water vapor content, low turbulence, increased content ozone (its maximum concentration is observed at an altitude of 20-25 km.).
Hydrosphere. Includes all water resources of the planet. The largest number water resources are concentrated in the World Ocean, less - in groundwater and the continental network of rivers. Large reserves of water are contained in the form of water vapor and clouds in the atmosphere. Part of the water is stored in the form of ice and snow, forming the cryosphere: snow cover, glaciers, permafrost.
Biosphere. The totality of those parts of the components of the geographic shell (lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere) that are inhabited by living organisms.
Anthroposphere, or noosphere. The sphere of interaction between the environment and man. The recognition of this shell is not supported by all scientists.

Stages of development of the geographical shell

Geographical envelope on present stage- the result of a long development, in the process of which it constantly became more complicated.

Stages of development of the geographical shell:

The first stage is prebiogenic. It lasted 3 billion years. At that time, only the simplest organisms existed. They played little part in the development and formation of the geographical envelope. The atmosphere was characterized by a high content of carbon dioxide and a low content of oxygen.
Second phase. Duration - about 570 million years. It is characterized by the dominant role of living organisms in the formation of the geographical envelope. Organisms affected all components of the shell: the composition of the atmosphere and water changed, and the accumulation of rocks of organic origin was observed. At the end of the stage, people appeared.
The third stage is modern. It began 40 thousand years ago. It is characterized by the active influence of human activity on various components of the geographic envelope.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-1.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> STAGES OF GEOGRAPHICAL DEVELOPMENT Age of the Earth's SHELL - 4, 6 PRE-GEOLOGICAL STAGE"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ Возраст ОБОЛОЧКИ Земли – 4, 6 ДОГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ЭТАП млрд. лет 4, 6 -4, 0 млрд. л. н. Земля изначально Либо – быстрый разогрев холодная за счет энергии Азотная атмосфера с гравитационной аккреции благородными газами, Магматический океан восстановительная неглубоко от поверхности среда или на поверхности Нет гидросферы и Метеоритные удары биосферы провоцировали Бомбардировки базальтовые излияния метеоритами и Локализация мантийных астероидами (4, 2 -3, 9 струй («плюм-тектоника» , млрд. л. н.) как на Венере и сейчас)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-2.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> STAGES OF GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL DEVELOPMENT PRE-GEOLOGICAL STAGE"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ ДОГЕОЛОГИЧЕСКИЙ ЭТАП 4, 6 -4, 0 млрд. л. н. Захват Протолуны – Либо – гигантский импакт гигантские приливы на через 50 -70 млн лет после Земле до 1 км, ускоренное аккреции, выброс вещества вращение Земли, и выпадение части Выпадение на Землю вещества обратно на Землю части вещества с образованием из Протолуны, в т. ч. оставшейся части - Луны железистого ядра Постепенный разогрев Либо – быстрый разогрев недр за счет энергии аккреции приливного трения («слипания» Удаление Луны планетезималей) Замедление вращения Земли!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-3.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOGRAPHIC PREBIOGENIC STAGE 4, 0 –"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ДОБИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ОБОЛОЧКИ 4, 0 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н. Архей (4, 0 – 2, 5 млрд. л. н.) Ø От начала тектонической активности, расплавления и дегазации до выделения !} earth's coreØ Numerous thin lithospheric mini-plates Ø Beginning of plate tectonics 3.5 -3 billion years ago n. Ø No subduction, only obduction (“hummocks” of plates) Ø Emergence of life 3.6 billion liters. n. Ø By the end of the period 2.5 billion liters. n. – formation of the earth's crust and Fe-Ni-core

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-4.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PRE-BIOGENIC STAGE 4, 0 - 0, 57"> ДОБИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП 4, 0 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н. Протерозой (2, 5 – 0, 57 млрд. л. н.) § Ослабление тектонической активности § Возрастание мощности литосферных плит § Образование и раскол Пангеи-1 § Усиление дегазации с выделением О 2, СО 2, Н 2 О § О 2 расходуется на окисление пород, накапливается медленно до середины протерозоя) § !} Main source endogenous energy - chemical-density differentiation of the mantle § Slow formation of the hydrosphere. 2.2 billion liters n. – acceleration (saturation of serpentinites), growth of ocean depths § Life only in the ocean – protected by water from UV radiation

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-5.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE OF THE PALEOZIAN Mesozoic"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ПАЛЕОЗОЙ Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 -230 МЛН Л. Н. N 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. Pg 67 K Начало этапа – !} a sharp increase O 2 (metal J iron disappeared) T P 230 Cambrian-Ordovician - Emergence of multicellular organisms. Paleozoic C D Baikal orogeny. S Decrease in CO 2 - decrease in solubility of O carbonates - the possibility of building Cm calcareous skeletons 570 Pt 2 Precambrian Pt 1 Silurian - Caledonian orogeny. Ar Pisces. Exit of life to land. Beginning of soil formation.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-6.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE PALEOZIAN Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП ПАЛЕОЗОЙ Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. 570 -230 МЛН Л. Н. N Девон – Формирование озонового экрана, резкий Pg 67 рост биомассы и биоразнообразия на суше. K Амфибии. Рептилии. J T Карбон – Рост СО 2 (вулканизм), усиление 230 P фотосинтеза, потепление, пышные леса из Палеозой C папоротников, хвощей, плаунов. D Накопление углей, нефти, газа в условиях S заболоченных равнин с тропическим климатом. O Возникновение географической зональности Cm 570 Pt 2 Пермь-Триас – Формирование Пангеи-2. Докембрий Pt 1 Герцинский орогенез. Рост континентальности. Ar Оледенения. Сокращения количества экологических ниш → Снижение биоразнообразия. Массовое вымирание видов.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-7.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП Мезозой Кайнозой Q МЕЗОЗОЙ N 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. 230 -67 МЛН Л. Н. Pg 67 Юра – Глобальный спрединг. K Возникновение новых океанов и континентов. J Начало океанизации. T Рост разнообразия рельефа и контрастности P 230 географической оболочки. Палеозой C Гигантские рептилии. D S Мел – Мезозойский орогенез. O Видообразование. Cm Рост океанов. 570 Pt 2 Удаление континентов. Докембрий Pt 1 Усиление изоляции экосистем → Рост Ar разнообразия млекопитающих. Цветковые растения Конец периода (67 млн л. н.) – массовое вымирание (астероид?)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-8.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> BIOGENIC STAGE Mesozoic Cenozoic Q"> БИОГЕННЫЙ ЭТАП Мезозой Кайнозой Q 570 – 0, 04 МЛН. Л. Н. КАЙНОЗОЙ N Палеоген 67 -0 МЛН Л. Н. Pg Глобальная денудация, выравнивание рельефа. 67 Господство млекопитающих, птиц, K J покрытосеменных. T 230 Неоген-Плейстоцен P v. Альпийский орогенез. Палеозой C v. Неотектонические поднятия. D Эпиплатформенный орогенез (возрожденные S горы). O v. Рост высоты континентов и площади суши. Формирование высотной поясности. Cm 570 v. Рост континентальности. Pt 2 v. Кольцо океанов вокруг Антарктиды → Докембрий Pt 1 ледниковый покров. Ar Плейстоцен !} Glaciation sheets and interglacials with weakening and strengthening of zoning.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-9.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> Pz Kz"> Pz Kz Mz Мел Юра Триас Девон Силур Пермь Неоген Карбон Ордовик Кембрий Палеоген Плейстоцен ЖИВОЙ ПРИРОДЫ ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ Насекомые Рыбы Амфибии Рептилии Птицы Млекопитающие Водоросли Плауновидные Папоротники Хвойные Покрытосе менные!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-10.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> PERSON single genus hominid family "> HUMAN The only genus of the hominid family Australopithecus Homo erectus Neanderthal Dryopithecus Cro-Magnon Homo sapiens 4000 3500 2000 350 40 thousand liters n. Community Stone Dwellings Clothes tools Rituals Fishing Hunting Domestication Gathering

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-11.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>HUMAN">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-12.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> 365 DAYS IN THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH January 1 - pregeological history March 28"> 365 ДНЕЙ В ИСТОРИИ ЗЕМЛИ 1 января – догеологическая история 28 марта – первые бактерии 12 декабря – расцвет динозавров 26 декабря – исчезновение динозавров 31 декабря, 01 -00 – предок обезьяны и человека 31 декабря, 17 -30 – появление австралопитеков 31 декабря, 23 -54 – появление неандертальцев 31 декабря, 23 -59 -46 – начало !} new era(1 year) December 31, 24-00 - man on the moon (N. Armstrong)

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-13.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> REGULARITIES OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL"> ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ Процесс выделения земного ядра в основе: Øтектонической активности Øгеохимической эволюции мантии Øдегазации мантии и возникновения атмосферы и гидросферы Øобразования полезных ископаемых Øразвития жизни!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-14.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> REGULARITIES OF GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL EVOLUTION"> ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 1. Уменьшение глубинного теплового потока в 3 -4 раза 2. Прогрессируюшее расслоение на оболочки 3. Периодическое образование и распад Пангей с периодом 400 -500 млн. лет из-за накопления мантийного тепла под литосферой 4. Рост разнообразия горных пород 5. Переход от абиогенного этапа к биогенному 6. Прогрессирующее накопление биогенной энергии и рост биоразнообразия 7. Рост разнообразия !} geographical areas 8. Growth of platform area 9. Growth of sedimentation rate 10. Growth of relief contrast 11. Uneven development, cyclicity, metachronism

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-15.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> The most important mechanisms for the development of the geographical envelope q Mantle degassing and"> Важнейшие механизмы развития географической оболочки q Дегазация мантии и вулканизм q Спрединг и субдукция q Направленная эволюция земной коры, с образованием подвижных поясов, платформ, складчатых областей q Географический цикл развития рельефа В. М. Дэвиса q Большой геологический круговорот вещества на потоках солнечной энергии, гравитационной, !} internal energy Earth q Photolysis in the upper layers of the atmosphere q Development of the hydrosphere and oceanization q Development of flora and fauna. Photosynthesis. q Small biological and geographical circulation of matter on the flow of solar and gravitational energy. q Human economic activity as a planetary phenomenon.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-16.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> UNITY OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL OF L A Scattering of living matter with winds and water"> ЕДИНСТВО ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ Л А Рассеяние живого вещества с ветрами и водными Б Г потоками. Закон Вернадского: Миграция химических элементов в биосфере осуществляется либо при непосредственном участии живого вещества, либо в среде, геохимические особенности которой созданы живым веществом.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-17.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> WEATHER CRUST PROPERTIES"> СВОЙСТВА КОРЫ ВЫВЕТРИВАНИЯ ØПоведение одних и тех же веществ различается в зависимости от типа ландшафта ØХарактерны процессы окисления, связанные с изменением валентности элементов ØХарактерны процессы гидратации минералов ØИзмельчение вещества с накоплением глинистых веществ и возрастанием площади соприкосновения частиц между собой и с водой; активизация ионного обмена; рост возможностей накопления элементов ØТип коры (накопление Fe, Al, Si, Ca. CO 3, S, крупных обломков) определяется рельефом и гидроклиматическим режимом – характером перераспределения вещества ØМощность от десятков сантиметров до сотен метров ØВозможно наследование реликтовых свойств, не соответствующих современным ландшафтам ØБиокосная природа, но в отличие от почвы отсутствует биогенная аккумуляция!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-18.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> LANDSCAPE SPHERE v A thin layer of direct contact, contact and energetic"> ЛАНДШАФТНАЯ СФЕРА v Тонкий слой прямого соприкосновения, контакта и энергичного взаимодействия земной коры, воздушной тропосферы и водной оболочки. v Мощность от 10 n до 200 -250 м v Биологический фокус географической оболочки v Среда, наиболее благоприятная для развития жизни v Трансформатор вещества и энергии, рассеиваемых до внешних границ географической оболочки!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-19.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> MAIN REGULARITIES OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SHELL 1. Integrity 2. Rhythm 3. Zonal 4."> ОСНОВНЫЕ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 1. Целостность 2. Ритмичность 3. Зональность 4. Азональность 5. Асимметричность 6. Барьеры 7. Метахронность (несинхронное наступление фаз развития геосистем) 8. Саморазвитие!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-20.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> MAIN REGULARITIES OF THE GEOGRAPHIC SHELL 9. Compensatory mechanisms (Chizhevsky's law,"> ОСНОВНЫЕ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ОБОЛОЧКИ 9. Компенсационные механизмы (закон Чижевского, воздымание-опускание, похолодание-потепление, экспозиционные эффекты, орошение-усыхание Арала, Эль- Ниньо, Антарктида-Сев. Ледовитый океан…) 10. Дополнительность: контрастные явления не существуют друг без друга (водосбор-русло-конус выноса, циклоны-антициклоны) 11. Пространственно-временные ряды географических явлений (Последовательность во времени отражается в пространственном ряду) 12. Пространственно-временная эмерджентность: целое больше суммы частей (Биоразнообразие !} big island more biodiversity of the archipelago)

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-21.jpg" alt="(!LANG:> ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF STUDYING THE EARTH EVOLUTION Time and mechanisms of the primary heating of the Earth"> АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ПРОБЛЕМЫ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ ЗЕМЛИ ШВремя и механизмы первичного разогрева Земли ШПричины распада и восстановления суперконтинентов ШДлительность существования Мирового океана ШКосмические и орбитальные причины климатических изменений ШИзменчивость гравитационной постоянной и влияние сверхдальних гравитационных волн на форму Земли ШПричины массовых вымираний флоры и фауны!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/5254644_44770425.pdf-img/5254644_44770425.pdf-22.jpg" alt="(!LANG:>STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL WHAT IS AHEAD? SHELL In 600 million years in robes"> ЭТАПЫ РАЗВИТИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКОЙ ЧТО ВПЕРЕДИ? ОБОЛОЧКИ Через 600 млн. лет в мантии всё Fe. O→ Fe 3 O 4 Усилится выделение О 2 из мантии в атмосферу Вырастет !} Atmosphere pressure The temperature will rise to 110°C (compared to today's 15.1°C) Boiling of the ocean Dehydration of the earth's crust Increase in temperature up to 550°C and pressure up to 500 atm. The death of life The sun in 5 billion years will turn into a white dwarf without the movement of particles

The geographical envelope has come a long and difficult path of development. There are three qualitatively different stages in its development: pre-biogenic, biogenic, and anthropogenic.

pre-biogenic stage(4 billion - 570 million years) - the longest period. At this time, the process of increasing the thickness and complicating the composition of the earth's crust took place. By the end of the Archean (2.6 billion years ago), a continental crust about 30 km thick had already formed over vast expanses, and in the Early Proterozoic, protoplatforms and protogeosynclines separated. During this period, the hydrosphere already existed, but the volume of water in it was less than now. Of the oceans (and then only by the end of the early Proterozoic) one took shape. The water in it was salty and the salinity level most likely was about the same as now. But, apparently, in the waters of the ancient ocean, the predominance of sodium over potassium was even greater than now, there were also more magnesium ions, which is associated with the composition of the primary earth's crust, the weathering products of which were carried into the ocean.

The Earth's atmosphere at this stage of development contained very little oxygen, and there was no ozone screen.

Life most likely existed from the very beginning of this stage. According to indirect data, microorganisms lived already 3.8-3.9 billion years ago. The discovered remains of the simplest organisms are 3.5-3.6 billion years old. However, organic life from the moment of its inception to the very end of the Proterozoic did not play a leading, determining role in the development of the geographical envelope. In addition, many scientists deny the presence of organic life on land at this stage.

The evolution of organic life to the pre-biogenic stage proceeded slowly, but nevertheless, 650-570 million years ago, life in the oceans was quite rich.

Biogenic stage(570 million - 40 thousand years) lasted during the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and almost the entire Cenozoic, with the exception of the last 40 thousand years.

The evolution of living organisms during the biogenic stage was not smooth: eras of relatively calm evolution were replaced by periods of rapid and profound transformations, during which some forms of flora and fauna died out and others became widespread.

Simultaneously with the appearance of terrestrial living organisms, soils began to form in our modern understanding.

Anthropogenic stage began 40 thousand years ago and continues today. Although man as a biological species appeared 2-3 million years ago, his impact on nature long time remained extremely limited. With the advent of Homo sapiens, this impact has increased significantly. It happened 38-40 thousand years ago. From here the anthropogenic stage in the development of the geographic envelope takes its countdown.

pre-biogenic stage

Biogenic stage

Anthropogenic stage

2. Anthropogenic changes in the geographic envelope in modern times: the formation of the technosphere

The main stages of the development of the geographical envelope: pre-biogenic, biogenic, anthropogenic

The geographic envelope of the Earth and the landscape sphere included in it are in constant change and development. One of the most important reasons for this development of L.A. Grigoriev considers the process of constant exchange of matter and energy between the components of the geographic shell, between the geographic shell and the outside world.

Three main stages can be distinguished in the development of the geographic envelope and the landscape sphere.

Stage I - abiogenic- the period from the formation of the earth's surface to the appearance of life. It covers the pre-Paleozoic time in the history of the Earth (Archaean and Proterozoic eras). This is the time of the formation of the geographical shell and the birth of its biological focus - the landscape sphere. The composition of the individual components of the geographical envelope and its vertical boundaries were then different than they are now. Therefore, it was unlawful to speak of a geographical shell in its modern sense at that time. Initially, there were only two initial components - rocks and solar radiation, the interaction between which was manifested in the absorption and release of heat by rocks, as well as in some accumulation solar radiation superficial and possibly deeper layers. critical role the appearance of the atmosphere and water played a role in the life of the planet.

The primary atmosphere was dominated by reducing conditions, dominated by hydrogen and helium with a low oxygen content and a relatively high carbon dioxide content. The formation of water vapor could be carried out in two ways: due to the release from the bowels and as a result of the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide, which, along with other gases, was also released from the bowels. With the appearance of water (with low salinity), seas, oceans, inland water bodies appear, the water cycle develops, erosion-accumulation and other processes develop. The cover of sedimentary rocks had a very small thickness. Apparently, under the action of solar radiation, water vapor decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen. However, most of the oxygen was spent on the oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen and water and on the oxidation of methane CH 4 to CO 2 and water. Thus, there was practically no free oxygen in the atmosphere and there was no oxidation chemical compounds didn't happen.

Life in its most primitive manifestations arose, obviously, as early as the Archaean, but its impact on the landscape sphere, and even more so on the geographical envelope as a whole, was negligible. Even by the end of the pre-biogenic stage, only bacteria and algae lived on land, so there was no landscape zoning in the modern conception then, just as there was no developed soil cover.

Stage II - biogenic- includes the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and a significant part of the Cenozoic (Paleogene, Neogene). Seas and land are conquered by plants and animals, the composition and structure of which is becoming more and more complicated with the passage of time. Since the beginning of the Paleozoic, the biological component has had a decisive influence on the composition and structure of the geographical envelope. Thanks to living organisms, the oxygen content in the atmosphere increased, the process of accumulation of sedimentary rocks began more vigorously, soils formed - this most important component of the landscape sphere. Life, according to V.I. Vernadsky (1926), "is closely connected with the structure of the earth's crust, enters into its mechanism and in this mechanism performs functions of the greatest importance, without which it could not exist."

With the advent of life as a form of existence of matter, a full-fledged geographical shell was born - a complex, qualitatively unique material system. The landscape sphere in this second period acquired a zonal structure, the type of which repeatedly changed throughout the Paleozoic and Mesozoic.

In the development of the geographical envelope of the second stage, two major sub-stages can be distinguished - preanthropogenic and anthropogenic, the qualitative differences of which are predetermined by the influence of a reasonable person on natural processes.

A) Preanthropogenic substage. According to modern concepts, life arose about 3 billion years ago, and the remains of primitive bacteria have been preserved in the rocks of that age. The appearance of life at that time is also evidenced by the presence of limestones, ferruginous quartzites and other rocks, the occurrence of which is associated with the vital activity of organisms.

Organic life initially, apparently, was concentrated in a shallow coastal, well-lit strip of seas and oceans. Already in the Proterozoic, bacteria, blue-green and, to a lesser extent, red algae, developed significantly in water bodies and on land, and by the end of the Proterozoic, all types of invertebrates had formed. The emergence of life is the largest evolutionary leap in the development of the planet, when organisms became great, permanent and. a continuous violator of the chemical inertia of our planet. They participated in the formation of many sedimentary rocks and ores, with their help the atmosphere gradually became oxidizing from a reducing one.

The first half of the Paleozoic is generally characterized by psilophytic flora - herbaceous or woody plants, a transitional group between algae and ferns. Archaeocyates dominated the animal world in the Cambrian time, trilobites, the most ancient armored fish appeared, corals, cephalopods orthoceratites developed in the Ordovician, and the first land inhabitants appeared in the Silurian - scorpions and centipedes. The organic life of the Devonian and Carboniferous was very diverse. Psilophytes, widely developed in the Devonian, died out by the end of the period and gave way to tree-like horsetails, club mosses, and ferns (Archiopteris flora), which flourished in the Carboniferous. Green plants, enriching the atmosphere with free oxygen, created a favorable environment for the rapid evolution of animals. Following the magnificent development of the archiopteris flora, the rapid development of amphibians and reptiles, represented by animal-like reptiles, began. V Permian as a result of greater dryness, the flora acquired a xerophilic appearance, gymnosperms began to gain dominance. The rich fauna was represented by large foraminifers, sea urchins and lilies, cartilaginous fishes, amphibians and reptiles.

In the Mesozoic era, the first mammals, the ancestors of birds (Triassic), appeared, impoverishment of gymnosperms began in the Cretaceous, and angiosperms appeared and developed widely. The continuous, progressive development of organic life, the transition from one form to another, from lower to higher, is also characteristic of the Cenozoic era.

The lithogenic base of the geographic envelope underwent a continuous change in composition and structure. Initially, the earth's surface was a continuous geosyncline, and later the ratio of the areas of platforms and geosynclinal areas changed as follows, according to M.S. Tochilin (1960; Yurenkov, 1982; Table 1).

Table 1 - The ratio of the areas of platforms and geosynclinal regions of the globe

At the same time, the lithogenic base was replenished with matter due to the intrusion of erupted masses and its inflow from outer space; the mass of sedimentary rocks increased, and other changes occurred.

Throughout geological history, the position of the Earth's poles has changed dramatically. According to P.S. Khromov, in the Proterozoic North Pole was in the center of North America, from where it migrated to the southwest and in the Cambrian was located in the middle Pacific Ocean. Already in the Paleozoic, the pole moved to the northwest and reached the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk in the Triassic, then began to shift to the northeast. In the Neogene, it migrated across the Arctic Ocean towards Greenland, and in the Anthropogenic it occupied its present position.

The interaction of all continuously, progressively developing components of the geographic shell predetermined its constant change in time and space as an integral material system, the natural-historical complication of its territorial differentiation. With good reason, we can talk about the presence of natural zones in the Carboniferous, Permian and other periods. So, within Eurasia in the Middle and Upper Carboniferous, there were three climatic zones with their characteristic vegetation. According to N.M. Strakhova (1962; Yurenkov, 1982) a narrow strip from the Mologo-Sheksna lowland through Southern Urals, Turgay, arid stretched to the Zailiysky Alatau; a zone that greatly expanded towards the Permian; to the north of it there was a moderately humid (Tunguska) zone with a vegetation cover of tree-like club mosses, calamites, and in the Permian they were joined by ginkgoes; south of the arid zone there was a tropical humid zone with lush Westphalian vegetation of large calamites and cordaites, lepidodendrons, sigillaria, tree-like club mosses, ferns, horsetails, etc.

Zonal-provincial differences in nature became even more pronounced in the Mesozoic time. According to A. A. Borisov (1965; Yurenkov, 1982), three climatic zones existed within the territory of Russia throughout the Mesozoic era. In the Triassic in the north Far East the subarctic zone stood out, the northern half of the European part and the north of Siberia were occupied by a moderately warm continental zone, and in the southwest there was a tropical zone, which then gave way to a humid subtropical zone. The same zones, but with a slightly different strike, were noted in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. By the end of the Cretaceous, the subtropical zone differentiated into humid subtropics (modern Crimea, the Black Sea, the Caucasus, and the south of the Caspian Sea) and dry (the territory Central Asia).

In the Paleogene, further differentiation took place natural conditions. The south of the Russian Plain was occupied by a subtropical (Poltava) zone with vegetation of evergreen palms, myrtle, ficus, laurels, oaks, tree ferns, sequoias, swamp cypresses, broad-leaved deciduous (poplar, walnut, etc.). To the north of the latitude of Volgograd stretched a temperate warm Turgai zone dominated by deciduous broad-leaved tree and shrub species with coniferous (spruce, yew, etc.) and small-leaved (birch, buckthorn, etc.) species.

As many researchers note, the dynamism of all natural processes increased with the age of the Earth, from one geological epoch to another. Natural zones located at higher latitudes have the greatest evolutionary variability. Natural zones of lower latitudes show relatively greater stability and are more conservative.

Intensive mountain-building movements in the Neogene, a sharp increase in land area and a reduction in sea basins, a rapid shift of the poles and other factors led to an increase in the continentality of the climate, further differentiation of natural conditions. The Paleogene Poltava flora retreated from the territory of present-day Russia, and the deciduous Turgai flora took its place. In the Miocene-Pliocene in Central and Eastern Siberia, the cores of a new phytogeographic region were formed, where pine, spruce, fir, and larch gained dominance. Strengthening of continentality caused the change of forest biocenoses by steppe and desert biocenoses in Central Asia. With the cooling of the climate coniferous forests from Central Siberia moved to the north of the East European Plain, in the south they were replaced by deciduous forests. By the Pleistocene, the Turgai flora almost completely migrated to shelters, all natural zones existed on the territory of Eurasia, with the exception of the zones of the Arctic deserts and the tundra, but the centers of tundra vegetation in the north and in the mountains of Siberia already existed by this time. The tundra zone was formed in the Late Pleistocene (glacio-Pleistocene), it took its current position at the end of the Holocene and therefore is the youngest of the natural zones.

The Quaternary time was characterized by the greatest dynamism of all natural processes in comparison with other periods of the Earth. During the period of repeated Pleistocene glaciations, the areas occupied by forests were reduced, a kind of cold “forest-steppe” (periglacial zone) was formed in front of the edge of the advancing glaciers, which included groups of forest, steppe and elements of the emerging tundra vegetation. Descending mountain glaciers forest vegetation was pushed down into the foothills, its place was occupied by representatives of the emerging alpine complexes. In the interglacial epochs, natural zones and altitudinal belts strove to take their former positions. Together with zone species flora representatives not characteristic of these zones also moved north. Thus, as a result of migrations in the forest and tundra zones in the Alpine belt of mountains, steppe representatives appeared - the Central Yakut, Yano-Oymyakon, Kolyma and other meadow steppes, which have survived to this day. Their existence here at the present time is quite consistent with the modern ecological features of these territories. All these movements contributed to the mixing various kinds flora and fauna, further complication of the morphostructure of the geographical shell.

B) Anthropogenic substage - Stage III- corresponds to the Quaternary period (Anthropogen, or Pleistocene and Holocene). At this time, the geographic shell of the Earth becomes a habitat - a geographical environment - for a person, an arena for his economic activity. In a relatively short period of time, the geographic shell was under the strongest influence of man. Especially Big changes associated with human activities have occurred in the structure and structure of the landscape sphere. The virgin vegetation cover of many geographical areas has been disturbed by man or completely replaced by cultivated vegetation; owing to the plowing of lands, erosion processes have sharply increased; power plant dams changed the regime of rivers.

The modern appearance of the landscape sphere is largely the result of human economic activity. It is this modern appearance of the landscape sphere, to a large extent transformed by man, that constitutes the object of research in landscape science.

In his practical activity, a person goes far beyond the boundaries of the landscape sphere, and partly goes beyond the boundaries of the geographical envelope. However, its transformative impact is still limited mainly to the landscape sphere.

With the advent of Homo sapiens, the geographic envelope entered a qualitatively new stage in its development, in which it is customary to distinguish four main periods:

1)ancient(Upper Paleolithic) - 40-10 thousand years ago;

2)ancient(Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age) - 10-3 thousand years. back;

3)new(Iron Age, historical - time) - 3 thousand - 30 years ago;

4)newest since the mid 40s of the XX century. to the present day.

The first periods of the anthropogenic stage were characterized by a relatively insignificant impact of mankind on the geographical envelope. In the most ancient period, this influence manifested itself mainly in the gradual development of new territories, in the quantitative change in certain types of flora and fauna. Mankind had a more significant and varied influence on natural processes in the second, ancient period in connection with the emergence of cattle breeding and agriculture, with the active intervention of man in such components of the natural environment as soil, vegetation cover. The first anthropogenic tracts created by man during this period were mounds - burial grounds that have survived to this day. Soil cultivation, grazing livestock were the cause of the intensification of erosion processes, a qualitative change in plant communities, and the replacement of some cenoses by others.

At the same time, we must not forget about the progressive general development of the geographical envelope and underestimate the natural-historical processes of this time.

In the post-glacial period (Holocene interglacial) (from 10300 years to the present stage) there were also significant fluctuations in climatic conditions, especially in high latitudes. This is confirmed by the data of palynological analyzes of sediments from lakes and swamps (Neishtadt, 1957; Elovicheva, 2001). Thus, in the sediments of the ancient Holocene (Arctic and Subarctic periods - 14000-10300 years ago) on the territory of Belarus, there was a consistent predominance of pine and birch pollen with a large role of grasses (Raunis interstadial), birch with the participation of pine and spruce, grasses (Early Dryas - I stadial), pine and birch, grasses (Böllingian interstadial), pines with birch and grasses (Middle Dryassic - II stadial), spruce (30-90%) with pine and grasses (Allered interstadial), pines and birches with grasses (late dryas - stage III) in the absence of pollen from broad-leaved species. In the early Holocene (preboreal and boreal periods), the climate became warmer with varying degrees moisture content. In Preboreal-1 (10300-10000 years ago) pine dominated, Preboreale-2 (10300-9200 years ago) - spruce and pine, boreal-1 (9200-8800 years ago) - birch, boreal-2 (8800-8400 years ago ago) - pine with the participation of thermophilic species, Boreale-3 (8400-8000 years ago) - pine and birch with spruce. The Middle Holocene unites the Atlantic and Subboreal periods (8000-2500 years ago. In the Atlantic (8000-5000 years ago) there is a maximum distribution of pollen of broad-leaved species (up to 40%), alder and hazel. In the Subboreal, the content of thermophilic rocks decreases significantly, for the Subboreal 1 (5000-4000 years ago) is characterized by a pine maximum, and Subboreal-2 (4000-2500 years ago) is characterized by spruce and pine maximums. along with the participation of representatives of synanthropic vegetation.In the sediments of Subatlantic-1 (2500-1600 years ago), the maximum content of pine pollen was noted, Subatlantic-2 (1600-750 years ago) - spruce and pine, and Subatlantic-3 (750 years ago - modernity) ) - again pines, and the amount of pollen of broad-leaved species in the sediments decreased to 5%.

The change of forests (succession of vegetation) in the Poozersky Late Glacial and Holocene is associated with changes in climatic conditions, and in the Subatlantic period natural course natural processes are already superimposed and changes caused by human activities. In the postoptimal time of the Holocene (Subboreal and Subatlantic periods), there is a clearly expressed tendency towards a general cooling of the climate against the background of short-term climatic fluctuations towards some warming and some increase in the vital activity of broad-leaved tree species.

According to V.N. Sukachev (1938), spruce forests with oak and other broad-leaved species are one of the stages in the replacement of broad-leaved forests with spruce forests, but this is a slow-moving process, and not only its shade tolerance, but also other properties play a role in the victory of spruce over oak, but also other properties, in particular the influence on the soil, which manifests itself in the strengthening of the podzolic process.

V.N. Sukachev quite correctly pointed out that spruce forests with an admixture of oak and other broad-leaved species can remain for several generations without drastic changes and even with temporary changes due to random causes (cutting, pests, fires) towards the dominance of the oak with its companions. In addition, against the background of a general cooling and an increase in humidity after the Atlantic time, short-term climatic fluctuations towards some warming were also noted. Temporary warming contributed to the strengthening of the vital activity of broad-leaved tree species.

Climate fluctuations during the post-glacial time are one of the reasons for changes in the spatial positions of the NTC. According to M.I. Neishtadt (1957), M.I. Lopatnikov, A.I. Popov (1959), the boundaries of natural zones underwent changes in the Holocene.

The most significant changes were noted at high latitudes, i.e., one of the most important regularities of the geographic envelope appeared - a greater dynamism of natural conditions at high latitudes and relative conservatism at low latitudes. As established, in the Atlantic time, the forest zone occupied the current territory of the forest-tundra and part of the tundra zone, in some places it went to the seas of the Northern Arctic Ocean. Natural zones occupied their present position only in the Late Holocene. Changes in climatic conditions, especially humidity, in recent decades have led to a change in the morphostructure of the NTC, which has most tangibly affected within territories with a groundwater level close to the surface. So, according to P.S. Pogrebnyak (1967), over the past forty years, within the Ukrainian Polissya, wet and damp habitats have dried up by about one hydrotope: that is, long-moss blueberries have turned into green moss blueberries, the latter into lingonberries, and some lingonberries into lichen forests.