The founder of the ideas of Russian liberalism is. Freedom or limitation. Classification of political consciousness

Basic concepts: classical liberalism, individualism, personal freedom. Free competition, social liberalism.

Each of the ideological and political trends is a set of concepts, values, attitudes and orientations, which are not always fully and consistently expressed in the program of a particular political party. Ideological and political currents differ from each other in their assessment of the role of an individual, groups, parties, classes in the political process; on their approach to solving the most important economic and social problems; according to the place in the life of society they assign to the main social and political institutions (private property, free market, state, church), how they relate to the possibility of reforming society.

Liberalism entered social and political life with ideas and principles the intrinsic value of the individual and his responsibility for their actions; private property as a necessary condition for individual freedom; free market, competition, protection of freedom of entrepreneurship, equality of opportunity, separation of powers, guarantees of fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual (conscience, speech, assembly, creation of associations and parties), electivity of power, its limitation by the norms of natural law.

Liberalism is a very flexible and dynamic system of ideas, open to influence from other currents, responsive to changes in social life and modifying in accordance with new realities. It was formed, developed and established in various socio-historical and national-cultural conditions. It reveals a wide variety of shades, transition steps and even contradictions. In different periods of history in different socio-historical and national-cultural environments, he acquired different shapes... For all that, liberalism has common roots and is characterized by a certain core set of ideas, principles and ideals, which together make it a special type of social and political thought.

Classical liberalism. In the form in which it was originally formulated, this ideological complex was called "classical liberalism." The very concept of "liberalism" entered the European socio-political lexicon at the beginning of the 19th century. The roots of the liberal worldview go back to the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Newtonian scientific revolution. At its origins were such thinkers as J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, I. Kant, A. Smith, T. Jefferson, B. Krnstan, A. de Tocqueville. In the XIX century. ideas of liberalism were developed in the works I. Bentham, J.S. Mil-la, T. X. Green and other representatives of Western political and legal theory.

The turning point in the formation of liberalism, and in the delimitation of the main currents of Western socio-political thought of the New and Modern times, is the Great French bourgeois revolution late XVII 1st century In its main political and ideological document, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, the coined formulations of those ideas, values ​​and attitudes that have become powerful weapon the fight against the old order.

Liberal principles to one degree or another received practical implementation in the limited constitutional order established in France after the July Revolution of 1830, as well as in the Third Republic in 1870-1940. The successes of liberalism in Switzerland, Holland, and the Scandinavian countries were palpable. The liberals played an important role in the unification of Italy and Germany and the formation of the party-political systems of these countries, but the UK and the USA became a kind of testing ground on which liberal ideas passed the main test and test.

In Russia, for many reasons, the liberal worldview took root later than in most European countries - in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. But nevertheless, representatives of Russian socio-political thought made their own contribution to the development of the ideas of liberalism. Among the most famous representatives of Russian liberal thought of the pre-revolutionary period,

first of all names should be mentioned T. Granovsky, P. Struve, B. Chicherin, P. Milyukova, who tried to develop and apply the principles of liberalism to Russian realities. They laid the foundations of Russian constitutionalism, the ideas of the rule of law and civil society. Their merit also consisted in putting on a practical plane the problems of individual rights and freedoms, subordination state power law, the rule of law.

In general, the liberal worldview from the very beginning gravitated towards the recognition of the ideal of individual freedom. Freedom and dignity of the human person, tolerance, the right to difference and individuality - these values ​​and ideas are the essence of liberalism. As one of its founding fathers J. Locke emphasized, each individual is “his own master”. Locke's follower JS Mill gave this thought the form of an axiom: "A man himself knows better than any government what he needs." Such an ideal promised the possibility of rapid progress up the social ladder, success in the struggle for a place in the sun, stimulated entrepreneurship, hard work, and the spirit of innovation. Therefore, it is not surprising that in the early stages of the formation of the system of private property, individualism turned into a source of creative potential in the West.

Freedom was understood by adherents of liberalism primarily in a negative sense, that is, in the sense of freedom from political and social control, guardianship by the church and the state. This position A. Berlin formulated as follows: "I am free to the extent that others do not interfere in my life." Classical liberalism declared all forms of hereditary power and estate privileges to be out of force, putting in the first place the freedom and natural abilities of an individual as an independent rational being, an independent unit of social action.

The ideologues of liberalism have consistently asserted the right of every person to life, freedom and private property. Private property is seen as a guarantor and a measure of freedom. It was from the right of private property and economic freedom that political and civil freedom was derived. For liberals, the principles of free market and free competition are the embodiment of individualism and private property rights in the economic sphere.

Liberalism advocates equal opportunities for self-realization and equal rights in achieving its goals for all members of society. An important component of liberalism was the principle pluralism, i.e. recognition of the diversity of social and political interests, the equal right of different classes, groups, cultures, religions, political parties, organizations to participate in political life, defending their claims.

All these approaches and principles were expressed in the legislatively enshrined equality of all before the law, in the ideas of the state - the "night watchman" and the rule of law, democracy and parliamentarism. The essence of the idea of ​​the state - "night watchman" was

in justifying the so-called minimal state, endowed with a limited list of the most necessary functions for the protection of law and order and the protection of the country from external danger. Priority in social regulation was given to civil society, the state was seen as a necessary evil. J. Locke, for example, he compared the state not with the head that crowns society, but with a hat that can be changed painlessly. In other words, from the point of view of liberals, society is a constant value, and the state is a derivative of it.

At the same time, accusations of liberalism in a disdainful attitude towards the state have nothing to do with historical truth. On the contrary, initially liberals are convinced statists who know that freedom is impossible without a strong government. The liberals were by no means in a hurry to expand the circle of people who received the right to vote, believing that careless and hasty steps towards the democratization of the political system could open the way for the elements of uncivilized passions. Only the Jacobin radicals were ready to immediately implement the demand for universal suffrage.

Liberalism has made a significant contribution to the development and recognition of the principles constitutionalism, parliamentarism and the rule of law- these most important institutions of political democracy. Among the most important provisions of liberalism is the formulated by the French thinker of the XVIII century. C. Montesquieu the principle of separation of powers into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. According to him, in the event of a combination of the legislative and executive branches, the suppression of freedom, the rule of arbitrariness and tyranny are inevitable. The same will happen if one of these branches joins the judiciary. And the combination of all three in one person or organ constitutes, according to the French enlightener, characteristic feature despotism.

An important historical merit of liberalism and liberal-oriented parties is that they played a key role in the formation in the late 19th - early decades of the 20th century. basic principles and institutions of the modern political system, such as parliamentarism, separation of powers, constitutional state and others. These principles were ultimately adopted by all major political forces and parties.

In the liberal tradition, democracy was understood as a system of ensuring equality of all citizens before the law. The founding fathers of liberalism adopted the idea, known since the times of the ancient world, that the state should not be ruled by individuals, but by laws, but unlike thinkers of the past, the ideologues of liberalism understood laws not as divine decrees or traditionally established rules, but as norms of natural law , designed to guarantee personal freedom, inviolability of property and other human and civil rights.

The liberal ideal was most fully embodied in the Anglo-Saxon countries, especially in the United States. Here individualism began to be perceived as the main principle of the life of American society. Self-reliance and self-reliance, individualism and free competition were raised to the level of a national idea, accepted by a significant part of the American people. In its extreme forms, this tendency has transformed into various variants of anarchism, libertarianism, and other varieties of individualistic radicalism.

Reappraisal of the values ​​and attitudes of classical liberalism. It would not be wrong to say that liberalism is a certain type of thinking, the opposite of dogmatism and schematism, a line of reasoning that denies intolerance and one-dimensionality of thought. These qualities were especially clearly revealed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an important milestone in the development of liberalism. During this period, both his strengths and weaknesses emerged.

The practical implementation of the principles of free competition led to the concentration and centralization of production, a sharp increase in the weight and influence of industrial and financial magnates. By the end of the XIX century. the most important provisions of liberalism actually began to serve to protect the interests of the privileged strata of the population. It was found that the free, unrestricted play of market forces did not at all provide, as was supposed, social harmony and justice. Therefore, it is not surprising that a large group of political economists, sociologists, political scientists and politicians came up with proposals to revise the most important provisions of classical liberalism and implement reforms designed to limit corporate arbitrariness and alleviate the situation of the most disadvantaged segments of the population. Among the reformers are well-known sociologists, political scientists and political economists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. J. Hobson, T. Green, F. Naumann, B. Croce, C. Bird, J. J. Dewey and etc.

They formulated a series of ideas and concepts that formed the basis new, or social, liberalism. The essence of the theoretical innovations they introduced was that, under the influence of Marxism and the rising social democracy, some of the basic provisions of classical liberalism were revised, the state was recognized as an active role in the social and economic spheres.

The watershed that clearly and irrevocably affirmed the new, or social, liberalism was the great economic crisis of the 1930s. XX century During this period, the concept of Keynesianism (named after the famous English economist J. Keynes) was widely recognized in Western countries. The main place in the theory of J. Keynes was occupied by the idea of ​​the need to supplement the traditional principles of individualism, free competition and free market with the principles state regulation economic and social spheres. The real embodiment of these ideas was the formation of a system of state regulation of the economy and the creation of the so-called welfare state, designed to implement

run programs social assistance the poor.

Having received initially the strongest impetus in the United States, where the reformer President F.D. Roosevelt proclaimed and began to implement a large-scale "new course" program, the transition to new liberalism, to the principles of economic and social policy adopted by him in one form or another, covered almost the developed countries. After World War II, social liberalism played big role in substantiating the reforms that have ensured significant economic growth and an increase in the living standards of the population of most industrialized countries.

A new stage in the evolution of liberalism was 70-80s From the second half of the 60s. there was a growing awareness that in the process of the post-war development of capitalism, certain basic provisions of liberalism were outdated and in need of revision. Moreover, they started talking about the crisis and even the “end of liberalism” or “the death of liberalism”. Such judgments reflected the fact that in the post-war decades there was a weakening of the positions of liberal parties (with the exception of the US Democratic Party), rivals pushed them into the background or even on the periphery of political life.

However, researchers who talked about the "death of liberalism" were clearly in a hurry. There was a great deal of exaggeration in their arguments. It should be borne in mind that the entire history of liberalism is a history of constant change and reincarnation. Although most of the liberal parties found themselves in a state of deep crisis, the ideas and values ​​of liberalism have not lost their influence on the minds of the people. With an unbiased analysis, what is passed off as the decline of liberalism can be qualified as its change and adaptation to new conditions.

Indeed, in last years Liberals have made vigorous efforts to rethink their positions on the most important issues related to the relationship between society, the state and the individual, the relationship between the principles of freedom, equality and justice. Some of the liberals, both in the 1930s and now, were not ready for a far-reaching revision of their previous views; others, while remaining faithful to the spirit of liberalism, embraced new ideas. As a result, two more or less clearly defined blocks emerged in liberalism, each of which has a complex of certain general ideas and approaches to critical issues facing society.

First, the ideological and political trend has consolidated, which, in every possible way exaggerating the role of the free market, tends to deny the regulatory role of the state in society, or in any case advocates a significant reduction in this role. The adherents of this trend are called libertarians, that is, supporters of the maximum freedom of the social and economic spheres from state interference. It is, in fact, economical

ical conservatives, repeating and reinforcing certain provisions of classical liberalism when socio-economic conditions have long changed.

Secondly, the ideological and political trend of neoliberalism was formed, occupying a middle position between social democracy and conservatism. On the whole, its representatives did not abandon some of the basic ideas of liberalism of the post-war decades. In particular, they advocate the preservation of social assistance programs for the poor, state intervention in social and economic sphere... They have by no means forgotten that it was the introduction of state regulation that contributed to the mitigation of economic crises and their consequences, in many respects ensured the stability of democracy, and they are ready to subscribe to the words of T. Schiller, who said that the desire to solve economic problems without taking into account the social component is not social liberalism. but social Darwinism. Neoliberals are aware of the limits possible limitation the role of the state, but, recognizing the inevitability and even the necessity of state intervention, they are concerned with limiting the limits of this intervention.

The newest constructions of theorists of liberalism reflect the widely popular slogan “Less is better”, which has gained wide popularity in the West.

Liberals are still concerned with the question of the relationship between freedom, equality and justice. They recognize that the foundation of capitalist civilization is crumbling if it cannot be proven that it is based on the principles of justice. According to them, the state guarantees the equality of all citizens before the law and equality of opportunities in the socio-economic sphere. It is this approach, according to the supporters of liberalism, and. is intended to ensure the implementation of the principles of justice.

This is perhaps the most vulnerable spot in the positions of the liberals. They, in essence, failed to resolve the eternal contradiction between equality and freedom, between equality, freedom and justice. But it hardly makes sense to blame them for this. After all, this is one of the cardinal problems of human existence itself. And fundamental problems cannot have final solutions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. 1. When did liberalism begin? Who contributed most to the development of its guidelines?
2. 2. What are the basic principles of classical liberalism?
3. 3. What are the features of the formation of liberalism in Russia?
4. 4. What is meant by social liberalism? How does it differ from classical liberalism?
5. 5. The programs of which parties in modern Russia would you call liberal?
6. 6. What is the most consonant with your views in the ideas of modern liberalism?

Most researchers of liberal political ideology consider the time of its inception - the end of the 17th century, and the theory of "social contract" is the ideological core. The most complete, completed development of the idea of ​​this theory was received in the works of John Locke (1632-1704), Charles Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

In general, the liberal worldview from the very beginning gravitated towards the recognition of the ideal of individual freedom as a universal goal. Moreover, the epistemological prerequisite of the liberal worldview is the isolation of human individuality, the awareness of the responsibility of an individual for his actions both to himself and to society, the assertion of the idea of ​​the equality of all people in his innate, natural right to self-realization. Therefore, it is not surprising that at the initial stage, the complex of values ​​and ideas that make up the essence of liberalism included individual freedom, the dignity of the human person, and tolerance.

The process of the emergence of theoretical developments of an ideological nature is always preceded by certain changes in society. In the case of liberalism, these changes were dramatic. Europe was entering the New Time. Changes took place in all spheres of public life. In the field of economics, this is the transition from the feudal to the capitalist mode of production; dictate catholic church in the spiritual sphere it was becoming a thing of the past, the era of religious freedom was coming. New social groups, the so-called "third estate", appeared in the structure of society. The theorists of "social contract" and "natural rights" became the exponents of whose interests.

The ideas of the founder of liberalism, John Locke, about the "Natural Rights" "of a citizen: to life, freedom, property; the division of the branches of government came in handy in England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. His political science achievements were actively used in the constitutional design of the English state in the late 17th - early 18th centuries. This happened, first of all, because John Locke became the spokesman for the interests of broad strata of the population, above all the most active - the "third estate".

In contrast to the previous ideas that an individual has political, economic and other rights only insofar as he is a full citizen, as it was believed in the era of antiquity, or because he belongs to a certain class, as the thinkers of the Enlightenment argued in the Middle Ages proclaimed the idea of ​​"natural rights", inalienable human rights. These rights are given to everyone by nature and include the right to life, liberty and property, or, as recorded in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, adopted in 1791, the right to liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. The traditions of freedom proclaimed in the Declaration are based on natural law, on common sense, and not on historical traditions and customs. Both the Declaration and the US Constitution rest on the natural right of citizens to change or overthrow their government and establish whatever forms of government they see best.

Unlike Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu considered the primitive (ie pre-state) state of people not as a "war of all against all" ", but as a state of freedom, equality and independence, within which all people had equal opportunities for a peaceful, mutual benevolent prosperity based on private property. Thus, Locke and Montesquieu are more optimistic than Hobbes about "human nature." "" Primitive people, Montesquieu argues, there was no need to fight each other. On the contrary, they were vitally interested in peaceful relations. " They also could not have a desire to rule over other people, for this desire is associated with more complex relationships. Therefore, peace, and not war, according to Montesquieu, was the first natural law of man.

In relation to the origin of private property, the educators have different points of view. According to Locke, property arises independently of state power. Montesquieu believed that there was no private property in primitive society. He declares that, having abandoned natural independence in order to live under the rule of state laws, people also abandoned the natural community of property in order to live under the rule of state laws. He therefore regards private property as a relatively late product of historical development. Private property, according to Montesquieu, is a consequence of the "social contract" ", i.e. subject to legal norms. Private property is the highest manifestation of civilization. Montesquieu believed that with private property, everyone can achieve material well-being and true freedom, later this idea became one of the basic tenets of liberal ideology.

LIBERALISM - general designation different forms socio-political thought and practice of New and Modern times.

The ascendants in their ge-not-zi-se to emerge in the 17th-18th centuries of the ra-tsio-na-leafy and educative criticism of the West -European so-words-no-go society-st-va, ab-so-lyu-tiz-ma and cle-ri-ka-liz-ma. The term "Liberalism" originated in the Spanish courts in 1810, denoting the anti-ab-so-lu-ti-st-skoi orientation , and after that, it would be-st-ro ras-pro-country-nil-Xia on Ev-ro-pe.

Form-mi-ro-va-tion of ideo-logic of li-ber-ra-liz-ma.

Since the 17th century, the philosophical foundations of Liberalism include the ideas of ve-ro-ter-pi-most (to-le- ent-no-sti), ind-di-vi-du-al-noy-free, in-nya-that pre-w-de of everything as the protection of man -ka from the poly-ly-tic pro-from-to-la, top-ho-ven-st-va ra-tsio-nal-no justified-no-van-no-go right-va, right-ley with an agreement-this on-ro-da (in theories of society-st-ven-no-go do-go-in-ra - uch-re-zh-dyon-no-go na- ro-house), right-va to cha-st-ny own-st-ven-ness, used-only-to-van-ny at that time rather more temperament-st-ven-but and whether -ty-che-ski than yuri-di-che-ski and eco-no-mi-che-ski. These ideas, in different ways, ak-ts-ti-ro-van-ny, developed so-ki-mi-mi-te-la-mi, like T. Hobbes, J. Locke, B. Spi-no-za, S. Pu-fen-dorf, P. Beyle et al.

In the 18th century, Liberalism became ideo-logical and, in the well-known sense, poly-literal, in part op-re-de-de-lya-ing the content of the understanding of the Pro-illumination. Usiliya-mi of French fi-zio-kra-tov (F. Ke-ne, P. Merse de la Rivier, A.R.J. Thur-go) and Scottish pro-ti-te -lay (D. Hume, A. Smith, J. Mil-lar, A. Fer-gyu-son) creates a poly-lytic eco-no-miya, Sh. Mon-tes-kyo and on-follows-up-all-those-whether time-ra-ba-you-all-out con-chain-tion time-de-le-tion vla-stey - odes, well of important-it-Shih on -litical ideas of Liberalism. In the same tradition, as well as outside it - W. Blacks-to-nom, I. Ben-tam-m, father-tsa-mi-os-no-va-te-la-mi USA ( T. Jeff-fer-so-nom, J. Med-di-so-nom, A. Ga-mi-to-nom) - for-mi-ru-em-Xia modern const-sti-tu-tsio-na -lism (based on the ideas of J. Locke and the historical experience of the English revolution, in part, the Bill of Laws of 1689). Ch. Bek-ka-ria for-mu-li-ru-et the idea of ​​"gu-ma-ni-sti-che-go-go" right, in the works of I. Kan-ta and I. Ben- ta-ma skla-dy-va-yut-sya influential up to the present time theories of mo-ra-li - these-ka dol-ha (de-on-to-logiya) and uti-li-ta-rism. The general image of Liberalism - under the influence of, first of all, Vol-tera and en-cyc-lo-pe-di-iss (D. Di-d-ro, J.L. D'Alembert, P. Gol-ba-ha, etc.) - take-ni-ma-em more and more secular ha-rak-ter, and in some of his pro-appearances -yah Liberalism has become-but-vit-Xia atei-sti-che-sky.

Liberalism appeared to be the first of those thoughts, in which there were some about-blah-we of a modern society, at that time, only still for-mi-ro-vav-she-go. In the 18th century, up to the French Revolution of the 18th century, Liberalism was opposed only by various versions of tra-di-tsio-na-liz-ma. Only later, in the course of this re-vo-lution and after it, and in the quality of re-action on poly-lytic beads and rage of early Liberalism, two other key themes of modern thought are formed - con-ser-va-tism and socialism. So for-mi-ru-it-Xia module of the modern world-ro-po-ni-mania, many times over-re-straying in the XIX and XX centuries, but not-changing-but-keeping-keeping his main com-na-nen-you.

Development of Liberalism in the 18th century by ro-di-lo and a large variety of its forms. So, in the Scottish Pro-light, there was from-verg-well-that idea of ​​general-st-ven-no-go-th-th-ra, and es-te-st-ven- noe right-in sve-de-but according to the essence of the law to the po-zi-tiv-no-mu right-woo. Faith in all-my-g-sh-st-in and self-standing-ra-zu-ma was-la critical-che-ski pe-re-os-cape-le- in Scottish fi-lo-s-fa-mi, then as Liberalism of the Kan-tov-go-ka for-mi-ro-val-sya in a straight line-le-mi-ke with ni- mi (first of all with D. Hume). "Not-from-chu-w-d-va-va" man-ve-ka, who became not only the edge-coal-stone of not-that-ry versions of Liberalism , but also his political sign (in the American and French revolu-lu-qi-yah), with a view to the scope of I. Ben-tam "che-poo-hoi on ho-du-lyah." Ori-en-ta-tions to the pro-illumined ab-so-lyu-tism as the most ado-watt-ny, or even the only one-st-ven-but it is possible -th, in-st-ru-ment of real-li-zation of re-for-ma-tor-pro-gram pro-ty-in-standing-whether v-reception of go-su-dar-st -va as "not-about-ho-di-mo-th evil" and aspiration, if possible, to "min-ni-mi-zi-ro-vat" it (for example, from T. Pay-n and K.V. von Gum-boldt).

The main topics and the problems of blemishness of the time-no-go li-be-ra-liz-ma.

In conflicts within a lot of different versions of Liberalism and between him and others, there are a lot of the same -ni-mi (con-ser-va-tiz-m, co-cia-liz-m, na-cyo-na-liz-m, fund-da-men-ta-liz-m, etc.) pro-out-ho-di-lo development of various forms of Liberalism, not rarely containing so much that they are lost -if the similarity-st-in between oneself and one's own “great-ro-di-te-la-mi” from the epoch of Pro-illumination. At the same time, it is possible to sim-bio-zy of not-that-ry versions of Liberalism and other ideological-logical themes, for example, whether socialism in the spirit of K. Ros-sel-li or L. Hob-haus, as well as in death-but published-li-ko-van liz-me "J.S. Mil-la, modern non-oli-be-ra-lism (L. von Mieses, M. Fried-man, A. Schwartz, etc.) - in essence, only ra-di-cal -new version of the ka-pi-ta-listik con-ser-va-tiz-ma, "li-be-ral-n-tsio-na-lism", ascending to the ide -am J. Mad-zi-no about the "temper-vene-noy that-tal-no-sti-ness of the nation" vers-sal-ny-mi values-but-sty-mi rights man-ve-ka.

In general, you can do the five main ones, whether-be-ral-noy thought-whether that lived in the XX century: 1) teachings, re-pro -of-the-theories of society-st-ven-no-go-go-th-ra and es-te-st-ven-rights (J. Rawls, various versions of dis -kur-siv-noy eth-ki - Y. Ha-ber-mas, etc.); 2) the concept of spontaneously-no-go in a row, continuing the traditions of the Scottish Pro-light (F.A. U. Bak-li Younger and others); 3) modern uti-li-ta-rism in its various versions (P. Zin-ger, K. Er-Row, G. Bekker, F. Knight); 4) ge-gel-yang versions of Liberalism (B. Cro-che, R. Kol-ling-gwood, etc.); 5) prag-ma-tism and non-op-rag-ma-tism (J. Dewey, R. Ror-ty and others). You can also talk about the growing ek-lekti-ness of modern concepts of Liberalism, which, in the opinion of his critics (C.R. Mills, etc.), is one of the reasons for his ba-na-li-zation. The political reason for this tendency of criticism is that modern Liberalism turns into a "pragmatic and so-ci-lo-gi-che-sko-es-description of me-ha-niz-mov of the function of the western society, which is it is no longer able to assess these me-ha-niz-we from the point of view of the growth or decrease of freedom (J. Dunn).

Inner di-na-mi-ka of modern Liberalism op-re-de-la-e-Xia dis-cus-si-mi on the following key themes. The first theme: should Liberalism, as its main goal, strive to limit of the power of any right-wing-tel-va (F.A. -wi-si-sti from how Liberalism copes with its important for-yes-who-support viy, without some-ryh not-possible-for-free real-li-zation of man-ve-com their own abilities (T.H. Green )? In the center of these dis-cus-siy - the relation of go-su-dar-tstva and society-st-va, functions and admittance scale activities of the first ra-di ensure-the-freedom of development in-di-vi-da and co-society-st-va lu -day. The second theme: should Liberalism be “valuable-but-but-neutral”, serve its own kind of “clean” technical defense -you in-di-vi-du-al-noy free without man-age (J. Rawls, B. Ak-ker-man), or does it actually reflect the op-de-de-len-ness values ​​(gu-man-no- sti, so-li-dar-no-sti, justice-ved-li-in-sti, etc.), forgetting one-ryh womb-va-something for not-so-mo-th pa-lips-us-mi on-trail-st-viy-mi (U. Gal-ston, M. Wal-tser)? With the second approach, neither "valuable neutrality" nor moral re-la-ty-vism for Liberalism is accepted. The axis of these discourses is the normative content of Liberalism and its embodiment in the institutes of the modern society. The third topic: how are the poly-ly-tic svo-bo-da and the cha-st-na-so-ven-ness connected, go-to-rya shi-re - ka-pi- ta-lism? Here, against-in-a-hundred-yat Liberalism is eco-no-mi-ch-sky and temper-st-ven-no-po-li-ti-ch. The essence of the first can be transformed into the form of von Mi-ze-sa's Liberalism: in one word, it would be like this: own-st-ven-ness, that is, private ownership of funds pro-of-water-st -wa ... All the rest of the tre-bo-va-li-be-ra-liz-ma you-te-ka-yut from this fun-da-men-tal-no-go tre -bo-va-nia "(Mi-zes L. von. Li-be-ra-lizm. M., 2001. P.24). The essence of the character-st-ven-no-po-li-ti-th-th Liberalism is that the connection of freedom and part-noy sob-st-ven-no- sti is not one-meaning-na and does not appear to be not-changeable in various historical circumstances. In the words of B. Cro-che, freedom-da “must-have the courage to accept the means of so-qi-al-no-go pro-gress, which rye ... yav-la-yut-sya different-in-different-mi and against-in-re-chi-mi ", and consider the freedom market only as "one of the possible types of eco-friendly order" (Croce B. My Philosophy and other essays on the moral and political problems of our time. L., 1949. P. 108).

Ha-rak-ter-naya for Liberalism, the assurance of the possibility of co-ver-shen-st-in-va-nia of any public institutes-tu-tov gets its own reincarnation only in a specific so-chi-al-noy practice, the vector-to-swarm for -li and or-ha-ni-za-tion of people. According to the words of R.G. Yes-ren-dor-fa, “there is no such state, in which li-be-ra-lism would be real-li-zo-van completely. Li-be-ra-lism is always a process ... in the middle of some-ro-th, there are new possibilities for pain -she number of people. Each time this process requires new impulses to give it energy ”(Dahrendorf R. The future tasks of libera-lism: a political agenda. L., 1988. P. 29).

Li-ber-ra-lism in so-qi-al-no-po-li-ti-ti-ka practice.

The practical implementation of the ideas of Liberalism, at least since the end of the 18th century, pro-is-ho-di-lo at several levels: a) mass-co- in the second consciousness; b) political ideology and party programs; c) poly-lytic institutes-tu-tov - in the first turn of the parties, who called them and / or considered us, etc. li-be-ral-no-go-su-dar-st-va. At these levels, the fate of Liberalism has grown differently.

In the 18th century, Liberalism was more likely to be aware of the "front-conducting" ari-one-one -rass-tav-she-go kri-zi-sa "old-ro-go-row-ka" than the class-so-hoy ideo-logi-gee bur-zhua-zii. Yes, the same British political eco-no-miia, inspired by the spirit of the for-peace-ruyu-che-go-Xia com-mer-che-th-society-st-va , very restrained-jean-but-so-las to the middle class. A. Smith in "God-gat-st-ve na-ro-dov" (chapter 11) called upon the society to watch out for "Merchants and pro-mice-len-nikov", always inclined to "ob-ma-ny-vat and dare." On the European con-ti-nen-te Liberalism has opened-up-that-not-pri-yaz-nyu to "simple-ly-di-us" and complete not-ve -we-get-to-be-able-to-ro-yes to control oneself, or whatever, as you-ra-complain-Xia Sh. Mon-tes-kyo, about-su-zh-give po-ly-tic de la. The relation to de-mo-kra-ty was-lo-key-read-but not-ha-tive, and even, for example, father-ts-o-n- va-te-whether the American republic-pub-li-ki, uch-re-f-d-sh-t-sh-t-v-tel-ny right-le-nie, see-de-whether its main do-one-in -st-in the fact that it can “create a force, not-due-to-see-from most-shin-st-va, that is, from the very shche-st-va "(Me-di-son J., Ga-mil-ton A. To the ro-do of the staff of New York. No. 51 // Fe-de-ra-list. M., 1994.S. 349). In these conditions, it is not necessary to talk about the arrival of Liberalism at the level of mass consciousness, but he already acted as a political ideology.

Si-tua-tion me-nya-is-sya in the XIX century - ad-re-sa-ta-mi of Liberalism sta-but-vyat-sya under-may-nay-si bur-zhu-az-ny media -nie classes, in-tel-li-gen-tion, the pro-illuminated part of chi-no-che-st-va and new (small and medium-sized) earth le-vl-del-tsy, adap-ti-ro-vav-shie-Xia to the fish-night services-lo-vi-yam ho-zyay-st-in-va-nia. On-stu-pa-et "golden age" of the classic li-be-ral parties, the example of which can be considered the English Li-be ral party led by U. Yu. Glad-st-na, and par-la-men-ta-riz-ma as or-ha-na me-niy and vo-li na-ro-da, put-lien-no-go in the center of the state mouth -y-st-va. As p-sal still Vol-ter, "pa-la-ta community is the true-lin-na-nation ...".

However, in these conditions, Liberalism was-ta-val-Xia ideo-logi-gi-les-shin-st-va, and his re-al-noe pro-nik-no -the introduction into the non-pri-vi-le-gy-ro-van-nye layers was-lo-nothing. "Na-tsi-her", represented in par-la-men-te, was named-but this is a little-shin-st-together with a lesser-shin-st-vom, represented by con-ser-va-tiv-mi parties (all-general of bi-feral law - for persons older than 21 years old - yes lo vve-de-no in Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nii, this "ko-ly-be-li-ro-in-go li-ber-ra-liz-ma", only in 1928!). At the same time, the most decisive op-po-zi-zi-ziziya ras-shi-re-niyu from bi-ratelny right-va is-ho-di-la then it is from li-be-ra-lov "man-chester-sko-go-ka" (Man-chester became at that time the "hundred-face" of the ka-pi-ta-listicin -do-st-ri-al-noy re-in-lu-tion): they feared that their own-st-ven-ness might turn out to be under the threat of sides of those who have-not-haves who-receive-tea-through-the-widening-out-of-law influence on the activities of the go-su-dar -st-va. Relationship between Liberalism and de-mo-kra-ti-it-ta-wa-were-na-wives-n-mi on pro-ty-w-nii XIX century. Modern "de-mo-kra-ti-ch-ka-pi-ta-lism" is a product of a heavy and long political struggle, in which a swarm and li-ba-ra-liz-mu, and de-mo-cra-tii had to go for serious mutual us-stupidity.

In the XX century, especially after the 2nd world war, it was obvious that the upa-dock of the be-ral parties, despite the fact that the ideas of Liberalism - the value of the market, human rights, "good de-mo-cracy" and so on. greasy recognition. In Li-be-ral-n-ter-na-tsio-na-le (os-no-van in 1947), representatives of a party of 46 countries, but only one of them - ka-nad Li-be-ral-naya party - per-rio-di-che-ski sta-but-vit-sya right. Par-tii in Japan and Av-st-ra-lii, who call themselves li-be-ral-ni and a hundred-yan-but (like the first) li -because from time to time (like the second-paradise) to-ho-dya-si at the power, fact-ti-tch-si yav-la-yut-sya con-ser-va -to-us-mi. Other li-be-ral parties have practically no chances to come to power. For the 19th century, the English Li-be-ral-naya party pre-kra-ti-la su-shche-st-vo-va-nia in 1988, merged with the so-ci -al-de-mo-kra-ta-mi (contrary-ni-ki merging "vos-sta-no-vi-li" in 1989, but its poly-literal weight is co-ver -shen-but-no-wives). At the same time, almost all the influential parties of Western countries have become li-beral-us and it is difficult to distinguish in the program from -no-shi-nii. Serious ideo-logical and strategic different-eyes, which, even before the 2nd world-war, kept me -zh-du so-qi-al-de-mo-kra-ta-mi and liberals, came to naught. Ra-di-cal-naya op-position-left and right-va practical-chez-la, in any case at the level of par-la-ment -sko-th representative-sta-tel-st-va. By-li-ti-ka pe-re-la-la to be a "dispute about ideals" and went to ad-mi-ni-st-ri-ro-va, hour something like a "crisis management". All this reflects the word-living-Xia in the mass consciousness of con-sen-sus from-no-si-tel-but-bas-si-l-be-ral- values, perceived as the most obvious fact and became their own kind of ba-nal-no-sti-mi.

Li-be-ra-lism in eco-no-mi-ke.

Theo-re-tee-ki of classical Liberalism ut-ver-waited-whether without-condition-ny pri-ori-tete in-di-vi-du-al-nyh rights to property and free-bo-do you-bo-ra of the eco-nomic ve-de-nia. According to A. Smeet, moral life and eco-nomic activity should be os-in-bo-z-de-ny from di-rek-tiv with a hundred us go-su-dar-st-va, and a free market in the process of natural sa-mo-re-gu-li-ro-va-va spo-so-ben dos -that more pro-because-of-di-ness than a market with a lot of og-ra-no-th-ny: “Every -ve-ku, until he-ru-sha-em za-kon-right-ved-li-in-sti, pre-do-become-la-e-sy so-ver-shen-no free-to-follow-up-to-vow according to your own-ven-no-mo-de-zu-me-niyu your in-te-re-sy and finish-ku-ri-ro-vat your work house and ka-pi-ta-lom with labor and ka-pi-ta-lom of the other person and the whole class "(Smith A. Is-sl-do-va -nie about pri-ro-de and pri-chi-nah bogat-st-va na-ro-dov. M., 2007. S. 647). From-flock-vae-my pre-sta-vi-te-la-mi of Liberalism, the principle of not-sha-tel-st-va go-su-dar-st-va in eco-no-mi-ku (laissez-faire) includes from-day-state subsidies and various barriers to trade; the cost of to-va-ditch and service-lug must-on-re-de-lyat-Xia is-key-chi-tel-but-night-mi si-la-mi.

The main eco-no-mi-ki yav-la-et-sya "free, frequent pre-reception." The main task of whose go-su-dar-st-va counts-ta-et-sya to ensure-the-ing of the hundred-strong rules of the game is to follow the co-blu-de -n-it-con-but-sti, pre-do-pre-f-to give the possible to-s-lie, to support the must-that-purity de-tender noisy system-those-we and provide-print-vat free markets; pre-la-ha-e-sy that between-w-du from-vet-st-ven-no-stu right-wi-tel-st-va and ind-di-vid-dov should be bal-lance and go-su-dar-st-in only those problems, which cannot be shim ob-ra-zom cha-st-ny sec-to-rum.

The principles of the state re-gu-li-ro-va-nia of the ka-pi-ta-listik eco-no-mi-ki are described in the works of J.M. Kane-sa, L. Bren-ta-no, L. Hob-hau-sa, T.H. Green, B. Olyn and J. Dewey, who played a prominent role in the propagation of the ideas of Liberalism throughout the world.

Li-be-ra-lism in Russia.

Liberalism as an ideological-logical trend in Russia sfor-mi-ro-val-Xia in the 1830-1840s. In its basis, were the ideas of the theo-re-tiks of French Liberalism (F. Guizo, B.A. Kon-st-na de Re-beck, A. de To-k-vi-la) and G.V.F. Ge-ge-la, that in-zvo-li-lo pe-re-os-cape-pour the experience of phi-lo-s-phii Pro-lightening in addition to Russia and pre-lo-live the project of the mo-de-no-zation of the country, pre-po-la-gav-shy significant pre-ob-ra-zo-va-nia so-qi-al -but-po-ly-tic system-te-we. First, first, Liberalism has received the most widespread races in the uni-vers-si-tete environment. Subsequently, he controlled his influence along with the development of public institutes-tu-tov (circles, ob-e-di -niy, printed-out-of-data, or-gan-me-st-no-go samo-control, etc.).

In its history, Russian Liberalism has gone through a definite evolution. In the opinion of the Russian li-beers of the 1830-1890s (K.D. Ka-ve-lin, B.N. Chi-che-rin, S.M. .D. Gra-dov-sky, etc.), the key force in the historical process in Russia was go-su-dar-st-in; it is a way-so-st-in-va-lo to develop-the-society-st-ven-ny, including right-in-vy, inst-st-tu-tov, next-to- va-tel-but, and the emergence of a civil society-st-va is possible only with the active participation of the government. In s-lu this-th-l-b-r-ly you-stu-pa-li against the revolution-shaking-gray -toi, on-ru-sha-whether the natural course of development and could plunge Russia into anarchy. Theo-re-tee-ki of Russian Liberalism from-flock-wa-whether the evo-lu-tsi-on-ny path of pre-ob-ra-zo-va-niy, which-ry-ry-ringing -ste-pen-but-expand the legal guarantees of political and civil freedoms ka-f-do-man-ve-ka and over time -Let's count-you-vat on the us-ta-nov-le-tion of the con-sti-tu-ci-on-row-kov in Russia. At the same time, Ka-ve-lin and Chi-che-rin counted-ta-whether-be-ral-ny values ​​of not-co-with-we-mi with de-mo-cratic prin -tsi-pom without-border-no-ge-ge-mo-nii bol-shin-st-va, since the key for-yes-whose right-in-th-go-su -dar-st-va po-la-ha-li from-flock-va-in-te-re-sov in-di-vi-da. These ideas were-whether ha-rak-ter-ny and for the "le-be-ral-bureau-kra-tov" (A.A. Aba-zy, A.V. Golov-ni-na , D.A. and N.A. Great re-forms of the 1860-1870s. They are from-la-ha-lis influential periodic from-da-mi (for example, zhur-na-la-mi "Vestnik Ev-ro-py", "Rus -skaya thought ", etc.), public volume-e-di-not-niy-mi (legal societies-st-va-mi, society-st-va gra-mot- no-sti, Literary fund-house, etc.), zem-sky-mi so-b-ra-nia-mi and or-ga-na-mi of the city s-mo-management.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, the ideas of Liberalism changed in the re-zul-ta-those of the modernization of the Russian society. New theo-re-tees of Liberalism (V.M. Ges-sen, F.F.Ko-kosh-kin, P.N. Mi-lu-kov, P.I. tsev, etc.) is-ho-di-whether from the interconnection-mo-ob-words-len-no-sti-le-be-ral and de-mo-cratic values, which is bo-va-lo ras-shi-re-niya pe-speech-nya ga-ran-ti-ro-van-zh-da-ni-well freedom, go-vo-ri-whether about pra -ve man-ve-ka for a "decent life" (that is, about the right to education, medical equipment, culture -ny do-sug, etc.), about the so-ci-al-noy function of the own-st-ven-no-sti, which-paradise should-be-served not only about her -la-da-te-lyu, but also to the whole society. Such a concept, as before, pre-la-ha-la, the active role of state power as a re-gu-la-to-ra right-in- no-she-ny, and go-su-dar-st-in, pre-ten-blowing-up to the expression of in-te-re-sov most-shin-st-va, should-but was-lo de-mo-kra-ti-zi-ro-vat-Xia and ga-ran-ti-ro-vat poly-literal rights to all of his gra-z-da-us. These ideas do-mi-ni-ro-va-li in the central or-ga-nah of the periodical press: Bir-same-vye-do-mo-sti "," Pra-vo "," Speech "," Slo-vo "," Ut-ro Russia "," Go-los Mo-sk-you "and others, journal-na-lakh "Vestnik Ev-ro-py", "Mo-s-kov-sky hedgehog-not-del-nick", etc.

Li-be-ral-ny ha-rak-ter no-si-lo Zemsky movement, which way-so-st-in-va-lo to make out about -party-tiyh-e-di-not-niy: circle "Be-se-da" (1899-1905), So-yu-za os-vo-bo-j-de-niy ( 1903-1905), Soyu-zem-tsev-kon-sti-tu-tsio-na-list (1903-1905). Was-la-pro-ve-de-na "Ban-ket-naya cam-pa-nia" of 1904 with the aim of keeping the Russian governing body for new reformers -mam - the introduction of the constitution and political freedom. In the re-zul-ta-te of the activities of the li-be-r-ha-ni-zats, it was possible to establish connections between various circles ha-mi of the Russian society-st-ven-no-sti, you-to-work-up-ideo-logical us-ta-nov-ki, which in the wake of the whether in the main-but-woo program documents a number of political parties. Sa-mi parties na-cha-whether skla-dy-vat-sya after the publication-li-co-va-nia of Man-ni-fe-sta 17 ok-tyab-rya 1905 (pro-age glaciers civil freedoms and the creation of a people's representative office in the form of the State Duma) in connection with the lack of pro-ve-de-nia from-bi-ratelny cam-pa-nii in Du-mu. In October 1905, the emergence of-la Kon-sti-tu-tsi-on-no-de-mo-kra-ti-t-ch-party (party ka-de-tov; l-der - P .N. Mi-lu-kov), ob-e-di-nyav-shaya side-ron-nikov of the left wing of Russian Liberalism: representatives of the pro-fes su-ry (V.I.Ver-nad-skii, A.A.Ki-ze-vet-ter, L.I. Pet-ra-zhits-ky, P.I. M.Ya. Ost-ro-gorsky, V.D. Na-bo-kov and others), ad-vo-ka-tu-ry (V.A. Man-del-shtam, N.V. Tes-len-ko and others), zemstvo dey-te-lei (brothers Pa-vel D. and Peter D. Dol-go-ru-ko-you , A.I.Shin-ga-royov, I.I.Pet-run-kevich, F.I. They are-stu-pa-li for the us-ta-nov-le-nie of the constitutional mon-nar-chii with the answer-vet-st-ven-ny before the State Duma-my great-chief -st-vom, pro-ve-de-shi-ro-kih so-qi-al-pre-ob-ra-zo-va-niy, rass-count-you-wa-whether to uch-re- di-tial functions of the people's representative, who, with the support of public opinion, could go to the cardinal -nie poly-literal re-forms, even without the sanction of im-pe-ra-to-ra. The most complete is the same attitude to the evil-day-long issues about the Russian politics and the revolutionary movement was reflected in the collections "Ve-khi" (1909) and "In-tel-li-gen-tion in Russia" (1910). In November 1905, the ob-ra-zo-va-na party "So-yuz 17 ok-tyab-rya" (leader - A.I. Guch-kov), represented right wing of Russian Liberalism. Ok-tyab-ri-sts (M.M. Alek-se-en-ko, V.M. Pet-ro-vo-So-lo-vo-in, M.V. Rod-zyan-ko, N. A. Kho-my-kov, S. I. Shid-lov-sky, etc.) you-stu-pa-li for the introduction in Russia of a constitutional monarchy with a co-existence of no significant sex -no-mo-chiy im-pe-ra-to-ra, hoped for the possibility of dia-lo-ga with dey-st-vuyu power, partners from -no-walk-with-which-swarm could-sound-to-solve-solve one hundred-thing before Russia-s-her problems without so-qi-al -but-po-ly-tic-shake-se-niy. Pro-me-zhu-exact position for-ni-ma-li of the party li-be-ral-no-go center: De-mo-kra-ti-che forms of the party (M.M. Ko-va-lev-sky, V.D. Kuz-min-Ka-ra-va-ev, etc.) -tia (P.A.Gey-den, M.A.Sta-khovich, D.N. remov, N.N. Lvov, E.N. Trubets-coy and others). They na-flock-va-li on the renewal of the political and legal life of Russia by the evolution of the traditional uk-la-da and by-step-pen-no-go replacement of ar-ha-ich-nyh elements of the so-qi-al-noy system-te-we in time.

Li-be-ral-party-tii rass-count-you-wa-whether pre-w-de everything on par-la-ment-tak-ti-ku. They played a key role in the activities of the State Duma of all four so-called yes-nie "Pro-progressive-no-block-ka", vol-e-di-niv-she-go op-in-zi-tsi-on-nye most-shin-st-in 4th Do-we, in the period of the 1st world-ro-howl-ny for-nya-are-blowing on-zizi-tion in the Zemsky soyuz-ze, Soyu-ze go-ro -dov, Zem-go-re and vo-en-but-pro-thought-ko-mi-te-takh, ko-rye spo-sob-st-vo-va-whether con-so- li-da-tsii op-po-zi-tsi-on-but-staged society-st-ven-no-sti. Li-be-ra-ly did-bi-lied from the power of Emperor Ni-kolai II, after the pas-de-niyah sa-mo-der-zha-viya in ho -de the February Revolution of 1917, form-mi-ro-va-whether the first composition of the Provisional Governor-tel-va, in the wake of their representation vi-te-whether teaching-st-in-va-whether in the work of all his co-sta-vov. After the October Revolution of 1917 and us-ta-nov-le-niya dik-ta-tu-ry more-she-vi-kov was-chez-la so-qi-al-naya and poly-lytic environment for races-pro-passion-no-be-richest ideas in Russia.

The further-neat-development-development of whether-be-ral-noy thought-whether pro-is-ho-di-lo in the circles of the Russian emigration. Su-sh-st-ven-ny contribution outside the author of the magazine "New Grad" (II Bu-na-kov-Fon-da-min-skiy, N.A. Ber- dya-ev, S.I.Ges-sen, F.A.Stepun, G.P. Fe-do-tov, etc.) syn-te-for of Liberalism and principles of co-qi-al-noah justice-ved-li-sti. Developing the concept of Christ's de-mo-cra-ty, they considered that pre-ob-ra-zo-va-nia in eco -nomical sphere-re do not have self-mo-dov-leyu-s-knowledge, but only should be able to-so-st-v-vat uk-re-p-le- niyu instit-tu-tov right-in-th-go-su-dar-st-va and civil society-st-va, og-ra-no-che-nie right-va cha-st- Noah own-st-ven-no-sti should not be put under the mind of a person-ve-che-ch-no-sti.

In the post-Soviet-vet-period in Russia, the li-be-ral ideas of the wasps-but-you-were-were mainly on the end-tsi-yah of not-windows-ser -wa-tiz-ma and li-ber-ta-ri-an-st-va. Their sides-ni-ki na-flock-va-li na min-no-mi-zation ro-li go-su-dar-st-va pre-w-de everything in eco-no- micheskoy sphere, from-to-dya from representations about the sa-mo-or-ha-no-zuyu-si market, from-ri-tsa-li ha-rak-ter -with the concept of so-qi-al-no-go-su-dar-st-va for the modern European li-beral-noy cape.

What is liberalism? Each person will answer this question differently. Even dictionaries give different definitions of this concept. This article explains what liberalism is, in simple words.

Definitions

There are several of the most accurate definitions of the concept of "liberalism".

1. Ideology, political trend. It unites admirers of parliamentarism, democratic rights and free enterprise.

2. Theory, system of political and philosophical ideas... It was formed among Western European thinkers in the 18th-19th centuries.

3. The worldview typical of ideologues from among the industrial bourgeoisie who defended free enterprise and their political rights.

4. In the primary sense - freethinking.

5. Excessive tolerance, condescension, conciliatory attitude towards bad deeds.

Speaking about what liberalism is, in simple words, it should be noted that this is a political and ideological trend, whose representatives deny revolutionary methods of struggle in achieving certain rights and benefits, advocate free enterprise, the implementation of democratic principles.

Basic principles of liberalism

The ideology of liberalism differs from other theories of political and philosophical thought in special principles. They were formulated by scientists back in the 18th-19th centuries, and representatives of this trend are striving to implement them ever since.

1. Human life- absolute value.
2. All people are equal.
3. The will of the individual does not depend on external factors.
4. The needs of one person are more important than the collective. The category "personality" is primary, "society" is secondary.
5. Every person has natural, inalienable rights.
6. The state should emerge on the basis of a general consensus.
7. Man himself creates laws and values.
8. The citizen and the state are responsible to each other.
9. Separation of powers. The dominance of the principles of constitutionalism.
10. The government must be elected through fair and democratic elections.
11. Tolerance and humanism.

Ideologues of Classical Liberalism

Each ideologist of this trend understood what liberalism was in his own way. This theory is represented by many concepts and opinions, which can sometimes contradict each other. The origins of classical liberalism can be seen in the works of C. Montesquieu, A. Smith, J. Locke, J. Mill, T. Hobbes. It was they who laid the foundations for the new trend. The basic principles of liberalism were developed back in the Enlightenment in France by Charles Montesquieu. He spoke for the first time about the need for separation of powers and recognition of individual freedom in all spheres of life.

Adam Smith substantiated what economic liberalism is, and also identified its main principles and characteristics. J. Locke is the founder of the theory of the rule of law. In addition, he is one of the most prominent ideologues of liberalism. J. Locke argued that stability in a society can exist only if it consists of free people.

Features of liberalism in the classical sense

The ideologists of classical liberalism focused on the concept of "individual freedom". Unlike absolutist ideas, their concepts denied the complete subordination of the individual to society and social orders. The ideology of liberalism defended the independence and equality of all people. Freedom was perceived as the absence of any restrictions or prohibitions on implementation deliberate actions personality within the framework of generally accepted rules and laws. The state, according to the fathers of classical liberalism, is obliged to ensure the equality of all citizens. However, a person should independently worry about his financial situation.

Liberalism proclaimed the need to limit the scope of the state. Its functions should be reduced to a minimum and consist in maintaining order and ensuring security. Power and society can only exist if they obey the laws.

Models of classical liberalism

J. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, J.St. Mill, T. Payne. They defended the ideas of individualism and human freedom. In order to understand what liberalism is in the classical sense, one should consider its interpretations.

1. Continental European model. Representatives of this concept (F. Guizot, B. Constant, J.-J. Rousseau, B. Spinoza) defended the ideas of constructivism, rationalism in interaction with nationalism, gave greater importance freedom within society than for individuals.
2. Anglo-Saxon model. Representatives of this concept (J. Locke, A. Smith, D. Hume) put forward the ideas of the rule of law, unrestricted trade, were convinced that freedom is more important for an individual than for society as a whole.
3. North American model. Representatives of this concept (J. Adams, T. Jefferson) developed the ideas of inalienable human rights.

Economic liberalism

This trend of liberalism was based on the idea that economic laws act in the same way as natural ones. Government interference in this area was considered unacceptable.

A. Smith is considered the father of the concept of economic liberalism. His teaching was based on the following ideas.

1. The best incentive economic development- personal interest.
2. Government measures of regulation and monopoly, which have been practiced within the framework of mercantilism, are harmful.
3. The development of the economy is guided by an “invisible hand”. The necessary institutions must arise in a natural order without government intervention. Firms and resource suppliers that are interested in increasing their own wealth and operate within a competitive market system are allegedly directed by an "invisible hand", which contributes to the satisfaction of social needs.

The rise of neoliberalism

Considering what liberalism is, the definition must be given to two concepts - classic and modern (new).

By the beginning of the XX century. in this direction of political and economic thought, crisis phenomena begin to manifest themselves. In many western European states ah, there are workers' strikes, industrial society is entering a period of conflicts. In such conditions, the classical theory of liberalism ceases to coincide with reality. New ideas and principles are being formed. The central problem of modern liberalism is the issue of social guarantees of the rights and freedoms of the individual. This was largely due to the popularity of Marxism. In addition, the need for social measures was considered in the works of I. Kant, J. St. Mill, G. Spencer.

Principles of modern (new) liberalism

The new liberalism is characterized by an orientation towards rationalism and purposeful reforms with the aim of improving the existing state and political systems. A special place is occupied by the problem of comparing freedom, justice and equality. There is the concept of "elite". She is formed from the most worthy members of the group. It is believed that society can achieve triumph only thanks to the elite and dies with it.

The economic principles of liberalism are defined by the concepts of "free market" and "minimal state". The problem of freedom takes on an intellectual coloring and is transferred to the field of morality and culture.

Features of neoliberalism

As a social philosophy and political concept, modern liberalism has its own characteristics.

1. State intervention in the economy is necessary. The government must protect free competition and the market from the possibility of monopoly emergence.
2. Support for the principles of democracy, justice. The broad masses must actively participate in the political process.
3. The state is obliged to develop and implement programs aimed at supporting low-income groups of the population.

Differences between classical and modern liberalism

Idea, principle	Classical liberalism	Neoliberalism
Freedom is ...	Liberation from restrictions	Self-development opportunity
Natural human rights	Equality of all people, the impossibility of depriving a person of his natural rights	Highlighting economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights individual
	The rise of private life and its opposition to the state, power should be limited	It is necessary to carry out reforms that will improve the relationship between the citizen and the government
State interference in the social sphere	Limited	Useful and necessary

The history of the development of Russian liberalism

In Russia already in the XVI century. an understanding of what liberalism is is emerging. Several stages can be distinguished in the history of its development.

1. Government liberalism. Arose in the highest circles of Russian society. The period of government liberalism coincides with the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I. In fact, its existence and development embraces the era of enlightened absolutism.
2. Post-reform (conservative) liberalism. Outstanding representatives this era were P. Struve, K. Kavelin, B. Chicherin and others. At the same time, zemstvo liberalism was being formed in Russia.
3. New (social) liberalism. Representatives of this trend (N. Kareev, S. Gessen, M. Kovalevsky, S. Muromtsev, P. Milyukov) defended the idea of ​​creating decent living conditions for every person. At this stage, the preconditions for the formation of the Cadet Party were formed.

These liberal trends differed not only among themselves, but also had many differences with Western European concepts.

Government liberalism

Earlier we examined what liberalism is (definition by history and political science, signs, features). However, authentic directions of this trend have formed in Russia. Government liberalism is a prime example. It reached its peak during the reign of Alexander I. At this time, liberal ideas spread among the nobility. The reign of the new emperor began with a series of progressive transformations. It was allowed to freely cross the border, import foreign books, etc. On the initiative of Alexander I, an unspoken committee was created, which was engaged in the development of projects for new reforms. It included those close to the emperor. In the plans of the figures Unspoken committee was the reform of the state system, the creation of a constitution and even the abolition of serfdom. However, under the influence of reactionary forces, Alexander I decided only on partial transformations.

The emergence of conservative liberalism in Russia

Conservative liberalism was widespread in England and France. In Russia, this direction has taken on special features. Conservative liberalism has its origins in the assassination of Alexander II. The reforms that the emperor developed were only partially implemented, and the country was still in need of transformation. The emergence of a new trend is due to the fact that in the highest circles of Russian society they began to understand what liberalism and conservatism are, and tried to avoid their extremes.

Ideologues of Conservative Liberalism

In order to understand what post-reform liberalism is in Russia, it is necessary to consider the concepts of its ideologists.

K. Kavelin is the founder of the conceptual approach to this direction of political thought. His student, B. Chicherin, developed the foundations of the theory of conservative liberalism. He defined this direction as "positive", the purpose of which is to implement the reforms necessary for society. At the same time, all segments of the population must defend not only their own ideas, but also take into account the interests of others. According to B. Chicherin, society can be strong and stable only if it relies on power. In this case, a person must be free, since he is the beginning and source of all social relations.

P. Struve was involved in the development of the philosophical, cultural and methodological foundations of this direction. He believed that only a rational combination of conservatism and liberalism could save Russia in the post-reform period.

Features of post-reform liberalism

1. Recognition of the need for government regulation. At the same time, the directions of its activities should be clearly identified.
2. The state is recognized as the guarantor of the stability of relations between various groups within the country.
3. Realization that in the period of increasing failures of reformers, it becomes possible for authoritarian leaders to come to power.
4. Transformations in the economy can only be gradual. The ideologues of post-reform liberalism argued that it was necessary to monitor the reaction of society to each reform and carry them out with caution.
5. Selective attitude towards Western society. It is necessary to use and accept only what meets the needs of the state.

The ideologists of this direction of political thought sought to embody their ideas through an appeal to mass values ​​that were formed in the process of the historical development of society. This is precisely the purpose and distinctive feature conservative liberalism.

Zemsky liberalism

Speaking of post-reform Russia, one cannot fail to mention what Zemstvo liberalism is. This trend emerges in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. At this time, modernization was taking place in Russia, which led to an increase in the number of intelligentsia, in whose circles an opposition movement was formed. A secret circle "Beseda" was created in Moscow. It was his work that laid the foundation for the formation of the ideas of the liberal opposition. Members of this circle were zemstvo leaders F. Golovin, D. Shipov, D. Shakhovsky. The mouthpiece of the liberal opposition was the Osvobozhdeniye magazine, which was published abroad. On its pages, it was said about the need to overthrow the autocratic power. In addition, the liberal opposition advocated the empowerment of zemstvos and their active participation in government.

New liberalism in Russia

The liberal trend in the political thought of Russia acquires new features by the beginning of the 20th century. The direction is being formed in an atmosphere of sharp criticism of the concept of "rule of law". That is why liberals set themselves the task of substantiating the progressive role of government institutions in the life of society.
It is important to note that in the XX century. Russia is entering a period of social crisis. The new liberals saw the cause of it as an everyday economic disorder and a spiritual and moral catastrophe. They believed that a person should have not only the means of subsistence, but also leisure, which he will use for his improvement.

Radical liberalism

Speaking about what liberalism is, it should be noted the existence of its radical direction. In Russia, it took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The main goal this movement was the overthrow of the autocracy. A striking example of the activities of radical liberals was the Constitutional Democratic Party (Cadets). Considering this direction, its principles should be highlighted.

1. Downplaying the role of the state. Hopes are pinned on spontaneous processes.
2. Achievement of the set goals in various ways. The possibility of using coercive methods is not denied.
3. In the field of economics, only fast and deep macro reforms are possible. that cover as many aspects as possible.
4. One of the main values ​​of radical liberalism is the combination of the experience of world culture and developed European states with the problems of Russia.

Contemporary Russian liberalism

What is modern liberalism in Russia? This issue is still controversial. Researchers put forward different versions about the origin of this trend, about its principles and features in Russia.
Scientists identify some of the features of modern liberalism in Russia. Let's consider them in more detail.

1. Discussions about the political structure often go beyond the bounds of liberalism.
2. Justification of the need for the existence of a market economy.
3. Promotion and protection of private property rights.
4. The emergence of the question of "Russian identity".
5. In the field of religion, most liberals advocate a tolerant attitude towards other confessions.

conclusions

Today, there are many currents in the liberal direction of political thought. Each of them has developed its own principles and special features. V recent times in the world community there are debates about what innate liberalism is, whether it exists at all. It should be noted that even the French enlighteners argued that freedom is a right, but the understanding of its necessity is not available to everyone.

In general, we can say that liberal ideas and transformations are an integral part of modern life.

Several years ago, the All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion conducted a survey of the population, the main question of which was: "What is liberalism, and who is a liberal?" Most of the participants were misled by this question, 56% were unable to provide a comprehensive answer... The survey was conducted in 2012, most likely, today the situation has hardly changed for the better. Therefore, now in this article we will briefly consider the concept of liberalism and all its main aspects for enlightening the Russian audience.

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About the concept

There are several definitions that describe the concept of this ideology. Liberalism is:

• political trend or ideology that unites fans of democracy and parliamentarism;
• worldview, which is characteristic of industrial, defending their rights of a political nature, as well as entrepreneurial freedom;
• a theory that absorbed philosophical and political ideas, which appeared in Western Europe in the 18th century;
• the first meaning of the concept was freethinking;
• tolerance and tolerance for unacceptable behavior.

All these definitions can be safely attributed to liberalism, but the main one is that this term denotes an ideology that affects the structure and the state. WITH Latin translates liberalism as freedom. Are all the functions and aspects of this movement really built in freedom?

Freedom or restriction

The liberal movement includes key concepts such as about public good, personal freedom and human equality within the policy and. What liberal values ​​does this ideology promote?

1. Common good. If the state protects the rights and freedom of the individual, as well as protects the people from various threats and monitors the observance of laws, then such a structure of society can be called reasonable.
2. Equality. Many people shout that all people are equal, although it is obvious that this is not at all the case. We differ from each other in different ways: intelligence, social status, physical data, nationality and so on. But liberals mean equality in human opportunity... If a person wants to achieve something in life, no one has the right to interfere with this on the basis of race, social and other points. . The principle is that if you make an effort, you will achieve more.
3. Natural rights. British thinkers Locke and Hobbes came up with the idea that a person has three rights from birth: to life, to property and to happiness. It will not be difficult for many to interpret this: no one has the right to take a person's life (only the state for certain misdeeds), property is viewed as a personal right to own something, and the right to happiness is that very freedom of choice.

Important! What is liberalization? There is also such a concept that means the expansion of civil liberties and rights within the framework of economic, political, cultural and social life, and this is a process when the economy gets rid of the influence of the state.

The principles of liberal ideology:

• there is nothing more valuable than human life;
• all people in this world are equal;
• everyone has inalienable rights;
• personality and its needs are more valuable than society as a whole;
• the state arises by common consent;
• a person forms laws and state values ​​independently;
• the state is responsible to the person, the person, in turn, to the state;
• power should be divided, the principle of organizing life in the state on the basis of the constitution;
• only in fair elections can the government be elected;
• humanistic ideals.

These principles of liberalism formulated in the 18th century English philosophers and thinkers. Many of them never came to fruition. Most of them look like a utopia, which humanity strives so fervently for, but cannot achieve in any way.

Important! Liberal ideology could become a lifeline for many countries, but there will always be some “pitfalls” that impede development.

Founders of ideology

What is liberalism? At that time, every thinker understood him in his own way. This ideology absorbed completely different ideas and opinions of the thinkers of that time.

It is clear that some of the concepts may contradict each other, but the essence remains the same.

The founders of liberalism can be considered the English scientists J. Locke and T. Hobbes (18th century) along with the French writer of the Enlightenment Charles Montesquieu, who was the first to ponder and express his opinion about the freedom of man in all spheres of his activity.

Locke initiated the existence of legal liberalism and declared that only in a society in which all citizens are free can there be stability.

The original theory of liberalism

Followers of classical liberalism gave more preference and paid more attention to the "individual freedom" of a person. The concept of this concept is expressed in the fact that a person should not obey either society or social orders. Independence and equality- these are the main steps at which the entire liberal ideology stood. The word "freedom" then meant the absence of various prohibitions, limits or vetoes on the implementation of actions by an individual, taking into account the generally accepted rules and laws of the state. That is, that freedom that would not run counter to established dogmas.

As the founders of the liberal movement believed, the government should guarantee equality between all its citizens, but a person already had to take care of his financial situation and status on his own. Limiting the scope of government power was what liberalism in turn tried to achieve. According to theory, the only thing the state had to provide for its citizens was safety and order protection. That is, the liberals tried to influence the minimization of all its functions. The existence of society and power could exist only under the condition of their general subordination to laws within the framework of the state.

It became clear that classical liberalism did exist when, in 1929, a terrible economic crisis arose in the United States. Its consequences were tens of thousands of bankrupt banks, the death of many people from hunger and other horrors of the state's economic recession.

Economic liberalism

The main concept of this movement was the idea of ​​equality between economic and natural laws. State interference in these laws was prohibited. Adam Smith is the founder of this movement and its basic principles:

• personal motivation is needed to boost economic development;
• government regulation and the existence of monopolies harm the economy;
• economic growth must be fostered imperceptibly. That is, the government should not interfere with the emergence of new institutions. Enterprises and suppliers acting in the interest of income and within the market system are discreetly directed by an “invisible hand”. All this is the key to competently meeting the needs of society.

Neoliberalism

This direction was formed in the 19th century and implies new trend c, which consists in the complete non-interference of the government in trade relations between its subjects.

The main principles of neoliberalism are constitutionalism and equality between all members of society in the country.

Signs of this trend: the government should promote self-regulation of the economy in the market, and the process of redistribution of finances, first of all, should take into account strata of the population with low level income.

Neoliberalism does not oppose government regulation of the economy, while classical liberalism denies this. But the regulation process should include only a free market and the competitiveness of subjects to guarantee economic growth along with social justice. The main idea of ​​neoliberalism - support for foreign trade policy and domestic trade to increase the gross income of the state, that is, protectionism.

All political concepts and philosophical movements have their own characteristics, and neoliberalism was no exception:

• the need for government intervention in the economy. The market must be protected from the possible emergence of monopolies, and a competitive environment and freedom must be ensured;
• protection of principles and justice. All citizens must be involved in political processes to maintain the desired democratic “weather”;
• government should keep different economic programs, associated with financial support of social strata with low income.

Briefly about liberalism

Why is the concept of liberalism distorted in Russia?

Output

Now the question: "What is liberalism?" will no longer cause dissonance among respondents. After all, the understanding of freedom and equality is simply presented under other terms that have their own principles and concepts that affect different areas state structure, but remaining unchanged in one thing - only then the state will prosper when it ceases to restrict its citizens in many ways.