The development of fingerprinting in Russia Semenovsky headed the registration bureau of the Central Investigation Department and was engaged in scientific research in the field of fingerprinting. In 1923, he published the book "Dactyloscopy as a method of registration", which helped to restore the registration apparatus.

The Development of Nursing in Russia In Russia, nursing as a science has been formed relatively recently. However, it has a long history. At all times, the hard work of caring for the sick and wounded fell mainly on the shoulders of women. Yes, in women's

culture Russia XVII in. In the Russian culture of this century, the features of the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age can be traced. The main feature of the culture of this period is a noticeable secularization. This process covered all spheres of cultural life. also for the development of culture

Features modern culture Russia The collapse of the Soviet Union intensified the processes that took place in the field of culture and art in last years the existence of the USSR. New spheres of culture are drawn into market relations (including education and science),

Russian culture in the 15th-17th centuries.

In the 16th century Russian chronicle writing continued to develop. In the middle of the 16th century The Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge annalistic code, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon chronicle. The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564. One of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture was the construction of tent churches. They do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. Another direction in the architecture of the 16th century. There was the construction of small stone or wooden township churches. In the 16th century Extensive construction of stone kremls was carried out. Dionysius was the greatest Russian painter. In the 17th century The formation of the all-Russian market begins. In the second half of the 17th century. Several state schools. in 1687 The first higher education institution was founded in Moscow educational institution- Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. In the 17th century The last official annalistic compositions were created. A court theater was created in Moscow. In Russian towns and villages, the traveling theater became widespread. The development of ancient Russian stone architecture culminated in the formation of a style called the Naryshkin or Moscow Baroque.

Formation of a one-party regime in the USSR in the 20-30s

This variety of totalitarianism most fully reflects the characteristic features of the regime, i.e. private property is liquidated, and consequently, any basis of individualism and autonomy of members of society is destroyed. The economic basis of totalitarianism of the Soviet type was command - administrative system built on the nationalization of the means of production. In the USSR, it was formed in the process of industrialization and collectivization. The one-party political system was established in the USSR already in the 1920s. In the 30s. The CPSU (b), having gone through a series of sharp fights of its leaders in the struggle for power, was a single, strictly centralized, well-oiled mechanism. The Communist Party was the only legal political organization. The spiritual basis of the totalitarian society in the USSR was the official ideology. The slightest deviation from these simple truths was punished. The cult of Stalin as the leader of society was perhaps the most important element of totalitarianism in the 1930s. The whole pyramid of totalitarian power closed on him, he was its undisputed, absolute leader. In the 30s. on the full speed the previously established and significantly expanded repressive apparatus (the NKVD, extrajudicial reprisals - "troikas", the Main Directorate of Camps - GULAG, etc.) worked. Since the end of the 20s. waves of repressions followed one after another: the Shakhty case (1928), the trial of the Industrial Party (1930), the Academician Case (1930), repressions in connection with the assassination of Kirov (1934), political trials of 1936-1939. against the former leaders of the party (G.E. Zinoviev, N.I. Bukharin, A.I. Rykov and others), the leaders of the Red Army (M.N. Tukhachevsky, V.K. Blucher, I.E. Yakir and others .). The "Great Terror" claimed the lives of almost 1 million people who were shot, millions of people passed through the Gulag camps. Repression was the very tool by which a totalitarian society dealt not only with real, but also with the alleged opposition, instilled fear and humility, readiness to sacrifice friends and loved ones. On the one hand, many people wanted to believe that life is getting better and more fun, that difficulties will pass, and what they have done will remain forever. On the other hand, fear reigned, a feeling of insignificance and insecurity. There was no principle of separation of powers. Despite the predominantly totalitarian forms of political organization, humane political goals are also inherent in the socialist system. For example, in the USSR, the level of education of the people increased sharply, the achievements of science and culture became available, the social security of the population was ensured, the economy, space and military industries developed, etc., and the level of crime dropped sharply.

Russian culture XIV – XVIIcenturies

Cultural development Ancient Russia, which had accumulated extensive experience in the construction and improvement of cities, created wonderful architectural monuments, frescoes, mosaics, icon paintings, was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which led the state to economic and cultural decline. The revival of Russian culture became possible only at the end XIII - beginning. XIV centuries Moscow became the center of the struggle against the Mongol-Tatar yoke, gradually turning into a political and Cultural Center Russian lands.

Formation towards the end XV centuries of the centralized Russian state put forward the task of widely expanding the construction of fortifications in cities and monasteries, and in its capital, Moscow, to build temples and palaces that correspond to its significance (previously, the Mongols prohibited stone construction, fearing the construction of defensive structures). To do this, architects from other Russian cities were invited to the capital, as well as Italian architects and engineers (one of the outstanding Italian architects who worked in Russia was Aristotle Fioravanti, who built the Assumption Cathedral and the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin). The Moscow Kremlin, which housed the residences of the Grand Duke, Metropolitan, cathedrals, boyar courts, monasteries, was in the second half of XV in. expanded to its current size. Red Square arose to the east of the Kremlin, and it was surrounded by a wall of white stone (later the white brick was replaced with red).

The new tasks of state building had a direct impact on literature as well. Old Russian writing fully recorded the change in the people's consciousness, embodied in the desire for national unification. Numerous editions of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo (“The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev”, “The Tale of the Zadonshchina”, etc.) present it as a nationwide feat. In many subsequent literary sources, Prince Dmitry Donskoy appears in the form national hero, and his heirs, the Moscow princes - as national sovereigns. Ideology did not stand aside either. Its task was to search for new ideological forms of state building.

Vector definition spiritual development concreted with the fall, under the onslaught of the Turks, the Byzantine Empire. Russia, the most powerful country in the Orthodox world, began to strive for a dominant position among other Orthodox states, turning into an outpost of the true (Orthodox) Church. While the Turks destroyed all the Orthodox monarchies of the East and captured all the patriarchates, Moscow took it upon itself to preserve and maintain Orthodoxy both in itself and in the entire East. The Moscow prince was now becoming the head of the entire Orthodox world (especially after the marriage of Ivan III on the heiress of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos). The Pskov monk (“elder”) Philotheus developed a theoretical justification for such aspirations, expressed in the formula “Moscow is the third Rome”: “like two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, and there will be no fourth.” This attitude led the Moscow authorities to resolve to make the Moscow Principality a "kingdom" through the official adoption of the title of "Caesar" by the Grand Duke - in our interpretation of the "Tsar", to accept the coat of arms of the Roman and Byzantine Empires (double-headed eagle).

Already in the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, painting was revived. The centers of its new development are Novgorod, Rostov, Tver. Novgorod and Pskov schools paid special attention to fresco painting. One of the brightest representatives This direction was Theophanes the Greek. His images, embodying ascetic religious ideals, are distinguished by psychological tension, his writing technique by dynamics and originality of techniques, coloring by extreme restraint.

By the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries intensifies artistic role Moscow. Feofan Grek, Andrey Rublev, Daniil Cherny worked here. The school created by Feofan in Moscow stimulated the development of local masters, who, however, developed a style different from Feofan's. In 1408 Andrey Rublev and Daniil Cherny performed a new painting of the Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir. These frescoes are in traditional iconographic images reveal deep spiritual world and thoughts of contemporaries. The enlightened benevolent faces of the apostles leading the people, the soft, harmonious tones of the painting are permeated with a sense of peace. Rublev had a rare gift to embody in art bright sides human life and state of mind. In his works, the inner turmoil of the ascetic detachment of Theophan's images is replaced by the beauty of peace of mind and the power of conscious moral rightness. Rublev's works, being the pinnacle of the Moscow school of painting, express ideas of a broader, nationwide character. In the remarkable icon "Trinity", painted for the Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Rublev created images that far outgrow the narrow framework of the theological plot he developed, embodying the ideas of love and spiritual unity. In the last third XV in. Dionysius begins his artistic activity. In the icons and frescoes of Dionysius and his school, there is a certain uniformity of techniques, the attention of the masters to the artistic form, the features of festivity and decorativeness. The works of Dionysius are solemn and graceful, but in psychologically inferior to Rublev.

The revival of arts and crafts proceeded more slowly. This was explained by the fact that many craftsmen were taken prisoner and a number of craft skills were lost. But gradually Russian jewelry art is also revived. Chasing, finift, painting on ground enamel, casting and other techniques were mainly oriented towards floral and animal ornaments made in a patterned oriental style. Excessive passion for the splendor of the ornament, to XVII in. led to the loss of artistic measure, especially when decorating objects precious stones and pearls, from which patterns were assembled, formerly made of gold. Even in iron products, there is a passion for patterned forms (for example, the Tsar Cannon by Andrei Chokhov). Plant and animal motifs also predominated in the monuments of bone and wood carving that have come down to us. In addition, carvings were often colorfully painted. Sewing also had much in common with painting. IN XVII in. in Russia, golden lace with geometric mesh motifs, or with plant elements, is spreading. Sometimes pearls, silver plaques, colored drilled stone were introduced into the patterns.

Polish-Swedish intervention began XVII in. delayed the development of art, but by the middle of the century artistic creativity visibly revived. During this period, a new genre appeared in Russian art - the portrait. The first portraits were painted in the icon-painting tradition, but gradually the techniques of Western European painting appear in them - an accurate depiction of facial features and a three-dimensional figure. The expansion of areas of culture, associated with the technical achievements of that time, was also reflected in such a direction as book publishing.

Traditionally, in Russia, books were written by hand. At the same time, the text was decorated with ornaments, denounced in a rich (often with gold and precious stones) cover. But beauty did not always compensate for the shortcomings of handwritten books, first of all, the length of writing and errors that appear when texts are rewritten multiple times. The Church Council of 1551 was even forced to draw up a resolution to prevent the rewriting of books with distorted text. The need for correction and unification of church texts, not least influenced the opening of the first printing workshop in Moscow. Its founders were Dyak Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. For 12 years of existence of the printing house (from 1553 to 1565), 8 big books not only religious, but also secular in nature (for example, the Book of Hours, which became the first alphabet).

However, book printing in that period did not receive proper development, like many other areas of art and science characteristic of European culture. The reason for this lies in the desire for a kind of isolation of Russian culture, especially manifested in XVI century. The explanation for these conservative tendencies should be sought, first of all, in the history of the formation of the Muscovite state, which was constantly subjected to external aggression both from the West and from the East. Cultural identity in the critical periods of Russian history became perhaps the only saving and unifying factor. Over time, cultivating one's own traditional culture took hypertrophied forms and rather interfered with its development, closing the possibility of penetration into Russia of the achievements of art and science of other countries. The obvious lag (primarily in the scientific and technical sphere) was overcome only by Peter I , and in a decisive and ambiguous way.

The final stage in the history of Russian medieval culture became the 17th century. In this century, the process of “secularization” of culture began, the strengthening of secular elements and democratic tendencies in it. Cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe have noticeably expanded and deepened. All areas of culture have become much more complex and differentiated.

The most important event in the history of the country can be called the final formation of absolutism, which did not take the form of Western European monarchies, but became the logical conclusion of the system of Eastern despotism adopted during the reign of the Mongol-Tatars in Russia. Absolutism corresponded to the new imperial aspirations of the country, the expansion of state territories (primarily to the East), which required the concentration of military and political power. In the field of economics, this led to the final enslavement of the peasants, carried out in the interests of the nobility, the main pillar of absolutism.

IN mid-seventeenth in. during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon carried out church reform which led to the split. The reform and schism became an expression of the ambiguous attitude of the Russian people to the intensified secular and foreign influences. In Russian society, there were two warring parties - the Grecophile supporters of antiquity, isolationism and the Westernist - reformers who sought to Europeanize Russia. A manifestation of renovationist tendencies was Nikon's reform, which was supposed to correct the differences in Russian Orthodox ritual (for example, to be baptized not with two fingers, but with three fingers), as well as some provisions in Russian liturgical books in order to bring them into line with the practice of Greek, as well as Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox churches. After the convergence of the rites of all Orthodox peoples, Nikon hoped to stand at the head of universal Orthodoxy.

Archpriest Avvakum Petrov became the banner of the opponents of the reform. He and his supporters considered it insulting to break with the age-old national tradition, they categorically disagreed with the strengthening of European influence and the beginning of the secularization of Russian culture. Thus began the age-old dispute of Russian culture about further ways development of the country and the parties of "pochvennikov" and Westernizers were formed, which again and again will manifest themselves in subsequent periods of Russian history.

These and other historical events were reflected in the culture of Russia in the 17th century.

Russian literature of the 17th century.

Russian literature was still represented by journalistic writings devoted to acute political problems. The Time of Troubles increased interest in the question of the nature of power in the political system. Among the famous authors of the XVII century. - Croat Yuri Krizhanich, European-educated thinker, supporter of unlimited monarchy, one of the first theorists of the idea of ​​Slavic unity (he can be called the predecessor and theorist of pan-Slavism). So, he believed that the role of the Slavs in the world historical process constantly growing, although it is oppressed and insulted by foreigners, especially Turks and Germans. He assigned a special role in the future rise of the Slavs to Russia, which, having turned into a leading world power as a result of reforms, will free the enslaved Slavic and other peoples and lead them forward.

The ambiguity of the events of this time led to the fact that writers begin to think about the inconsistency of the human character. If earlier heroes books were either absolutely good or absolutely evil, now writers discover free will in a person, show his ability to change himself depending on the circumstances. This is how the heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 appear before us - Ivan the Terrible,

Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. As academician D.S. Likhachev, this manifested a tendency to discover the character of a person: the heroes of literature are not only holy ascetics and princes, as before, but also simple people- merchants, peasants, poor nobles who acted in easily recognizable situations.

The Spread of Literacy in the 17th Century involved in the readership of new strata of the population - provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople. The change in the social composition of the reading public put forward new demands on literature. For such readers special interest it evokes entertaining reading, the need for which was satisfied by translated chivalric novels and original adventurous stories. By the end of the XVII century. Russian reading public knew about a dozen works that came to Russia from abroad in different ways. Among them, the most popular were "The Tale of Bova Korolevich" and "The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys." These works on Russian soil, while retaining some features of the chivalric romance, became so close to the fairy tale that they later turned into folklore. New features of literary and real life were clearly manifested in everyday stories, the heroes of which strove to live according to their own will, rejecting the precepts of antiquity. Such is the hero of The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, and especially The Tale of Frols Skobssvs, a typical picaresque novel that describes the vicissitudes of life of an impoverished nobleman who, by hook or by crook, seeks to penetrate the top of society.

In the 17th century a new literary genre arose - democratic satire, closely associated with folk art and folk culture. It was created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy, dissatisfied with the oppression of the feudal lords, the state and the church. In particular, numerous parodies appeared, for example, on legal proceedings (“The Tale of the Shsmyakin Court”, “The Tale of Yersh Yershovich”), on hagiographic works (“The Tale of the Hawk Moth”).

The birth of versification became a prominent feature of literary life. Prior to this, Russia knew poetry only in folk art, in epics, but epics were not rhymed verse. Rhymed poetry arose under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, which is characterized by an equal number of syllables in a line, a pause in the middle of a line, and an end rhyme under a single strictly obligatory stress. The Belarusian Simeon Polotsky became its founder. He received an excellent education at the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and was the court poet of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, composed numerous recitations and monologues, which became models of the new panegyric poetry and were included in the Rifmagion collection. He saw his task in creating the Novorossiysk literature, and in many respects he fulfilled this mission. His works are distinguished by their ornamentality, pomp, and reflect the idea of ​​the “diversity of the world”, the changeability of being. Polotsky has a craving for sensationalism, a desire to surprise, to amaze the reader both in the form of presentation and in the unusual, exotic nature of the information reported. Such is the “Multicolored Vertograd” - a kind of encyclopedia, which contains several thousand rhymed texts containing data drawn from various areas knowledge - history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with mythologized ideas of the author.

Author's prose first appears also in the 17th century; an example of it are the writings of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov. He left about 90 texts written at the end of his life in exile. Among them is the famous "Life" - an emotional and eloquent confession, striking in its sincerity and courage. In his book, for the first time, the author and the hero of the work are combined, which would previously be considered a manifestation of pride.

Theatre appeared in Russia due to the emergence of secular elements in the spiritual life of society. The idea of ​​creating a theater originated in court circles among supporters of the Europeanization of the country. The decisive role in this was played by Artamon Matveev, the head of the Ambassadorial Department, who was familiar with the production of theatrical business in Europe. There were no actors in Russia (the experience of buffoons, who were persecuted at that time, was not good), there were no plays. Actors and director Johann Gregory were found in the German Quarter. The first performance, which was a great success, was called Artaxerxes Action. The king was so fascinated by what was happening that he watched the play for 10 hours without getting up. The repertoire of the theater during its existence (1672-1676) consisted of nine performances on biblical subjects and one ballet. The deeds of the Old Testament characters were given the features of political topicality and association with modernity, which further increased the interest in the spectacle.

architecture also touched upon the general departure from the church-scholastic worldview. The strengthening of secular motives was largely due to the expansion of the environment in which aesthetic ideas were formed. The tastes of the townspeople and the peasantry, their vision of the world and understanding of beauty were introduced into architectural creativity, leading away from the consecrated church tradition samples.

Russian architecture and construction of the 17th century.

Civil, secular construction actively developed, and if at the beginning of the century it was mostly wooden, then by its end stone was used more and more. A remarkable example of wooden architecture was the unpreserved palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye, which was a picturesque composition of whimsically grouped large and small log cabins, connected by passages, high roofs and tents. The fabulous splendor of the palace was enhanced by gilded carvings and bright colors. In stone construction, it is necessary to note the restoration of the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin, the tent erected over the Spasskaya Tower, the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin, and the Sukharev Tower.

The number of stone civil buildings increased in the second half of the 17th century. Boyars, wealthy merchants and nobles increasingly built stone residential chambers in cities and in their estates. The most characteristic type, which repeats the layout of the wooden choir, consists of two square rooms with an oblong entrance hall between them. The lower floor was occupied by utility and storage rooms. The facades were decorated with flat vanes or columns, the windows were framed with rich architraves.

IN temple building also, new features associated with secularization are gradually outlined. So, in wooden architecture, along with kletsky temples (a rectangular frame - a cage covered with a gable roof, over which a dome with a cross rises), widespread throughout Russia, forbidden hipped temples are being built (apparently, they were not canonical enough, and in the era of struggle led by the church against the secular elements, this was enough for a ban), tiered churches. In search of a complex and rich silhouette, architects from the second half of XVII in. they use the principle of many domes, a magnificent embodiment of which is the Church of the Transfiguration in Kizhi, which is a strikingly beautiful 22-domed church.

The same tendencies manifested themselves in the stone temple architecture. The new style took shape by the middle of the 17th century. and was the opposite of the architecture of the XVI century. This style was characterized by intricacy and asymmetry in design. Usually it was a five-domed, pillarless temple, the main cube of which was surrounded by chapels, porches, stairs and porches with obligatory finishing details - barrel-shaped columns, arches with a hanging weight, stacked brick window frames. The facades of churches become polychrome, the bright coloring of details, colored tiles give them a festive elegance. These churches expressed the secular beginning, which contemporaries called "patterned" (the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, the Trinity in Nikitniki).

Although tent construction was prohibited, tents remained one of the most favored architectural forms and were widely used, not as the completion of a church, but for crowning bell towers and porches. A tall, slender, pillar-shaped bell tower, topped with a tent, is one of the most common themes of architecture in the second half of the 17th century.

At the end of the XVII century. appears in architecture a new style, called the Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque. This name does not explain the essence of the phenomenon. The connection of a number of buildings with the orders of the Naryshkin family is accidental. It is also inappropriate to call this architectural direction “baroque”, since the similarity of Moscow architecture of the late 17th century with the Western European baroque style is purely external. Cyclicity and tieredness, symmetry and balance of masses, known separately and earlier, in this style have developed into an original system, but in the external design it is the closest to the European Baroque style due to the applied order details.

The new direction was most fully and vividly manifested in the construction of small churches in estates near Moscow. These are tiered buildings: the lower tier is usually square in plan, less often rectangular, there is an octagon on it, and above - the second octagon, narrower; the composition ends with a head drum. Very often this structure is located on the basement and has around open galleries. In the upper narrow octagon there is a belfry, and a church was obtained under the bell tower. The decorative decoration of these temples differs significantly from the temples of the previous period, overloaded with heavy and colorful decor. The new churches are light and graceful; against the smooth background of red brick walls, white columns are clearly and clearly drawn, shaping the edges of the volumes. The decor is focused on framing windows and doors: they usually have small columns on brackets on the sides, supporting an ornate torn pediment. Instead of heavy kokoshniks, stripes of carved decorative elements, often called "cockscombs", run above the cornices. A striking monument of this trend is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, whose finely drawn details, combined with impeccable proportions, give it a light, openwork look, and the tiered composition creates the effect of vertical movement.

Russian painting of the 17th century.

Painting did not succumb as easily as architecture to secular influences, but the desire for decorativeness is also observed here. On the one hand, there is a noticeable desire to break out from under the power of outdated traditions, the canon, a thirst for knowledge, the search for new moral norms, plots and images, and on the other hand, stubborn attempts to turn the traditional into a dogma, at any cost to keep the old inviolable. Therefore, iconography in the 17th century. represented by several main directions and schools.

In the first half of the century, the main dispute in icon painting was between two schools - Godunov's and Stroganov's. The Godunov school gravitated towards the traditions of the past. But their attempts to follow the ancient canon, their focus on Andrei Rublev and Dionysius only led to narrative, overloaded composition. The Stroganov school (so named because many works of this style were commissioned by the Stroganovs in the workshops of Solvychegodsk) arose in Moscow, among state and patriarchal masters. Characteristic features icons Stroganov school are primarily their small size and detailed, accurate writing, which contemporaries called "petty writing". The main stylistic features of the Stroganov artistic manner are exquisite drawing, richness of colors, complex multi-figured and multi-faceted composition. One of the features of the school is a true depiction of nature, and the compositions always include a landscape with a low horizon, and the background is filled with bizarre clouds and “phenomena”. The figures of saints are usually thin, graceful and very elongated upwards. An outstanding master of this trend was Procopius Chirin, whose icons are characterized by a special softness of color, the plasticity of elongated figures and the elegance of poses, for example, “Nikita the Warrior”, “Selected Saints”; in the image of Nikita the warrior one cannot find either significance or militancy; rather, he can be compared with a secular dandy.

Further development of painting in the 17th century. characterized by a slow departure from dogmas and the search for new subjects and forms, which is largely due to the influence of Western European painting. The theorist and head of the largest school of this period was Simon Ushakov, the author of the programmatic work “A Word to the Lovers of Icon Painting”, where he outlined a new theory that breaks with the old canon. He pointed out the need to connect the icon-painting canon with the truth of life, therefore elements of realism appear in his icons, real human faces. This allows us to consider him one of the founders of the portrait genre in Russian art. Among the works of Simon Ushakov is the Savior Not Made by Hands, a favorite image of the master, in which he tries to achieve a flesh-colored complexion and restrained, but distinctly expressed volume. But in this and other works of the artist, there is a lack of spiritual intensity, spirituality, burning, characteristic of the icons of the XIV-XV centuries. Therefore, in the iconography of the XVII century. signs of decline appear. The tendencies of its secularization have become too strong in culture. Following the iconographic canons, which was demanded by the Old Believers, led by Archpriest Avvakum, could not improve the situation.

Parsuna(from the word "persona", i.e. a portrait of a real person) - the first secular portrait genre became a completely new phenomenon in Russian painting of the second half of the 17th century. In just a few years, the new genre has come a long way - from semi-iconic images to portraits of real faces - and has won a firm place in Russian art. All eminent people tried to capture their image. The artists tried to convey in the parsuns the portrait resemblance and partly the character's character. In the parses

17th century the features of the famous Russian portrait of the next century are already present - attention to the inner world of a person, poetization of the image, subtle coloring.

Russian music of the 17th century.

Russian music in the 17th century has also undergone drastic changes. At this time, the old Russian culture collided with Western European, which was significantly reflected in music. Connected with the old in music ancient tradition canonical methodical znamenny chant, with a new one - partesnoe polyphony (penis in parties) of the Western type, which strengthened the secular beginning.

Partesnoe polyphony was brought to Russia from Ukraine and Belarus and did not take root right away: until the end of the 17th century. Znamenny chant continued to sound in churches, interspersed with three-line and demesne singing, as well as with new partes compositions. One of the fastest ways to spread new music was the psalms and cantes - spiritual songs, the texts for which were poetic transcriptions of David's psalms. Over time, they supplanted the ancient spiritual verses, as they were simpler than them, their clear, rounded melody was close to Ukrainian folk songs. Kants, having begun as a kind of spiritual lyrics, very soon went beyond the scope of domestic spiritual music-making and acquired new features. Thus, secular cantes appeared with very different content - philosophical, love, moralizing.

Supporters of antiquity condemned these novelties. Archpriest Avvakum complained that the churches sounded new music and not divine singing. But although the old singing was loved in Russia, objective reasons pushed for the emergence of polyphony. Because of a large number only the most experienced singers, of whom there were not so many, could understand their chants. In the absence of an experienced regent, the choir sounded out of tune. The problem was that the Russian language had changed significantly compared to the ancient period, ancient semi-vowels gradually disappeared from it. Therefore, a non-combination between texts and tunes was formed. Attempts to revive and reform Znamenny singing, undertaken by music theorists Ivan Shaydur and Alexander Mezenets, were insufficient. Therefore, the Znamenny chant gradually lost its positions and remained inviolable only among the Old Believers, who keep it today. In the new partes singing of the 17th century. Baroque tendencies appear. If the old znamenny chant was like an icon in everything - flat, one-dimensional, then in partes singing there is a sense of space, and a magnificent multi-layered texture conveys a sense of movement and light, typical of all Baroque art.

Thus, the 17th century became the last century of existence ancient Russian art when Western influence became especially noticeable. A sharp turn begins, a qualitative leap in Russian culture, which will be completed in the 18th century. after Peter's reforms.