Home Flowers Benjamin Constants political views. The doctrine of the state and law B. Constant. Political views of O. Comte

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Benjamin Constants political views. The doctrine of the state and law B. Constant. Political views of O. Comte

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French liberalism. B. Constant
English liberalism. I. Bentham
German liberalism. L. Stein
Political views O. Konta

Liberalism (from lat. liberalis - free) - political and legal theory, which proceeds from the position that a person is free to dispose of himself and his property.

The main ideas of liberalism that arose in the XVII - XVIII centuries. and developed in the first half of the 19th century, are that a person should have freedom to determine his own destiny, and the state exists only to protect a person from violence from other people or groups and expand the scope for the exercise of individual freedom . The core of the liberal doctrine was anti-statism (from the French etat - the state, where the state is the highest result and the goal of the development of society) i.e. the role of the state should be minimized - the less it interferes in the economy, the better for the individual and society as a whole.

1. French liberalism. B. Constant

The development of the political and legal thought of France was largely predetermined by the Great French Revolution. Liberalism became the leading trend in French social and political thought. The economic upswing that France experienced in those years contributed to the strengthening of the political positions of the bourgeoisie. And liberal theory fully met her interests.

The most famous ideologist of liberalism was B. Constant.

Henri Benjamin Constant de Rebec(1767-1830) is considered the founder of French liberalism. He was born in Switzerland into a noble family. He received a good education in Brussels, Oxford and Edinburgh. In 1795 he took French citizenship and was actively involved in political life. In 1799 he was appointed to the post of member of the Tribunate - formally one of the highest bodies state power. But since Constant did not accept the absolutism of the first consul, three years later he was expelled not only from the Tribunate, but also from the country, and in 1803-1814. he spends in exile. He returned back only during the "Hundred Days" (Napoleon offered him participation in the drafting of the constitution). During the second restoration of the Bourbons, Constant fled to England, returned in 1816, and in 1819 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. During the revolution of 1830, he contributed to the coming to power of Louis Philippe, on August 27 he was appointed chairman State Council, however, on December 8, 1830, he died.

Major works: The novel "Adolf", "On the freedom of the ancients compared with the freedom of new peoples", "Course of constitutional policy" (4 volumes).

Liberalism. Constant gave Special attention substantiation of personal freedom, understood by him as freedom of conscience, speech, freedom of enterprise and private initiative. He distinguishes between political freedom and personal freedom.

political freedom comes down to the right to participate in the exercise of political power (the adoption of laws, participation in justice, resolving issues of war and peace, etc.). It was inherent in the ancient peoples;
personal freedom characteristic of new peoples who are busy with industry, intensive labor and therefore do not have time to deal with management issues. It is understood as personal, civil freedom, which consists in a certain independence of individuals from state power.

State. The state, in his opinion, should not interfere in entrepreneurial activity, because it conducts commercial affairs "worse and more expensive than we ourselves." The purpose of the state is the freedom of the individual. The means to achieve this goal are constitutional guarantees: freedom of the press, controlled only by a jury; ministerial responsibility; numerous and independent popular representation represented by two chambers - the elected House of Representatives and the Hereditary Chamber of Peers.

Form of government. Constant condemns any form of state where there is an "excessive degree of power" and there are no guarantees of individual freedom. These guarantees are public opinion, as well as the division of power and the balance of its branches. This division Constant depicts as follows.

Neutral Power represented by the head of state (monarch), who takes part in all branches of government and prevents conflicts between them. He has the right to veto. In addition, he appoints the members of the House of Peers.

Legislature belongs to the Parliament, which consists of two chambers - the elected House of Representatives and the Hereditary Chamber of Peers. Constant gave great attention principles of forming the House of Representatives, persistently defending the need for a high property qualification for deputies. His arguments are as follows: only property makes a person capable of enjoying political rights, and if these rights are given to the poor, they will try to use them to encroach on property. Constant was also against the payment of remuneration to deputies.

executive power carried out by ministers responsible to Parliament.

Judicial branch.

municipal authority independent and has a wide range of rights.

B. Constant considered the ideal of the state constitutional monarchy according to the English model.

Right. Law, in his opinion, is the guarantor of individual freedom. Law is a way of being of society, a regulator of social relations, on whose guard the state should stand. Only a law that comes from a legitimate source and has just boundaries can ensure personal freedom. Compliance with law was interpreted by Konstan as the central, nodal task of all political institutions.

2. English liberalism. I. Bentham

English liberalism had a peculiar tinge that markedly distinguished it from French. Classic representative English liberalism is I. Bentham.

Bentham Jeremiah(1748-1832) was born in the family of a lawyer. He studied at Westminster School, graduated from Oxford University (1763) and, at the insistence of his father, continued his studies at the London Law School. He abandoned the prestigious career of a lawyer, considering himself incapable of compromise, and later dealt with issues related to legal reform. In 1785. went to Russia to his brother, who served as an engineer in Russian army. He returned in 1788 to England. He studied criminal, civil law, then constitutional. In 1818, he began to develop the "Constitutional Code". The first volume was published in 1830, but two years later Bentham died before he could complete this work.

Major works: "Theory of Legislation", "A Fragment on Government", "Anarchist Fallacies", "Introduction to the Foundations of Morality and Legislation". Treatise "Constitutional Code". "Deontology or the science of morality".

Some projects of I. Bentam:

the project of a "panoptic prison", built on the basis of the compulsory work of prisoner artels with a certain degree of self-government, but under the strict supervision of the administration;
during French Revolution turned to Legislative Assembly France with proposals for best device parliamentary activities.

According to Bentham, C. Montesquieu, C. Beccaria, and especially C. Helvetius had the greatest influence on his views.

Bentham was the founder scientific direction called utilitarianism. In 1823 the Utilitarian Society arose, and in 1824 it even published its own organ, The Westminster Review.

Utilitarianism (from Latin utilitas - benefit) - a political and legal doctrine that considers benefit the basis of morality and the criterion of human actions.

I. Bentham did not accept the concept of "freedom". He highlights the concept of benefit. The basis of human actions is the principle of benefit, which allows us to evaluate any action in accordance with whether it contributes to an increase or decrease in the happiness of the persons it affects. The philosophical and ethical "core" of utilitarianism can be expressed in several fundamental theses:

the meaning of human activity in obtaining pleasure and eliminating suffering,
the main criterion for evaluating all phenomena is utility,
morality is created by society and focuses on gaining the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people,
the goal of human development is to maximize the common good by establishing harmony between private and public interests.

According to Bentham - a criterion of utility in providing the greatest happiness most of people. He himself is trying to build relationships between people on the basis of usefulness: he draws up diagrams, tables of "useful" that could help each person to understand difficult situations.

State. Based on the fact that people have always lived in society, Bentham considered such concepts as natural law, state of nature and social contract, bankrupt . According to Bentham, the theory of the social contract, based on the fact that individuals have rights that are alienated upon its conclusion, is devoid of historical foundations: after all, government (and, therefore, the state) is established either as a result of historical circumstances or through the use of force.

Form of government. Bentham's views on the best form of government changed: at first he approved of a constitutional monarchy and rejected democracy as a form of anarchy. Then he changed his views and spoke out with sharp criticism of the monarchy, arguing that the constituent power (the right to establish the basic laws of the state) should belong to the people.

Power sharing Bentham's is almost traditional:

legislature (unicameral parliament, annually elected on the basis of universal, equal and secret suffrage);
executive power is subordinate to the legislative and is exercised by frequently replaced officials;
judicial branch.

I. Bentam assessed the projects of communist transformation that existed in his time negatively, believing that the implementation of such plans would not bring anything good to mankind.

Right. Bentham rejected the theory of natural law, tk. believed that its content is vague and is interpreted differently by everyone. People's behavior can be regulated by various sanctions, including political (punishment and reward), moral (public opinion), and religious ones. Punishment is applied not to correct the offender, but to admonish others, i.e. is of public importance. Bentham was the enemy death penalty, arguing that the inevitability of punishment is more important than its cruelty.

The scientist believed that there is only a volitional right, i.e. the one set by the state. Applying utilitarianism to questions of law, Bentham comes to the conclusion that rights can only be specific, they must exist as long as they are useful to society, and be abolished if they are useless, and that the law itself is evil, since it is associated with punishment (suffering). In addition, errors are possible during its application. Nevertheless, the law is an inevitable evil, because without it it is impossible to ensure security.

Bentham calls private property the main subject of laws. This led to the conclusion that laws should not interfere with the activities of entrepreneurs and their relations with workers. According to the theory of utilitarianism, the parties themselves determine the terms of the contract, based on "their own benefit."

Bentham also paid attention to questions of the effectiveness of the application of law. He believed that laws should be known to every addressee (this is achieved, first of all, by the fact that all legal norms are written), they should be so simple that everyone can use them without resorting to extraneous interpretation.

The principles of codification of legislation developed by him were used in the legislation of many countries (France, Germany, Greece, India, Australia, Canada, etc.).

IN early XIX in. development of industry and trade in Western Europe made great strides forward: the number of large enterprises increased and the number of workers employed in factories and factories increased sharply, although the introduction of machines into production was much slower. However, the bourgeoisie has grown significantly stronger: during the revolution, a significant layer of wealthy people has formed who profited from speculation in "national" property, from military supplies and loans to the government.

The bourgeoisie set about interpreting in its own interests the slogans of equality and freedom that filled the treatises of the eighteenth century. She proceeded to explain all the specific features of the kingdom of reason and justice promised by the revolution, which in reality was to become and became the "kingdom of the bourgeoisie."

3. German liberalism. L. Stein

With the development of capitalism and the growth of the proletariat, the ideas of socialism and communism, especially the inevitability of the proletarian revolution, became more and more widespread. L.Shtein criticized them.

Lorenz von Stein(1815-1890) - German philosopher, historian and economist originally from Schleswig (Germany). Studied philosophy and jurisprudence at the University of Kiel and Jena. In the early 1840s. went to Paris to study the socialist movement. In 1846, Stein became a professor at the University of Kiel, but in 1851 he was deprived of his chair for speaking out against Denmark on the Schleswig-Holstein question (along with 9 other professors). In 1855 he was invited to the University of Vienna, where he taught for 30 years. And in 1885, when he was 70 years old - the maximum professorial age in Austria - he retired.

Main works:"Socialism and communism in modern France", "The present and future of the science of state and law in Germany", etc.

Stein understood that the socialist movement was connected with the development of a class of wage-workers and had international significance. Moreover, he predicted the inevitability of social revolutions. To avoid these social upheavals, Stein developed a project to reform the state and law.

State. Society is based on the division of labor and is divided into classes: owners and non-owners. The state (due to the seizure of state "levers" by the class of owners) turns into a tool ruling class serves their private interests instead of serving the general interest. But if society is divided into classes, then the state must be above class, i.e. express the interests of the whole society, and not of a separate class. Otherwise, the revolution is inevitable, there will be a redistribution of property and a republic will be established: the power of the bourgeoisie or the proletariat. The victory of the capitalists threatens society with stagnation, since with the help of the state they would enslave the working class and deprive it of the opportunity to acquire property. Even more dangerous, Stein believed, was the victory of the working class, because it would lead to an equal distribution of all goods, to the cessation of production, to decay and death. civil society. And in the end - to the revival of despotism.

State form. Discussing the forms of government most suitable for the role of social arbiter, Stein believed that neither absolute monarchy(because it is based on the arbitrariness of one person), nor democratic republic(in it the power is not strong enough and accountable to society) are unable to become an instrument of the “common good”. The only form of the state, independent of classes, he considered a constitutional monarchy, especially hereditary. Hereditary royalty must stand above the fray individual groups society, sacredly guarding the freedom of one and all. Stein argued that the monarch, standing above all private interests, by virtue of his position, would protect the oppressed from excessive oppression.

Power sharing. Stein distinguishes between legislative, executive and princely (monarchical) powers in the state. However, the monarch rises above all branches of government and is the guarantor of the observance of laws.

Right. Based on the division of state power into branches, Stein believed that the law is an expression of the state will, the order is an expression of the will executive power. Law, Stein believed, is an expression of the will legislature, but only with the consent of the monarch (or other head of state) does the will of the legislature become the will of the state. By law, he understood equal opportunities for people to improve their situation.

social state. If we talk about ideological basis welfare state, then initially it goes back to the ideas of ancient thinkers about the ideal state structure providing the common good for all citizens.

For the first time, the concept and term "welfare state" in a clearly defined legal sense appeared in mid-nineteenth in. in the works of L. Stein. He believed that the idea of the state was to restore the equality of freedom, to protect all the disadvantaged; the state must carry out the social and economic progress of all its members. In The Present and Future of Legal Scientific-State Germany, he wrote that the welfare state must maintain absolute equality in rights for all classes, it must promote economic and social progress of all its citizens, for the development of one is a condition for the development of the other, and it is in this sense that one must speak of a welfare state.

In this way, welfare state is a state that assumes the responsibility to take care of social justice, the well-being of its citizens and their social security.

In the 70s of the XIX century. the ideas of L. Stein's "above-class monarchy" in the form of a welfare state were used by Reich Chancellor O. von Bismarck as a justification for the existence of a "social monarchy" in Germany.

4. Political views of O. Comte

The spirit of the times was vividly reflected in the philosophical system of positivism, which was created by French philosopher and mathematician Auguste Comte.

Positivism (from lat. positivus - positive) - a direction in science that declares only empirical research as the only source of true real knowledge, i.e. positivism rejected any speculative arguments. He recognized only concrete, positive knowledge based on experience and observation.

In the theory of law, legal and sociological positivism are distinguished.

Legal positivism - the direction of legal thought that dominated European legal culture in the 2nd half of the 19th - 1st half of the 20th centuries, identifying law with law, regardless of the content of the latter. Legal positivism proceeds from the fact that the subject of legal science is the rules of law, their interpretation and correlation, i.e. reduces law exclusively to the texts of sources of law, renounces theoretical explanation and evaluation of legal phenomena, limited to their description, systematization and classification.

sociological positivism - a scientific method of studying law, which rejects the natural law theory and philosophy of law and studies law as a social phenomenon, as part of the life of society. The state and law are influenced by all social components, therefore both the state and law should be studied within the framework of a single science - sociology. O. Comte stood at the origins of this science.

Auguste Comte(1798-1857) was born in Montpellier in the family of an official, tax collector. He studied at the Lyceum, then the Higher Polytechnic School. From 1817 to 1824 he was the secretary of Saint-Simon, from whom he borrowed part of his teaching. The gap between them occurred due to disagreements over the authorship of the third part of the Catechism of Industrialists. In 1826, Comte began to read paid lectures on positive philosophy, but they were soon interrupted due to his difficult mental illness. After his recovery in 1828 he resumed lecturing and private lessons. And he got the position of examiner at the Polytechnic School. Comte taught mathematics, astronomy, physics, and mechanics. In 1842, due to confrontations with colleagues, he was fired, living on funds collected by subscription from his positivist supporters. In 1857 he fell ill and soon died.

Major works: "Course of positive philosophy" (in 6 volumes), "The system of positive policy, or a sociological treatise on the foundations of the religion of mankind" (in 4 volumes).

In Comte's work, as a rule, two periods are distinguished: the first - until the mid-40s, is devoted to the development new philosophy; the second - marked by a retreat from the principles of positivism, and the transition to religion, mysticism, the desire to construct an ideal model of society, contrary to the positivist principle, not to go beyond the observed phenomena.

Developing the teachings of Saint-Simon and his views on the evolution of society, Comte establishes three stages in the development of society (theological, metaphysical and positive):

Theological- all phenomena are considered as the actions of supernatural forces (gods and spirits). The main feature of this stage is the belief in absolute knowledge; in society - the domination of priests and warriors, in the state - the sole power of kings.
metaphysical(transitional stage) - phenomena are explained through abstract, abstract concepts (essence, matter, law), i.e. deities and spirits are replaced by abstract forces. This stage is a time of doubt and selfishness, public life dominance of jurists and philosophers. The ideal of statehood is democracy.
Positive(scientific) - a positive consciousness is affirmed, humanity comes to objective, scientific explanations laws existing in nature. The society is led by scientists and industrialists.

Comte believed that the sciences constitute a system and built it by arranging the sciences in order of increasing complexity. The most general of the sciences is mathematics, followed by astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and so on. The highest of all is sociology (the term was introduced by Comte). Sociology according to Comte, it is the science of social phenomena in general, the laws of which are equally applicable to all times and to all peoples. Sociology is divided into two parts - social statics (order), which studies the structure of society, social dynamics (progress) studies its development. Thus, history belongs to social dynamics, morality to social statics.

State. Comte was against the social contract theory. He believed that since people live in society, they are inherently social and therefore there is no need for the "social conspiracy" that Rousseau wrote about.

Comte considered the main task of his philosophy to be the reorganization of society on the basis of positivism and developed a "Plan for the reorganization of social life", according to which the "retrograde aristocracy" and the "anarchist republic" would be replaced sociocracy .

In sociocracy, the class of capitalists (patriciate) and proletarians is preserved in the ratio of 1 to 33. Secular power should belong to industrialists (bankers, merchants, manufacturers, landowners). The patriciate, under the leadership of the chief bankers, governs the sociocracy. Spiritual power is exercised by the "priests of the positivist church" (philosophers, scientists, poets, doctors), who educate both classes in the spirit of solidarity .

The idea of solidarity is central to Comte's sociology and positive politics. Comte proposes to consider society as a single organic whole, in which the relationship of people and social groups is understood as solidarity, and each individual, as an integral part of the whole, must perform its main function.

As a result, Comte imagined that humanity would unite in 500 sociocracies (the size of each is no larger than Belgium, since neither order nor progress is possible in a large state), headed by the General Council.

Right. Based on the idea of solidarity, Comte believes that everyone has duties to everyone, but no one has rights. The very word "right" should be excluded from political vocabulary. He considers law to be an authoritarian-theological concept based on the idea of God-established power. In a sociocracy there should be neither law nor individual rights.

However, the replacement of law with positive politics and religion, and of individual rights with duties, does not mean any encroachment on capitalist property, to which Comte gave a new positivist justification: property performs a necessary social function - it creates and manages capital, with the help of which each new generation prepares work for the next behind him.

Thus, sociocracy is portrayed by Comte as the cooperation of classes, but at the same time, private property and capitalist exploitation are completely intact.

Educational literature

Anthology of world political thought. - M., 1997. T. 1-5.
Anthology of world legal thought. - M., 1999. T. 1-5.
History of state-legal doctrines. Textbook. Rep. ed. V. V. Lazarev. - M., 2006.
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. V. S. Nersesyants. - M., 2003 (any edition).
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. O. V. Martyshina. - M., 2004 (any edition).
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. O. E. Leist. - M., 1999 (any edition).
History of political and legal doctrines: Reader. - M., 1996.
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. A. N. Khoroshilova. - M., 2002.
History of political and legal doctrines. Ed. V. P. Malakhova, N. V. Mikhailova. - M., 2007.
Rassolov M. M. History of political and legal doctrines. - M., 2010.
Chicherin B.N. History of political doctrines. - M., 1887-1889, Vol. 1-5.
History of political and legal doctrines. 19th century. - M., 1993.

Bentham I. Introduction to the foundations of morality and legislation. // Selected writings of Jeremy Bentham. - St. Petersburg, 1867, Vol. 1.
Bentham I. Legislative principles. - M., 1896.
Kon I.S. Positivism in sociology. - L., 1964.
Constant B. Principles of politics // Classical French liberalism. - M., 2000.
Constant B. About usurpation // About freedom. Anthology of Western European Classical Liberal Thought. - M., 1995.
Kont O. general review positivism // Ancestors of positivism. Issue. 4-5. - St. Petersburg, T. 1-3, 1912-1913.
Laboulet E.R.F. political ideas Constant. - M., 1905.
Auguste Comte// Aron R. Stages of development of sociological thought. - M., 1993.
Pokrovsky P. A. Bentham and his time. - Pg., 1916.
Pukhta G.F.. Encyclopedia of Law. - Yaroslavl, 1872.
Farmonov R. The development of French socio-political thought during the years of the Second Republic (1848-1851). - M., 1992.

Questions for self-control and preparation for testing:

What are the main tenets of liberalism?
What is the difference, according to B. Constant, political freedom from personal?
What did Bentham mean by "utilitarianism"?
What is positivism?
What is legal and sociological positivism?
Based on the idea of solidarity, how did O. Comte understand “right”?
Why did L. Stein consider “above-class monarchy” to be the ideal form of the state?

This is a prison project that provided that one guard could watch all the prisoners at the same time. The prison is a building with glass internal partitions. The guard is in the center, but invisible to the prisoners. Prisoners do not know at what point they are being watched, and they get the impression of being constantly monitored. Thus, they become ideal prisoners.

Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) - Italian educator, lawyer. The author of the world-famous work "On Crimes and Punishments".

C. Helvetius (1715-1771) - French philosopher who laid the foundation for an integral system of utilitarianism.

All the masterpieces of world literature in summary. Plots and characters. foreign literature XIX century Novikov V I

Benjamin Constant de Rebeque

Adolf (Adolphe)

Roman (1815)

beginning of the last century. A certain traveler, making a trip to Italy, in one of the provincial towns meets a sad young man. When a young man falls ill, the traveler takes care of him, and he, having recovered, gives him his manuscript in gratitude. Confident that the diary of Adolf (that is the name of the stranger) "cannot offend anyone and will not harm anyone," the traveler publishes it.

Adolf completed a course of sciences in Göttingen, where he stood out among his comrades in intelligence and talents. Adolf's father, in relation to whom "there was more nobility and generosity than tenderness" towards his son, has high hopes for him.

But the young man does not seek to advance in any field, he only wants to indulge in "strong impressions" that elevate the soul above the ordinary. Having completed his studies, Adolf goes to the court of one sovereign prince, to the city of D. A few months later, thanks to his “awakened wit,” he manages to acquire the fame of a “frivolous, mocking and vicious” person.

“I want to be loved,” Adolf tells himself, but he does not feel attracted to any woman. Unexpectedly, in the house of Count P., he meets his mistress, a charming Polish woman of not her first youth. Despite her ambiguous position, this woman is distinguished by the greatness of her soul, and she loves the countess very much, for for ten years now she has selflessly shared with him not only joys, but also dangers and hardships.

Ellenora, that is the name of the Count's girlfriend, has lofty feelings and is distinguished by accuracy of judgment. Everyone in society recognizes the impeccability of her conduct.

Appearing to the eyes of Adolf at the moment when his heart demands love, and vanity - success in the world, Ellenora seems to him worthy to molest her. And his efforts are crowned with success - he manages to win the heart of a woman,

At first, it seems to Adolf that since Ellenora gave herself to him, he loves and respects her even more. But soon this delusion is dispelled: now he is sure that his love is beneficial only for Ellenora, that he, having made her happiness, is still unhappy himself, for he is ruining his talents, spending all his time near his mistress. A letter from his father calls Adolf to his homeland; Ellenora's tears force him to postpone his departure for six months.

For the sake of love for Adolf, Ellenora breaks with Count P. and loses her wealth and reputation, won by ten years of "loyalty and constancy." In dealing with her, men have some kind of swagger. Adolf accepts Ellenora's sacrifice and at the same time seeks to break with her: her love is already weighing on him. Not daring to openly leave his mistress, he becomes a passionate exposer of female hypocrisy and despotism. Now in society “they hate him,” and “they pity her, but do not respect her.”

Finally, Adolf leaves for his father. Ellenora, despite his protests, comes to visit him in the city. Upon learning of this, Adolf's father threatens to send her out of the elector's possessions. Outraged by his father's interference, Adolf reconciles with his mistress, they leave and settle in a small town in Bohemia. The further, the more Adolf is burdened by this connection and languishes from idleness.

Count P. invites Ellenora to return to him, but she refuses, which makes Adolf feel even more indebted to his beloved, and at the same time even more eager to break with her. Soon, Ellenora again has the opportunity to change her life: her father is restored to possession of his estates and calls her to him. She asks Adolf to go with her, but he refuses and she stays. At this time, her father dies, and in order not to feel remorse, Adolf travels with Ellenora to Poland.

They settle in the Ellenora estate near Warsaw. From time to time, Adolf visits a longtime friend of his father, Count T. Passionately wanting to separate Adolf from his mistress, the Count awakens ambitious dreams in him, introduces him into society, and constantly exposes Ellenora in an unsightly light. Finally, Adolf promises him in writing to break with Ellenora. However, after returning home and seeing the tears of his faithful lover, he does not dare to fulfill the promise.

Then Count T. notifies Ellenora in writing of the decision made by the young man, backing up his message with a letter from Adolf. Ellenora falls seriously ill. Adolf learns about the act of Count T., is indignant, a feeling of contradiction awakens in him, and he does not leave Ellenora until her last breath. When it's all over, Adolf suddenly realizes that he painfully lacks the addiction that he always wanted to get rid of.

IN last letter Ellenora writes in her book that the hard-hearted Adolf urged her to take the first step towards their parting. But life without a lover is worse for her than death, so she can only die. Inconsolable Adolf sets off on a journey. But "having rejected the being who loved him," he, still restless and dissatisfied, does not make "any use of the freedom gained at the cost of so many sorrows and tears."

The publisher of Adolf's manuscript philosophically notes that the essence of a person is in his character, and since we cannot break with ourselves, then a change of place does not correct us, but, on the contrary, "we only add remorse to regrets, and mistakes to suffering" .

E. V. Morozova

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Benjamin Constant De Rebec

Biography

Constant de Rebecque, Benjamin (1767−1830), Franco-Swiss writer, philosopher and politician. Born in Lausanne (Switzerland) on October 25, 1767. He studied in Germany, England and Scotland, then in Paris, where, thanks to Madame de Stael, he began in 1795 political activity. He supported the Directory and Napoleon, after the coup of the eighteenth Brumaire became a member of the Tribunate (1799-1802), but then left France, following Madame de Stael (1803-1814) into exile. Abroad, he met with Goethe and Schiller, was associated with the Schlegels. In 1814, after the return to power of the Bourbons, he returned to France and wrote his first pamphlet On the Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation (De l'esprit de conqute et de l'usurpation), and in 1816 - the novel Adolphe (Adolphe), who played a famous role in development of romanticism and modern psychological prose (in 1951 were also published previously famous novel Cecile, and in 1952 - Intimate Notebooks). In 1819 he became a member of the Chamber of Deputies and one of the leading publicists. After the coup of 1830, in which he played a significant role, he became chairman of the State Council.

The philosophical concept of Constant reflected various influences, including Voltaire and the encyclopedists, Kant, Schelling and Schlegel, but the views of the “ideologists”, in particular Cabanis, were closest to him. Thus, he shared the agnostic position of Cabanis, considering reliable knowledge about the root causes of the world and about the existence of the soul after death inaccessible to the human mind. Constant's main interests were centered around the moral and political problems. Constant was influenced by Stoicism, but preferred the Kantian morality of duty, although he argued with Kant in his work On Political Reactions (Des reactions politiques), criticizing him for his unconditional condemnation of lies. Duty, according to Constant, is based on free choice, and freedom is the basic requirement of morality and the principle of politics. Unlike Kant, he considered freedom to be an expression of religious feeling, human by nature and suggesting disinterestedness and the ability to self-sacrifice.

In political philosophy, Constant relied on the concept of the general will as a legitimate force capable of resisting various forms violence. The general will is formed in the process of free discussion political events and problems, including in the press. In freedom of thought, discussion, and the press, he saw a guarantee against despotic tendencies inherent not only in absolutism, but also in “popular” rule (democracy).

In the works On religion, its origin, forms and development (De la religion considere dans sa source, ses forms et ses dvloppements, in 5 volumes, 1824−1831) and On Roman polytheism in its relation to Greek philosophy and Christianity (Du polythisme romain consider dans ses rapports avec la philosophie grecque et la religion chrtienne, in 2 volumes, published posthumously in 1833) Constant outlined the concept of religion, which goes through three stages in its development: fetishism, polytheism and theism. Traditional theism, according to Constant, will eventually suffer the same fate as previous forms: it will face destructive criticism. The highest form of religion is mystical theism based on religious feeling.

Benjamin Constant de Rebecq is a French-Swiss writer, philosopher and politician. He was born in the Swiss city of Lausanne on October 25, 1767. Constant was educated in Germany, England, Scotland and France. In 1795, Paris began his political career, thanks to the recommendations of Madame e Stael.

Initially, he was a supporter of the Directory and Napoleon, and, after the coup of power on the 18th Brumaire, he becomes a member of the Tribunate. In 1802 he left France, following Madame de Stael, who was on her way to exile. Outside of France, he saw people like Goethe and Schiller. Constant wrote his first work after returning to France in 1814, when power was again in the hands of the Bourbons. Beginning in 1819, he became a member of the Chamber of Deputies. And after the coup of 1830, in which he was directly involved, he became chairman of the Council of State.

Constant's creative ideas were greatly influenced by such philosophical masters as Voltaire, Kant, Schlegel and others. In addition, he shared the position of Cabanis, who believed that human mind it is not given to understand about the origin of all things and the existence of the soul. But Constant's main interests were political and moral issues.

The writer created works where he discussed the concept of religious beliefs. In his opinion, the traditional worldview will overtake the same fate as the old beliefs - he will be subject to destructive criticism. As the writer thought highest form religion is nothing more than a mystical worldview based on religious feelings.

“I want to be loved,” Adolf tells himself, but he does not feel attracted to any woman. Unexpectedly, in the house of Count P., he meets his mistress, a charming Polish woman of not her first youth. Despite her ambiguous position, this woman is distinguished by the greatness of her soul, and the count loves her very much, for for ten years now she has selflessly shared with him not only joys, but also dangers and hardships.

Ellenora, that is the name of the Count's girlfriend, has lofty feelings and is distinguished by accuracy of judgment. Everyone in society recognizes the impeccability of her behavior.

Appearing to the eyes of Adolf at the moment when his heart demands love, and vanity - success in the world, Ellenora seems to him worthy to covet her. And his efforts are crowned with success - he manages to win the heart of a woman,

For the sake of love for Adolf, Ellenora breaks with Count P. and loses her wealth and reputation, won by ten years of "loyalty and constancy." In dealing with her, men have some kind of swagger. Adolf accepts Ellenora's sacrifice and at the same time seeks to break with her: her love is already weighing him down. Not daring to openly leave his mistress, he becomes a passionate exposer of female hypocrisy and despotism. Now in society “they hate him,” and “they pity her, but do not respect her.”

In her last letter, Ellenora writes that the hard-hearted Adolf urged her to take the first step towards their parting. But life without a lover is worse for her than death, so she can only die. Inconsolable Adolf sets off on a journey. But "having rejected the being who loved him," he, still restless and dissatisfied, does not make "any use of the freedom gained at the cost of so many sorrows and tears."

Benjamin Constant

Preface to the third edition

It was not without hesitation that I agreed to reprint this little essay, first published ten years ago. If I were not almost certain that it was intended to be published in Belgium without my consent, and that in this forgery, as in most of this kind of Belgian publications distributed in Germany and imported into France, there will be additions and insertions with which I will not be involved. , I would never again take up this story, written for the sole purpose of convincing two or three friends gathered in the village that it is possible to give some fascination to a novel where there are only two actors and where the situation remains unchanged.

Once I took up this work, I wanted to develop some other ideas that came into my head and seemed to me not entirely useless. I have decided to depict the suffering generated in the hearts of even the most callous people by the sorrows that they cause, and the delusion that makes them consider themselves more flighty or more depraved than they are. As time passes, the image of the sadness we have caused becomes vague and obscure, like a cloud through which it is easy to pass; we are encouraged by the approval of a society that is hypocritical through and through, replacing principles with soulless rules, and feelings - with decency and hating every scandal not for its immorality, but for its inconvenience - because it is rather indulgent towards vice, if it is not accompanied by publicity; it seems easy to us to break the bonds that we have thoughtlessly imposed on ourselves. But when we see the grief resulting from such a break, we see the woeful amazement of a deceived soul, we see how the former undivided trust is replaced by distrust, which, involuntarily turned against a being that seemed to be the only one in the world, now spreads to the whole world, we see rejected admiration, who now does not know what to pour out on, then we feel that there is something sacred in the heart that suffers because it loves; then it becomes clear to us how deep are the roots of affection, which, it seemed to us, we inspired, but did not share; and if we manage to overcome what we call weakness, we achieve this only by destroying everything that is generous in us, trampling in ourselves all the fidelity of which we are capable, sacrificing everything that is noble and good in us. We come out of this victory, which is applauded by the indifferent and friends, having mortified a part of our soul, discarded compassion, abused weakness, offended morality by taking it as a pretext for cruelty; and, shamed or corrupted by this miserable success, we continue to live, having lost the best part of your being.

This is the picture I wanted to paint in Adolf. I don't know if it succeeded; but in my story, I think, there is at least a grain of truth, for all those readers with whom I met told me that they themselves were in the position of my hero. It is true that in the remorse they expressed for the misfortunes they had caused, there was a kind of vain satisfaction; they liked to say that in the past, like Adolf, they were pursued by equally strong affections inspired by them, as if they too had become victims of that great love that was fed to them. I believe that in most cases they slandered themselves and that, if they were not pestered by vanity, their conscience could be calm.

Be that as it may, everything relating to "Adolf" became very indifferent to me; I do not attach any importance to this novel, and I repeat - my only impulse, when I decided to re-present it to the public, which in all probability had forgotten it, if it ever knew it at all, was to declare that any publication whose text does not coincide with this text does not come from me and I am not responsible for it.

From the publisher

A few years ago I traveled in Italy. The flood of the Neto River delayed me in the Calabrian village of Cherenza. I stayed at a hotel where I found another foreigner stuck there for the same reason. He was very silent and seemed sad, he did not express the slightest impatience. To him, the only one with whom I could talk in this remote place, I sometimes complained about the delay in the journey. "I don't care," he answered, "whether I am here or elsewhere." The innkeeper, who spoke to a Neapolitan footman who served with this visitor, but did not know his name, told me that the stranger was not traveling out of curiosity, for he was not interested in ruins, or places of interest, or monuments, or people. He read a lot, but randomly; in the evenings he went for walks, always alone, and sometimes he sat motionless for whole days with his head in his hands.

When communication resumed and we could leave, the stranger fell dangerously ill. Humanity obliged me to prolong my stay in order to look after him. In Cherenets there was only a village paramedic; I wanted to send to Cosenza for a more knowledgeable doctor. “It’s not worth the trouble,” the stranger told me, “this is exactly the person I need.” He was right, perhaps even more than he thought, for this man cured him. “I did not suppose that you were so skillful,” the stranger said angrily, saying goodbye to him; he then thanked me for my concern and departed.

A few months later, in Naples, I received from the owner of that inn a letter and a casket, found on the road to Strongoli; both of us, the stranger and I, rode this road, but separately. The innkeeper who sent the box had no doubt that it belonged to one of us. There were many old letters in it, without addresses or with erased addresses and signatures, a portrait of a woman and a notebook containing the story or episode that is given here. When leaving, the foreigner who owned these things did not show me any way to communicate with him: I kept them for ten years, not knowing what to do with them, and once, in a German city, accidentally mentioned them in conversation with friends. One of those present urged me to entrust him with the manuscript, of which I considered myself the custodian. A week later, the manuscript was returned to me, with a letter attached to it, which I placed at the very end of this story, because it would be incomprehensible if it were read without reading it.

It was this letter that prompted me to publish this story, since I was filled with the confidence that it could not offend anyone and would not harm anyone. I have not changed a single word in the original; even the concealment of proper names does not come from me: they, as here, were indicated by only capital letters.

Manuscript found in the papers of an unknown

Chapter first

At the age of twenty-two I completed my course of science at the University of Göttingen. My father, Elector X.'s minister, wanted me to travel to the most remarkable countries of Europe. Then he intended to call me to him, assign me to the service in the department that he headed, and prepare me so that I could later replace him.

Although I led a very dispersed life, I nevertheless achieved successes by rather hard work, thanks to which I distinguished myself among my fellow students and aroused hopes in my father, in all probability, greatly exaggerated.

These hopes inspired him with extreme condescension to my frivolity. He never let me suffer its consequences; he always fulfilled, and sometimes even prevented, those of my requests that were connected with her.

Unfortunately, in his attitude towards me there was more nobility and generosity than tenderness. I realized that he had every right to gratitude and respect from my side, but there was never an intimacy between us. There was something mocking in his mind that did not suit my character. At that time, I longed for only one thing - to surrender to those immediate strong impressions that elevate the soul above the ordinary and instill in it a disregard for the objects surrounding it. In my father, I found not a stern mentor, but a cold, caustic observer who smiled patronizingly at the beginning of a conversation - and after that impatiently interrupted him. In the first eighteen years of my life, I do not remember a single conversation with him that lasted even an hour. His letters were affectionate, full of sensible, heartfelt advice; but as soon as we met each other, in his treatment of me there was an effect of some kind of compulsion incomprehensible to me, which acted very painfully on me. I didn’t know then that shyness is a mental illness that haunts us to our very advanced years, makes us harbor the deepest impressions, freezes our speeches, distorts everything we try to say in our mouths, and allows us to express ourselves only vaguely or with a more or less bitter irony, as if we want to take out the pain on our own feelings that the inability to express them causes us. I had no idea that my father was shy even with his own son and that often, without waiting for expressions of tenderness from me, which were prevented by his outward coldness, he would leave me with tears in his eyes and complain to others that I did not love him.