Morphemics. Word formation. Productive and unproductive ways of forming words in English

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1. General concept of morphemics

In modern Russian there are 2 meanings of the term morphemics:

1. This is the totality of all morphemes of a language, taking into account their types and hierarchy, that is, the movement from simple to complex, from higher to lower.
2. This is a branch of the science of language, where the types and composition of morphemes (sound and letter), their meanings (grammatical and word-formative), their relationships with each other and with the word as a whole are studied.

Morphemics is a component of the discipline of linguistics, which arose in 1881, thanks to the research of the founder of the Kazan linguistic school, Ivan Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, as well as thanks to the works of Vasily Alekseevich Bogoroditsky, Grigory Osipovich Vinokur, Elena Andreevna Zemskaya, Vladimir Vladimirovich Lopatin, Mikhail Viktorovich Panov, Alexander Nikolae Vich Tikhonov , Igor Stepanovich Ulukhanov and other domestic scientists.

Morphemics studies the system of minimal, indivisible units of language - morphemes, as well as the morphemic structure of words and their grammatical varieties (word forms).

Morphemics is a component of the branch of linguistics.

2. Morphemic tasks

1. Study of the meanings of morphemes and their functions, patterns of compatibility of morphemes in a word.
2. Practical application of theoretical principles in the study of morphemic analysis of words.

The basic units of morphemics are morpheme, morph.

3. Definition of morpheme

As a rule, when getting to know a language, the main attention is paid not only to the sound composition of the word, but to a greater extent to the morphemic structure of the language, i.e. into the shortest units that have semantic meaning.

K. G. Paustovsky loved to tell an interesting story about little boy, who, seeing the sign “Antelope,” exclaimed: “I know what “anti” is, but I don’t know what “lope” means.

This case convincingly shows that a person strives to reveal the meaning of unknown words by dividing them; we compare new words with known ones and try to highlight the familiar semantic parts of the word. It means that most of Words in the Russian language are divided into parts in our minds - morphemes.

Another example. Let's take a computer term archive, let’s say, its meaning is unknown to us, but we know what an archive is - 1. an institution where documents of the past are stored; 2. the collection of stored documents itself. As a result, we will understand that archiving a file means transferring it to storage, i.e. saving it.

Conclusion: by determining the meaning of individual parts of a word, you can understand the meaning of the whole word. A morpheme is the minimal significant part of a word.

4. How does a morpheme relate to other units of language?

Morpheme - can be considered in two ways, i.e. it has both form and content.

Form: consists of sounds, which are indicated by letters in writing; it also has content - it points to a specific object. By its biplane nature, a morpheme differs from a phoneme and a syllable, which have only a form.

As a rule, the morphemic division of a word (pod-sh-l-i) usually does not coincide with its division into syllables (po-do-shli).

Synonymy of words and morphemes is possible: the most beautiful - the most beautiful; russian - a specialist in the Russian language.

A morpheme is clearly distinguished from a word and a sentence. These are the differences:

1) a morpheme is a minimal unit, and a word and a sentence can be divided into smaller meaningful units;

2) the morpheme is deprived of independence and exists only in the word; Outside of a word, it can be difficult to determine not only the meaning of a morpheme, but also its attribution to roots or affixes (plaintiff, radiant, taxi driver). The word acts as an independent element of the sentence;

3) the location of the morpheme in a word is strictly fixed (les-ok, not ok-les), but the word can move relatively freely within a sentence;

4) morpheme – a reproducible unit; the speaker takes them from the "inventory" stored in memory linguistic units, and sentences and some words (occasional and potential - pro-sessed - in V. Mayak., obrazovanschina - Solzh.; potential words can be created by any speaker of the Russian language by analogy with those already available with the words: superstar - supersuccess, supermachine, superfish.

Often, without thinking, we use morphemes: abbreviated according to place of residence - Bakunets, Muscovite, Italian.

5. Morpheme, allomorph, variant of morpheme

A morpheme is a generalized unit that has varieties - morphs.

Morph is also related to morpheme, as sound is to phoneme.

Example: talk, say - two morphs of one horse morpheme, in the words buy, purchase, purchase - three morphs of one suffixal morpheme.

Different morphs representing the same morpheme are called allomorphs(Greek allos – other, morphe – form).

A morpheme is a series of alternating allomorphs in a strict position. In this case, allomorphs of one morpheme must have:

1) identity of meaning,

2) proximity of phonemic composition;

3) non-occurrence in one morphemic environment.

Example: allomorphs love - love- have the same meaning “to feel deep affection for someone, something.”, are close in phonemic composition, do not occur in the same morphemic environment: allomorph love - found only where in the history of the language the root b met the phoneme j: love , in love, falling in love. Replacement with the morph lyub is impossible in these words.

Another example: nose and porter, here the morphs are not defined as allomorphs, since they belong to different morphemes, because the morphs do not have the same meaning: nose - “part of a person’s face,” nose” (in the word porter) means to move something by picking it up.

Words go and go, here the morphs id- and sh- have the identical meaning of movement, but do not have similar phonemic composition, therefore they cannot be called allomorphs, these are different morphemes.

If we consider the endings of nouns in word forms doors, doors, then here the morphs are identical in meaning (indicate a noun in plural form, creative case), close in phonemic composition, but occur in the same morpheme position, at the end of the same part of the word. They are not called allomorphs, but options morphemes.

Conclusion: allomorphs and variants of morphemes have the same meaning and similarity in phonemic composition, but variants of morphemes occur in the same position, and allomorphs – in different.

6. Types of morphemes

There are 6 types of morphemes possible in a word: root, prefix (prefix), suffix, ending (inflection), connecting vowel (interfix), postfix.

Types of affixes differ according to their place in the word.

All significant parts of a word, except the root, are called affixes.

The part of a word without an ending is called the stem.

Root is the central morpheme in a word, carrying the main lexical meaning. a common part related words, called cognate.

Affix(lat. attached) – a morpheme that clarifies and specifies the lexical meaning of a word or performs grammatical functions in it.

The main differences between a root and an affix:

1) root - necessarily present in every word, there are no words without roots, affix - optional: there are words that do not have affixes (no, cinema, bezh, au, video);

2) the root necessarily has a meaning, the affix may not have it (five-year-old, high school student);

3) roots can be in any part of speech (good, kind, kind); affixes usually correspond to words of certain parts of speech: enj – suffix of abstract nouns(mood, achievement, procrastination), aish- adjective suffix in the shape of superlatives(highest, deepest); -ut – verb ending (write, wave, carry).

The exception here is the suffixes of subjective assessment (uncle, old, modest);

4) there are significantly more roots in the Russian language than affixes.

Example: “Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language” by A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova has about 5000 morphemes, of which more than 4400 are roots and about 600 affixes);

5) roots are replenished with new morphemes, but new affixes almost never appear in the language;

6) in the text, root morphemes are found less frequently than affixes (Thus, in L.N. Tolstoy’s phrase “Where love ends, hate begins” - 6 root morphemes, at least 10 affixes);

7) root morphemes are longer than affixal ones;

8) affixes can be zero (brother said); roots cannot be zero.

Affixes are divided into educational and formative (inflectional) words.

Derivational affixes serve to form new words, to form their bases (to live, to live).

By using inflectional affixes form grammatical forms of words (zhi-t, zhiv-ut).

7. Productivity and regularity of affixes

When analyzing words in the Russian language, you can notice that not all affixes are equally used: some of them take an active part in the word formation process, others do not participate in word formation.

From this point of view, affixes are divided into productive And unproductive.

Productive are called morphemes that actively participate in word production and give new words.

In the formation of the names of male persons, there are over 50 suffixes: chiy (architect), -ak, -yak (countryman, fisherman), -ik (historian), -chik /-schik (scout, nuclear scientist), -ok (rider), -onok, -yonok (grandson, cook), -ar, -yar (ovchar, stolYar), -yor (boxer), -ir (banker)... The entire list of such suffixes can be found in the book by Zinovy ​​Aronovich Potikha “Modern Russian Word Formation” .

Unproductive affixes are called, with the help of which new words and forms are not currently formed.

For example: Herald, regular, spy, hodAtay - these are, perhaps, all the words in the language with the suffix -tai/-atai. The same applies to the suffixes - ev (brew, glow), -zn (life, fear, illness), -yash (nephew, curly).

The same applies to formative morphemes: all verbs in the 1st person singular. numbers of the present tense have the ending -у / -у, and only 2 verbs have the ending -m in this form: dam, eat.

In addition to productivity / unproductivity, affixes differ in regularity.

Regularity(Latin regula - law, rule) is a natural repetition, reproducibility of an affix as part of a number of words of a homogeneous structure. They form a certain word-forming or formative type.

Irregular affixes have limited (unique) compatibility - only with one specific root; such affixes are also called unifixes: -enek (hubby), -anek (kumanek), -avets (handsome, bastard), -unok (drawing), –yuh (groom).

The endings –umya, -ema, -мя are found only in the numerals two, three, four. The prefix ko- is only in the word nook, the prefix mu- only in the word garbage.

All irregular affixes are simultaneously unproductive, but not all regular affixes are productive. For example, the suffix –ot - (speed, cleanliness, kindness) in SRY is regular, i.e. There is a certain word-formation model: an abstract noun is formed from an adjective with the help of this suffix, but new words are not formed this way, so the suffix is ​​unproductive.

8. Brief description of types of morphemes

Root- a common indivisible part of related words, capable of attaching other morphemes.

Usually roots consist of 2 – 6 sounds (ber-u, dream-at, pogo-a), roots consisting of 1 sound are rare (sh-la, him, u-y-ti).

In morphemic analysis, the root is found when selecting and comparing related words.

Roots distinguish free and bound roots, based on the degree of morphemic and semantic independence.

Available roots - act independently, without combination with other significant morphemes. They themselves form the basis of the word: forest, kind, yesterday.

Related roots (radixoids) - used only in combination with other significant morphemes: o-de-t, on-de-t, about-at-t, once-at-t, v-do-bav-ok.

Console(prefix - Latin attached in front) - an affix that is located in front of the root and expresses word-formation or grammatical meaning.

Prefixes in verbs can mean a specific action: In-walk - out - word-formation meaning.

Write - na-write - verbs denote one action, but the unprefixed is an imperfective verb and is formative.

Usually the prefix is ​​located in front of the root, but it can also be in front of another prefix: without-dimensional, on-you-to-pull, on-to-think.

Most often, consoles are simple(without-/bes-, in-/vo-, o-/about-/about-), but there may also be composite(complex, derivative), formed as a result of a combination of 2 prefixes. There are few such prefixes: bez-/obes-, under-, nebez-/nebes- (deprive, weaken, notorious, not useful, underfulfill, underdo).

Before verbs, prefixes usually play the role of additional meaning: to drive, to drive, to drive, to drive, to drive.

When mixed structures of complex prefixes (under-, obez-, obes-) with simple ones from the combination of which they are formed, difficulties may arise.

Example: under-looked – i.e. “did not take into account, did not notice, overlooked”; He was not saying something - i.e. “hid, concealed.”

A distinctive feature of the prefix is ​​its holistic, independent character; often words with this prefix without not are not used: underestimation, misunderstanding, malnutrition, underestimation, reticence, thoughtlessness, misunderstanding. Remember!

Complex prefix heaven-/heaven- is used to form adjectives and denotes incompleteness, a weak degree of quality: not harmless - not entirely harmful, not useful - somewhat useful, not unreasonable - having some grounds. Not unknown - known to some extent, not unknown - known, because. there is no complete denial of the unknown here.

Suffix- this is an affix located before the ending and serves to form new words or their grammatical forms.

Usually the suffix is ​​located after the root or another suffix: gost-i-t, sequence-ova-tel-nitsa.

Characteristic features of suffixes:

1. Merging a suffix with a specific ending. In linguistic literature, suffixes and inflections are often given as one whole: -nie, -ification, -stvo. Such combinations of suffix and ending are called formants.

2. The suffix has the ability, together with the ending, to attribute words to one or another part of speech: -nits(a) (inkwell, breadbox) – predetermines the attribution of the word to a noun female. The suffix -sk(iy) (urban, rural) - to adjectives, the suffix -nu- - to verbs of the first conjugation (push, shout).

3. It is necessary to distinguish suffixes from prefixes; suffixes are attached not to the word as a whole, but to the base of the word form: from the verb to be friends with the help of the suffix -b- the noun friendship is formed, from the noun length the adjective long is formed.

In the Russian language there are native Russian suffixes and borrowed suffixes.

Suffixes are divided into derivational And inflectional(formative).

Derivational suffixes change the lexical meaning of a derived word.

Example: the nouns wardrobe, newspaper have the meaning of objectivity, and formed from them with the help of the suffix -chik / -schik newspaperman, cloakroom worker already have the meaning of a person in relation to an object, an instrument of action.

In the Russian language, word-forming suffixes are predominantly used.

The following difficulties may arise in morpheme parsing:

1. In possessive adjectives like lisiy, the morpheme –i is a suffix and not an ending, therefore, in the form lisiy null ending, the letter ending appears in such an adjective when the form of the word changes: fox, fox. And the vowel is fluent in the suffix –i.

2. With the same graphic representation of suffixes and endings: seven-ey, blue-ey. Here, too, you need to compare the form being parsed with others, and only after that decide what is in front of you: a suffix or an ending.

3. It can be difficult to distinguish one suffix from another (dreamer, insensitivity, predecessor): 1) highlight all this as one suffix, 2) highlight as many suffixes as possible.

In such cases, it is necessary to build a word-formation chain, decide from what given word, and motivate your decision.

Dreamer - a woman who is a dreamer, we can distinguish the suffix -nits-. A dreamer is someone who dreams; we can distinguish the suffix –tel. To dream - to have dreams in your head - highlight the suffix -a-.

The Russian language is distinguished by a wide variety of suffix systems, which contributes to the variety of shades of meaning and the subtlety of stylistic shades. Example: girl, girl, girl, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly, girly.

There is another feature of suffixes in Russian: diminutive.

Often in colloquial speech Diminutive suffixes are used, which are a manifestation of an informal style of speech.

For example: Bench is an official language, a label in a store, on a sales list, in legal usage. The diminutive “bench” is common, common literary and neutrally colloquial. A double diminutive“stool” is emphatically colloquial, a sign of informal, friendly relations with your interlocutor.

Hence the double or even multiple diminutiveness of many words and a huge supply of suffixes: k, ik, ok, chik, check, ochk, echk, ichk, ushk, ishk, yshk, itsa, itse... The same word can be reduced by everything frets: room - little room - little room - little room; hand - pen - little hand - little hand - little hand...

Diminutive suffixes on adjectives take on a special flavor. They smooth out and, as it were, average those evaluative values: handsome, kind, smart, and now with diminutive suffixes: handsome, kind, smart. IN diminutive form they begin to sound somewhat condescending, praise is moderated, sometimes even turns into ridicule.

9. Postfix

Postfix(lat. attached) – an affix located after the ending at the absolute end of the word.

There are 5 postfixes in Russian: 2 verbs(-sya / -sya, -te: fight, fight, teach) and 3 pronominal(-that, -either, -someone: someone, some, someone's).

The above listed affixes are word-forming.

Thus, the postfix – xia gives the verbs correspond, quarrel the meaning of reciprocity, and pronouns and adverbs with postfixes – that, -or, -something (someone, somewhere, someday) have the meaning of uncertainty.

The postfix -sya / -sya performs an inflectional function: it is used to form forms passive voice. For example: Workers are building a house. - The house is being built by workers.

Inflectional postfix – those in the form imperative mood verb expresses grammatical meaning plural: think - those, remember - those.

Postfixes combine the characteristics of prefixes and suffixes. Verbs remain verbs, pronouns remain pronouns (to begin - to begin, which - any).

10. Interfix

This word refers to related but not identical concepts:

1. connecting vowels in compound words;
2. intermorphemic spacers.

The main connecting vowels –O-, -E-, also –I-, -EX-, -UH-, -U-: daredevil, four-story, two-story, penumbra.

Intermorpheme spacers - ensure the compatibility of morphemes and are often located at the border of the root and suffix. In morphemic analysis, in this case, we can distinguish the suffix –sh-, which is a variant of the suffix –n-, or we can distinguish the suffix –n- and the interfix –sh-.

For example: Kazan, Saratov, Oryol, Gorky.

11. End

Ending(inflection – lat. bending, transition) – a variable part of a word form that serves to express grammatical meaning and indicating the syntactic relationships of words in a sentence.

The ending occupies the final position in the word, the exception applies only to indefinite pronouns, reflexive verbs and complex numerals (someone, I come back, three hundred).

The ending is used to express the meaning of gender, number, case or person. For example: in the word form country -a expresses the meaning of zh.r., singular, im.p.; merry - the meaning of m., cf. r., units h., r. P.; look –im – plural meaning, 1st person, i.e. the ending is complex.

In some cases, the ending is also a word-forming device: godfather - godfather, spouse - wife, fox - fox, Alexander - Alexandra.

12. Affixoids

By function affixoids close to affixes. They are part of a complex or compound word, which regularly participate in word formation and thereby approach in their role to affixes - prefixes and suffixes.

Examples of prefixoids: bio- (biology, biochemistry, biotechnology), pseudo- (pseudo-democrat, pseudo-culture), suffixoids: -log (political scientist, geologist, philologist), -tek- (film library, card index, library).

13. Word stem

Base word- this is an obligatory and constant element of the morphemic structure of a word, which is a means of expressing its lexical meaning.

In the Russian language there are 2 main types of morphemic structure of the Russian word:

1. stem + inflection (city, country, said);
2. words equal to stem (fun, khaki, coat).

Rarely, when forming a word, different root (subpletive) stems are used: child - children, person - people, good - better, me - me.

The bases can be articulated or indivisible.

Divisionable are called stems consisting of at least 2 morphemes, 1 of which is root: degree-nick, na-so-n-th.

Undivided the bases are equal to the root: red, go.

The basics can be simple, i.e. containing 1 root, and complex containing 2 or more roots (agricultural, Russian-German-French).

14. Historical changes in word structure

The morphemic structure of a word can change, including:

1) re-decomposition- a change in morphemic boundaries in a word, as a result of which the stem of the word is divided into morphemes differently than before. Example: the former division of living-ness was replaced by the division of living-ness, fishing rod: fishing rod (to fish); earlier: udi-l-ish-e (bit, cf.: bite the bit).

2) simplification- transformation of a articulated base into an indivisible one (in the word taste the prefix v- is no longer distinguished; previously this word was related to the words bite, piece).

3) complication– transformation of a previously non-derivative base into a derivative (book - book, leg - leg).

4) substitution– replacement of one morpheme by another without change general meaning words: solyanka - sol- originally had the form selyanka (rural food) - sel-.

15. Morphemic parsing

The order of school analysis by composition:

1. Determine the part of speech of the word being analyzed.
2. For modified words, change the form of the word, highlight its ending.
3. Build a word-formation chain, highlight suffixes and prefixes.
4. Select words with the same root and make sure that the remaining part is a root. Remember that there may be alternations at the root.

Sample school analysis of composition:

1) participated - verb,

2) participated, participated – ending –and,

3) participated - past form. vr. from the verb to participate - suffix prosh. vr. – l,

4) to participate is to take part in something - the suffix -vova-.

5) Participation, participant – root of participation.

The order of university morpheme analysis:

1. Part of speech– changeable (how it changes) / unchangeable.

2. Characteristics graduation:

• by the nature of the formal expression (materially expressed or zero),
• by the nature of the grammatical meaning.

3. Characteristics basics:

• articulated / indivisible,
• simple / complex,
• intermittent/continuous.

4. Characteristics root:

• by degree of independence (free/bound),
• by the nature of the meaning (objective / verbal / attribute: qualitative and quantitative attribute),
• by the presence of alternations.

5. Characteristics suffixes:

• by function (inflectional / word-formative),
• by value.

6. Characteristics consoles:

• by structure (derivative / non-derivative),
• by function (inflectional / word-formative),
• by value.

7. Characteristics postfixes:

• by function (inflectional / word-formative).

8. Characteristics interfix: a connecting vowel that contributes to the formation of a word / an insignificant spacer that ensures the compatibility of morphemes.

Sample morpheme parsing

1) co-worker - noun, changed in numbers and cases.

2) Ending zero, expresses gram. value of m. genus, units. numbers, them pad.

3) The basis employee articulated, simple, continuous.

4) Root- labor - free, objective, alternation d // w // zh (labor - I’m working - to bother).

5) Suffix- nickname - materially expressed, word-forming, meaning “the name of persons in relation to some object.”

6) Console co-non-derivative, word-formative, has the meaning of “togetherness”.

16. Subject and tasks of word formation. The relationship of word formation to other branches of linguistics

It is necessary to strictly distinguish derivational connections between modern language and real path of education words in the past, as well as consider word-formation means of the modern language in terms of their productivity.

Productive are the affixes used to form new words (using the suffixes –нij-, -chik-/-schik-, -ant, -k-: landing, starship, locator, informant, handball player).

Word formation has a special place in the system of linguistic disciplines; the connection between word formation and grammar and lexicology.

Word formation is considered as a special section of grammar, along with morphology and syntax.

Grammar is the structure of a language. A language has: a sound side (phonetics/graphics), a semantic side (lexis) and a structure (word formation, morphology, syntax).

Word formation– separate section of linguistics, has its own subject of research: morphemic and word-formative; your tasks:

1. studying the minimally significant parts of a word - morphemes
2. learning how to form words
3. study of word-formation resources
4. study of the word-formation system of the Russian language, main development trends
5. mastering the methods of word formation.

Communication with morphology manifests itself in the fact that new words are usually formed according to existing models in the language, arranged according to grammatical categories language (part of speech, post. and non-post. signs).

Word formation and syntax the connection is reflected in the word-formation possibilities and semantics of words derived from it. Let us consider this phenomenon using the example of the word “teach”.

* teach – is a predicate in a sentence

Accordingly, from this verb it is formed:

• name of action (teaching)
• name of the acting (teacher)
• name of the direct circumstance of the action (student)
• name of the indirect circumstance of the action (textbook)
• name of the place of action (school).

Word formation and phonetics

The phonetic and morphological structure of the Russian language are closely interconnected in the structure of the word. In the process of word formation and morphogenesis, the same morpheme can change in its sound composition and differ in morphs.

Morph- a specific representative of one morpheme in a word.

Word formation and derivation

Derivation– the very process of formation of linguistic units of any level (morphemes, syllables, words, etc.).

The science of word formation is called derivatology. This includes the processes of formation of language units as a whole (words, phrases, sentences).

Word formation studies the following sections:

1. morphemics – studies morphemes and their meaning
2. Russian word structure section (about the basics)
3. morphonology (considers morphs of various types)
4. etymology (origin of the derivational structure of a word)
5. word formation itself (methods, types, word-formation chains and nests)

17. Word formation in the market world

Knowledge about word formation in modern world are used everywhere.

Philologist is a very “broad” specialty; a philologist can be found everywhere: not only in educational institution, kindergarten and library, but also in a printing house, a company of any profile, city and regional administration - literate people are needed everywhere.

18. The concept of derivatives

Productivity- the basic concept of word formation, formed between words of the same root, when the form and meaning of one word are directly predetermined (motivated) by the form and meaning of another word (river ← river, ChSPU ← Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University).

All words in the Russian language are divided (from a word-formation point of view) into derivatives and non-derivatives.

Derivatives- words formed from other words: spring, stream. The words river, river, little river are derivative, and the word river for them is productive.

Derived words (derivative) are the basic minimal unit of the word-formation system of a language. For example: Snowflake ← snow

Productivity happens the only one And multiple. With single derivation, there is only one option for motivating the derived word: student ← student, store manager ← store manager.

With multiple derivation (multiple motivations), a word can be equally related to several generators:

not fun ← fun redistribution ← distribution

← sad ← redistribute

Non-derivative are words that are not formed from other words. There are 2 groups of words. One includes variable words consisting of a word and an ending: spring, stream, sun.

The second group consists of unchangeable words such as sconce, coat, there, scat. The words of both groups have an indivisible base, which is equal to the root.

19. Motivating and motivated word. Derivative formant

The words “generating word” and “generating base” are close, but not identical.

Motivating word is the generating word from which the parsed word is actually formed. For example: for the word extortion, the word extortionist is productive and motivating: extortion is the action that the extortionist commits.

Motivated word is a derivative word, the meaning of which can be explained (motivated) using a cognate word, simpler in composition.

Motivating and motivated words are connected by relations of word-formation motivation.

Motivating and motivated words form a word-forming pair. The motivated word in this pair is the one that is formally and semantically more complex than the word with the same root. For example: Baker - bakery. The word bake-ar-n-ya, for example, is formally longer (in suff. -n-) and semantically more complex: it includes the component “place”, which means that it is the word bakery that is motivated.

When interpreting derivative words, you can use standard definitions: the one who; what; the one that.

A motivated word always consists of 2 parts: the base of the generating word and the word-forming one. formant.

Derivative formant– this is the means by which a derived word differs from a producing one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya). – this is the means by which a derived word differs from a producing one: author → co-author (co-), teach → learn (-sya).

In the Russian language, word-forming formants are:

a. affixes,

b. reduction of the production base (specialist → specialist),

c. addition or fusion into a single unit (instant, dining car),

d. a change in the system of grammatical forms of a word (when it moves from 1 part of speech to another: ice cream: adverb → noun), the gender of the participle was non-fixed. category: frozen meat, frozen fish, frozen zucchini; The creature became a fast. category - cf. R.

20. Word-formation meaning

Derived words express a wide range of word-formation meanings of different types. For example: meanings of a person (flatterer, pilot, conductor - highlight the formants that express this meaning), object meanings (engine, counter, boiler - formants), meaning of a place of action or container (locker room, winter quarters, stables, sugar bowl, coffee pot), meanings femininity, immaturity, collectiveness or individuality (cashier, little fox, clientele, pea), various evaluative meanings: diminutive, magnifying, affectionate, derogatory (house, domina, little dog, little mind) and many other meanings.

21. Methodology for choosing a generating word and composing a word-forming pair

There is a certain method for choosing a generating word and composing a word-forming pair:

1. Determine the lexical meaning of the derived word.
2. Compose a motivational paraphrase (descriptive expression) for the derived word.
3. Make a word-forming pair, highlight the derivative and the generating stem.
4. Determine the word formant and its meaning.

For example: Charm is a characteristic of a charming person.

Charm ← charming.

The word-forming formant, the suffix -ost, gives the meaning of an abstract entity.

22. Word-formation nest

Word pair form a generating and a derivative word. They can form a word-formation chain: blue → turn blue → turn blue → turn blue.

All derivative words formed from the same root make up word-formation nest: Bor (pine and spruce forest) → borok

→ boron

→ boletus → boletus → boletus

Word-forming nests vary in size:

1) zero nest – represented by only 1 word

2) weakly deployed a nest including a top and 1 derivative: mayonnaise - mayonnaise;

3) highly developed nest of 3 or more words

23. Word-formation type

The word-formation type is the main complex unit of the word-formation system.

The word-formation type includes 3 components:

• commonality of part-speech belonging of producing words;
• commonality of part-speech belonging of derived words;
• commonality of word-formation formant and word-formation meaning.

For example, baby elephant, bear cub, little black man are created on the basis of a word-formation type (word-formation model), i.e.

1. Base noun. + -onok / yonok = noun. with value cub.

2. Greenish, bluish, pinkish are created on the basis of the word-formation type stem adj. + -ovat-/-evat- = adj. with value shade of color.

The word-formation type shows the structure of words existing in a language and gives a rule for the formation of some words from others.

24. Method of word formation

Method of word formation– 1 of the central concepts in word formation. It can be considered in terms of diachrony and in terms of synchrony.

From diachronic point of view, the method of word formation records the history of the birth of a word in one of the periods of its development. For example: goalkeeper ← gate (suff. method, through the formant -ar); now ← this hour (merging 2 significant words).

With synchronous point of view, the method of word formation determines the means by which the word-formation meaning of the word is expressed.

In many cases, the word-formation meaning of collectiveness is expressed in a suffixal way using the formants –j-, -в-, -н-, -еств-, -няк, -ат. For example: animals, foliage, relatives, students, birch forest, elder.

To determine the method of word formation, it is necessary to identify the generating stem and the word-forming formant.

To land← earth (morphol., adj.-suff.-postfix.).

25. Morphological methods of word formation

At morphological Methods of word formation use morphemes.

In such word formations, the structure of the derived word differs from the motivating base (the generating word or phrase): spring ← spring, snowdrop ← snow.

At non-morphological methods do not use affixes and are not accompanied by changes appearance producing unit.

Pure affixation methods include prefixation, suffixation, postfixation.

Prefixation - word formation using prefixes: sing → sing, always → forever. Often used in relation to verbs.

Suffixation-word formation using suffixes is the most common method of Russian word formation, characteristic of different parts of speech, primarily for nouns and adjectives.

Blue → blue → blue

Zero suffixation - used in the field of verbal nouns (talk → talk, answer → answer, run → run, walk → truant), nouns formed from adjectives (green → greens, quiet → quiet, new → new), and evaluative nouns with the meaning of a person (suck up → suck up, bully → bully).

Postfix - affixal method, in which a postfix serves as a means of expressing word-formation meaning.

A postfix, like a prefix, is attached to the word as a whole and does not change the part of speech of the word being formed.

There are also combined affixal methods: prefix-suffixal, prefix-postfixal, suffixal-postfixal, prefix-postfixal-suffixal.

Let's consider these methods.

1. Prefix-suffix method . The word-building formant in this case is a combination of 2 affixes - a prefix and a suffix ((snow → snowdrop, Ural → Trans-Urals).
2. Prefixation with zero suffixation . Prefixation and zero suffixation are a method characteristic of the formation of adjectives motivated by nouns with the meaning of a part of the body or a detail of appearance: eyeless, legless, armless.
3. Prefix-postfix used mainly with verbs. A means of expressing word-formation meaning is a combination of a prefix and a postfix -sya, -sya: get through, get hungry, spill the beans. The formant is attached to a whole word - a verb.
4. Suffixal-postfixal mainly used with verbs. Nouns and adjectives serve as motivating words: vanity → fuss, proud → be proud, need → need.
5. Prefix-suffix-postfix method. It is used mainly with verbs; motivating words are nouns, adjectives and verbs: bankrupt → go bankrupt, generous → become generous, whisper → whisper.

Addition - one of the most common phenomena in word formation.

When adding, the basis is a stable order of components, a tendency towards a single stress, interfix.

Compound words have a special type of word-formation meaning - a connecting meaning associated with the unification of motivating bases that are different in semantics into 1 integral unit: north, east → northeast.

Addition includes several varieties.

1. Complex method– addition of independent words without the help of an interfix: restaurant car, raincoat, stop crane. Each word has an independent meaning.
2. Pure addition– the formation of a derivative word by combining, using an interfix, 1 or several stems with an independent significant word: forest-steppe, black and white. Words can be both equal and unequal semantic relations(white and pink ← white and pink, waterproof ← waterproof).
3. Education difficult words with 1 immutable bound component international nature: air, television, bio, video, rock (airmail, TV show, dietary supplements, video duo, rock concert).
4. Complex suffix method. The word-formation meaning is expressed by a combination of addition and suffix. Interfix and suffix serve as word-forming formants. This method is common in the formation of nouns and adjectives: fire extinguisher, full moon, fifth grade, three-story, Western European, Far Eastern.
5. Complex prefix method: appease, blue-black.
6. Prefixal-complex-suffixal: everyday, ubiquitous, Black Sea region.

Truncation- reduction of the generating stem according to the type of abbreviations (regardless of the morphemic seam): specialist - specialist, deputy - deputy.

The stems of nouns and adjectives are truncated: specialist - special, manager - head, naive - naive, intensive - intensive. Truncations can also be motivated by the phrase: maternity leave - maternity leave, fictitious - fictitious marriage, synchronous - simultaneous translation.

Truncation can be complicated by suffixation: video, great, cartoon, comic.

Semantic inclusion(univerbation) - a way of forming a word based on the phrase: reading room → reader, grade book → record book.

This is a very common way of modern word formation; it forms spoken words: minibus, public, devitietazhka, three-liter, hundred-meter, savings book, five hundred.

26. Morphonological phenomena in word formation

In morphological word formation at the junction of the generating stem and the affix, various sound changes. For example, when the root ruk- is combined with the suffix –n- in the root there is an alternation of phonemes k//ch, but when the same root is combined with the suffix –ast- in the root there is no alternation: manual – rukasty.

Morphemes can adapt to each other using the following word-forming means:

• insertion of interfixes, thanks to this it is possible to avoid difficult-to-pronounce combinations of phonemes on the morphemic seam (skyscraper, biennial);
• morpheme superposition– partial combination in the structure of the word of 2 neighboring morphs (taxi + ist → taxi driver; coat + ov → coatovy, roz-ov-y + ovat → pinkish).
• truncation morpheme is a reduction of part of a root or affix under the influence of an attached affix (coat - paltetso, Italian - Italian);
• buildup- complication of the base of a word in the formation of derivatives or word forms from it: heaven - heaven, daughter - daughters, time - time, mother - maternal.
• alternation phonemes and combinations of phonemes.

The most important historical alternations

1. e // and (unlocked - unlock)

2. o // s (ambassador - send)

3. o // a (burn - burn)

4. e // o (to carry - cart)

5. I // y (tinkle - sound)

6. e // i // a // and (sit down - sit down - sit down - sit)

7. e // ǿ (day - day)

8. o // ǿ (sleep - sleep)

9. and // to her // ǿ (to pour - lei - pour)

10. s // oh (wash is mine)

11. ui // ov (sui - poke)

12. ui // ev (chew - chew)

13. I // them (understand - understand)

14. a // in (start - begin)

15. oro // ra (turn - rotate)

16. ere // re (tree - tree)

17. olo // la (cold - cool)

18. olo // le (milk - mammal)

19. g // f // z (friend - friend - friends)

20. k // h // c (face - personality - face)

21. g // f // h (to take care - to take care - to take care)

22. g // f // sch (can - can - power)

23. x // w (dry - dry)

24. s // w (wear - wear)

25. d // f // zh (walk - walk - walking)

26. t // h // sh (light - candle - lighting)

27. t // sch (eat - food)

28. st // sch (let - let in)

29. sk // sch (drag - drag)

30. d // s (led - lead)

31. t // s (weave - weave)

32. any acc. // ǿ (vedu – vel, meta – chalk)

33. b // bl (to love - I love)

34. p // pl (sculpt - sculpt)

35. m // ml (terrestrial - earth)

36. in // ow (catch - catch)

37. f // fl (graph - graph)

Reasons for the occurrence of morphonological phenomena

1. Historical processes in the field of phonetics (alternations with sibilants caused the laws of palatalization, fluency of vowels is a consequence of the fall of reduced ones): crumb - tiny, love - love, sleep - sleep.
2. The action of the principle of saving speech effort: truncation, overlap and haplology, example: brown - brownish, curious - curiosity, Chekhov - Chekhovian.
3. The desire to preserve the transparency of the word formation and morphemic structure of the word: airplane, Tyuzovsky.
4. The operation of the law of euphony.
5. The action of the law of analogy (truncation, overlap, haplology, interfixation): Orel - Orlovsky.

27. Non-morphological methods of formation

Non-morphological methods of formation are methods of forming derivative words that are not accompanied by a change in the external appearance of the producing unit.

Non-morphological methods are divided into lexical-semantic, lexical-syntactic and morphological-syntactic methods.

Lexico-syntactic method(merger, fusion) is the creation of a new word based on a phrase as a result of the merger of 2 or more words: today, crazy, instant, above.

1) adverb + adjective or participle: evergreen, instant, low-fiction books.

2) noun + adjective or participle: phosphorus-containing, nitrogen-containing, insane.

When a word is formed in a lexical-syntactic way, only 1 part changes: evergreen, evergreen, evergreen.

Compound nouns type of dining car are formed by addition, because in many of them both parts are inclined: in the dining car, to a rematch, from a hair salon, from an international journalist.

Morphological-syntactic method. Transition from one part of speech to another.

Often in Russian, words can go into all parts of speech. The productivity of these processes is not the same.

Productive processes include substantivization, adjectivation, adverbialization, predication, prepositionalization and interjectivization.

1) Substantivization(Latin substantivum - noun) - nouns are formed from adjectives and participles: confectionery, vacationers.

Substantivized adjectives and participles are diverse in semantics: these are designations of persons (sick, ordinary, scientist, counter), premises (bathroom, dining room, living room, reception room, operating room), abstract concepts (future, beautiful, main thing), dishes, dishes, medicines ( hot, roast, sleeping pills), money, payments (tips, travel allowances).

2) Adjectivation– transition of words into adjectives (first row – first student = best).

3) Pronominalization- transition of words into pronouns, adjectives(famous artist – a certain amount of freedom = some), numerals(plant one tree - In the old days there lived only some people = some, some), participles(the assignment given to me is to speak out on this issue = this).

4) Adverbialization– transition of words into adverbs, nouns turn into adverbs (to live very close = close).

5) Predication– transition of words into words of the state category. This phenomenon is subject to adverbs and short adjectives(to vaguely hint - the morning is foggy - In the morning it’s foggy) and nouns (Sad time! The charm of the eyes!).

6) Prepositionalization– transformation of words into prepositions. They turn into prepositions nouns(during the river - during the day), adverbs(stand around – stand around us) participles(thanks to a comrade - thanks to the help of comrades = because of).

7) Conjunctionalization– transition of words into conjunctions. They join unions adverbs(We followed the signs exactly. - The eyes sparkled like stars) and pronouns(I didn’t know what to take with me. - The thought involuntarily came to mind that the stars were rustling - Paust.).

8) Interjectivation- transition of words into interjections (bear guard - Guard! Rob).

Morphological word formation methods are used as word formants morphemes.

Basic methods of morphological word formation

Morphological ways:

1. Affixals:

1) suffixal - eared - ears

2) zero suffixation - run - run

3) postfixal - learn - teach

5) prefix-suffixal - boletus - aspen

6) bailiff. - suff. - postfixal - become generous - generous

7) suffixal-postfixal - spike - ear

8) prefixal-postfixal - finish shouting - shout

9) prefixation with zero suffixation - rime - frost

2. Addition

1) pure addition - bakery, bread, factory

2) complex method - dining car, carriage, restaurant

3) addition with international elements. nature - dietary supplement, bio, supplement

4) addition + suffixation - puzzle ← puzzle

5) addition + prefixation - pacify, peace, create

6) addition + pref + suff - half a turn, half a turn

3. Abbreviation

1) alphabetic - CHGPU

2) sound - UN

3) syllabic - trade union committee

4) syllable-word - salary

5) mixed - IMLI

6) telescopic moped

4. Truncation

specialist ← specialist

5. Semantic inclusion

record book ← grade book

Word-formation analysis

During word-formation analysis, it is necessary to determine the direction of derivation and the establishment of a motivating word, to consider the relationship between the motivating and motivated words in formal and semantic terms.

In the process of analysis, the generating stem and word-formation formant are identified, the word-formation meaning of the derivative is revealed, which is expressed by the method of word formation.

For word-formation analysis, it is necessary to take only derived words, and only in the initial form.

Word-formation parsing scheme

1. Motivational word.
2. Motivation.
3. Producing basis.
4. Word formant.
5. Method of word formation.

Sample of university word-formation analysis

Call back ← call

1. The motivating word is to call.
2. Motivation: call back – call each other periodically.
3. Producing base - call.
4. Word-forming. formant – a combination of the prefix pere-, suffix –iva-, postfix. – (ORAL)
5. The method of word formation is morphological, pref.-suff.-postf.

Sample of school word-formation analysis

Plumbing ← conduct water (addition)

Snowdrop ← snow (prefix-suffix method).

Regularity of morphemes. Regularity is the ability to repeat itself; if one phenomenon is repeated at least twice, it is considered regular.

Regularity and root. The property of regularity is not necessary for roots. May be repeated in a significant number of words or in a small number of words.

Regularity and affixes. Regularity is required for affixes. Regular affixes occur in different words and are combined with different morphemes. The degree of regularity of affixes varies: OST (suffix) has very high regularity; in IZN (suffix) – small.

The repetition of an affix makes it possible to determine what meaning this affix contributes to the transformation of new words.

Due to repetition, the language makes do with a small set of affixes compared to the root.

Roots - several thousand. Some words highlight the following structural components, which are not found anywhere else - these are unique affixes - unifixes (combined with one specific root).

The most common unique suffixes are: BUGLE (suffix YARUS), CHILDREN (suffix THIEF), POSTMAN (suffix ALION), GROOM (suffix IH), SKUPERDYAY (suffix ERDYAY), WHITE (suffix YOS), LOW (suffix MEN).

There are much fewer unique prefixes: KURNOSY ​​(prefix KUR), RAINBOW (prefix RA), GARBAGE (prefix MU)

There are two types of unixes:

1) unique only in form, in meaning - synonymous with ordinary morphemes: POPADYA (prefix PO, ADJ - suffix) - ADJ expresses that the regular suffix Sh. is the wife of the one named in the generating stem.

2) In form and meaning it expresses the meaning; there are no other suffixes with this meaning: BULLE (suffix YARUS).

Differences between unifixes and regular affixes:

1) singularity;

2) inferiority (distinguishable by residual characteristic);

3) using unfixes, new words are not formed in the language.

Sometimes unixes can be full-fledged affixes: OLYMPICS (suffix IADA): SPARTAKIADA, UNIVERSIADA.

20. The stem of the word. The grammatical sign of the stem. Possible changes to the fundamentals. Types of bases: continuous - discontinuous, divisible - indivisible, derivative - non-derivative. The relationship between the concepts of articulation - derivativeness of the basics.

The stem of a word is a constant element of the morphemic structure of a word, which is a part of a word without an ending and a formative suffix, and expresses the lexical meaning of the word.

If the word is unchangeable, then the stem is equal to the root: METRO.

The first level of division of a word form consists of identifying the ending and the stem.

Sometimes, during word formation, it is possible to change the stem:

Truncation of the base: FAR (FAR – base) à FURTHER (DAL – base)

Extension: ZNANYA (ZNAM – base) à ZNANYA (ZNAMEN – base)

Suppletivism: SMALL (SMALL – basis) à LESS; WE à US

The stems of most words are continuous (a complex of morphemes directly related to each other). Some words may have an intermittent stem:

For reflexive verbs and with SY: LAUGH (base – LAUGH_SYA)

For words with a different postfix: ANY (base – ANYTHING)

By structure: segmented (consisting of two or more morphemes) and indivisible (base, which consists of one morph, for example, HOUSE)

A distinction is made between derivatives (the stem of a derivative word, which is motivated - DOMISHKO) and non-derivative stems (DOM).

Correlation between the concepts of articulation and derivativeness of fundamentals. If the stem is derivative, then it is, as a rule, divisible and includes those affixes that took part in its formation.

The word-forming suffix can also be zero: QUIET (zero suffix) ß QUIET.

There are also derived indivisible stems: stems of words that are formed by truncation: SPECIALIST ß SPECIALIST; FAN ß FANATIC.

If the base is divisible, then it can be derivative and non-derivative. A non-derivative articulated stem is observed in words with associated roots: ADD (DO – prefix, BAV – root, AND – suffix)

21. Morphemic division of the stem. Degrees of articulation of the base.

Degrees of division of the stem: in some words the stems are easy to divide, while others are difficult.

Segmentation scale: 1st degree – observed in words with free roots and regular affixes. The stems of such words are included in double rows of comparison - words with the same root and words with the same affix: DOMIKà DOMà HOMEMADE HOUSEMAN; HOUSE GARDEN COMMODIK.

2nd degree is observed in words with a free root and a unique affix, which have synonyms: POSTMAN - MAIL - POST OFFICE; POSTMAN – NEWSBOY – BATH MAN.

3rd degree - in words in which the roots are free and the affixes are unique in form and meaning - has no meaning, only one-sided comparability: BULLERUSS.

4th degree – with a unique associated root and a regular affix. There are no words with the same root, but a comparative series with the same suffix is ​​possible: BUSINESSà PORKà HORSE.

5th degree – a unique bound root and a regular affix that does not combine with a free root: RASPBERRYà CURRANTà KALINA – only because the names of different berries are repeated.

We cannot compare it with a similar derivative.

That. 1,2,3 degrees – real articulation, 4 and 5 – potential articulation. Not everyone considers the foundations of degrees 4 and 5 to be divisible.

22.Historical changes in the morphemic structure of a word. Types of historical changes. The phenomenon of simplification.

The morphemic composition of words can change during the historical development of a language.

Reasons for change:

1) change in the lexical meaning of a derivative or generating word;

2) the disappearance of the producing word from the language, the loss of related words;

3) phonetic processes, as a result of which the sound composition of morphemes changes.

Types of changes:

1) Simplification is the process of changing a divisible basis into an indivisible one. A stem consisting of several morphemes turns into a single-morpheme, i.e. equal to the root. As a result of simplification, the language is replenished with new roots.

Main cases of simplification:

• changing stems with non-derivative and indivisible suffixes: CAPITAL (root CAPITAL, stem CAPITAL), historically – STOL + ITs.

A number of words that were formed from words with diminutive suffixes now have an indivisible base: MATCH (Suffix K). Historically - a spoke.

• change with prefixes, non-derivative, indivisible: PREVET (root PRIVET), historically – PR (prefix) VET (root).

Reasons for simplification:

Semantic - a change in the lexical meaning of the generating word: COMB - ROW (source: comb hair; now - collect with a rake).

The disappearance from the vocabulary of the language of the original, historical derivative word: COMFORT. Historically: UT (roof).

Phonetic processes: OAR. Historically – VEZSLO. There was assimilation in terms of speechlessness and contraction.

Historical processes in the Russian morpheme are studied within the framework of historical word formation and etymology. When establishing the modern structure of a word, one should rely only on actually existing related relationships between words.

23 . Processes of re-decomposition, complication of the base of the word. Signs of historical changes in the morphemic structure of a word.

Re-decomposition is a change in the boundaries between morphemes in a word. As a result, the base remains articulated, but in a different way than before.

• at the junction of the generating stem and the prefix: REMOVE (S - prefix, НЯ - root). Historically: REMOVE (CH – prefix, I – root)
• at the junction of the generating stem and the suffix: MALYUTKA (MAL - root, YUT - suffix, K - suffix). Historically: MALYUTA (MAL – root, YUT – suffix)

Result: the emergence of new prefixes and suffixes. For example, OST (suffix), OBEZ (prefix)

1. The loss from the vocabulary of the language of the historically producing word: FEMININE (WOMAN - root, STEIN - suffix) - characteristic of a woman.

Historically: Femininity (wives – root, stv – suffix)

Complication is the transformation of a non-derivative, indivisible base into a derivative, divisible one.

This process is characteristic of the history of borrowed words: UMBRELLA (Dutch language) - had an indivisible basis, later the suffix IC was isolated by analogy with the words SHARFIC (suffix IR), etc.

Sometimes the process of complication is called rederivation.

Reasons for the complication: 1) the presence in the Russian language of words with the same root with this borrowed word: GRAVURA. At first there were no words with this root. The basis was indivisible, then the words ENGRAVER, ENGRAVE appeared.

2) the presence of word-forming affixes that coincide in their sound composition with the corresponding morphemes in the borrowed words: HANDLE, LEG.

24. Processes of decorrelation, substitution, diffusion.

N.M. Shansky supplemented the classification and highlighted the following changes:

1) Decorrelation is a process in which the morphemic structure from the outside remains the same. With decorrelation, the following changes: the generating base: the decorrelation of producing words is formed with the help of suffixes: LOVE (LOVE - root, OV - suffix) - formed from love. Historically - from LYUB// decorrelation of generating words formed with the help of the prefix: VKOS – OBLIQUE // decorrelation formed with the help of the suffix and prefix: VTOROPYAH (prefix B, suffix YAH). Historically: from the stem of the noun hurry.

During decorrelation, the meaning of morphemes can change: FROZES (suffix K) – objectivity. Historically: diminutive meaning of the suffix K.

With decorrelation, the function of morphemes changes. A form-building morpheme can turn into a word-forming morpheme. This is how word-forming suffixes of adjectives appear: УЧ, АЧ, Л. By origin, these are formative suffixes of participles: SEDENTED (from sit); ossified (from becoming ossified).

Adverbs with the suffixes OH, OM, OYU (HORSE, SPRING, SPRING) appear - about the origin - these are the endings of nouns.

Reasons for decorrelation:

The loss of historically productive words in the language, their replacement with other productive words.

2) Substitution - replacing one morpheme with another without changing the general lexical meaning of the word: SOLYANKA (root SOL) - salt. Historically: SELYANKA (rural food) – the root was replaced. The lexical meaning is the same.

Reason for replacement:

Folk etymology, i.e. the convergence in the minds of native speakers of words that are not homogeneous.

3) Diffusion - Diffusion is historical process in which the interchange of morphemes occurs while maintaining their independence – Beregti (root BEREG, suffix TI) – BAREGCHI (root BEREG, suffix CHI) – BEREGI (root BEREG, suffix I).

Reason: phonetic changes in the structure of the word.

25. Morphonology as a branch of linguistics. Morphonological alternations of consonant and vowel phonemes. Alternations in borrowed words. Productive and unproductive alternations.

Morphonology is a branch of linguistics that studies the phonemic composition of morphemes and the mutual adaptation of morphs within a word.

Morphonological phenomena of word formation. Changes in the sound composition of a derived word may occur at the boundary between morphemes - this is due to the fact that the connecting morphs must adapt to each other. Sound changes at the junction of a combination of morphs are called morphonological.

1) Historical alternations morphemes;

2) Overlay of morphemes;

3) Truncation of the productive basis;

4) Interfixation.

Historical phoneme alternations. These alternations are not determined by phonetic position. The result of alternation is a change in the phonemic composition of morphemes.

The alternation of consonant phonemes occurs at the border of the derived stem and the suffix: SCIENCE - SCIENTIFIC.

Alternation of vowels can occur within a morpheme: TERET – TERETKA.

Alternations can be productive or unproductive. Productive ones are expressed in the formation of new words: NOG – NOZHNOY; INTRIGUE - INTRIGUE.

Unproductive alternations are found in those words that already exist in the language: CAMEL - CAMEL.

Alternation of consonant phonemes.

1) alternation of back-lingual with front-lingual sibilants (+ other acc.)

g//f//z: PRINCESS-PRINCE-PRINCE

k//h//c: RYABAK-RYBACHKA-FISHERBOY

g//h: BEREGU-BERECH

x//w: EAR-EAR

x//s: SHAKE-SHAKE

2) alternation of front-lingual consonants with other consonants (+combinant. Consonant)

t//h//sh: LIGHT-CANDLE-LIGHTING

d//f//train: WALK-WALK-WALK

d//s: LEAD-NEWS

t//s: METU-REVENGE

s//w: INCREASE-INCREASE

s//w: KNITTING-KNITTING

c//h: RING-RING

3) alternating combinations of consonants with other consonants

sk//sch: CRACK-CRACK

st//sch: THICK-THICK

4) labial and combinations of consonants with L

v//vl, p//pl, m//ml: MELT-MELT

5) consonant phonemes, paired on TV./soft.

l//l’: EAGLE-EAGLE

r//r’: NORTH-NORTHERN

Alternation of vowel phonemes.

1) alternation of individual vowels

e//o: YEL-YOLKA

o//a: WEAR-BEAR

o//s: REST-RELAX

o // zero sound: PIECE-PIECE

e// zero sound: LION-LIONS

and// zero sound: FOX-FOX

2) vowels with a combination of vowel and consonant

I REjoice; I rejoice; I Grieve, I Grieve.

a//im//om: REMOVE-REMOVE-REMOVABLE

a//in: START-START

3) full-vocal and partial combinations

DRAG-DRAG; CITY-URBAN PLANNING

Alternations in borrowed words.

1) when forming from the stems of foreign language nouns, adjectives into ICY: CHAOS-CHAOTIC; SCLEROSIS-SCLEROTIS.

2) In words with a connected root:

t//s’: REFLECTIVE-REFLECTION

c//k: PROJECT-PROJECTION

w//nd: DIFFUSION-DIFFUSION

3) in consoles

n//r//m: INNOVATION – IRRATIONAL-IMMORAL

Affix called a morpheme that is attached to a root and has the function of forming words. In fact, affix- this is a general concept for those well known to us consoles And suffixes and some other parts of the word.

Affixes existed many years ago, but this does not mean that the affixes of “that time” are still relevant in modern times. It also happens exactly the opposite: now, for example, the suffix is ​​quite popular in the formation of new words, but a couple of centuries ago it was not famous. Yes, suffix -ness is now highly productive(it forms abstract nouns – weak awn, old awn, intelligent awn ), and until the 17th century - in the Old Russian language - this affix in relation to word-formation connections was limited: it was combined only with non-derivative stems of adjectives.

-A- ending nominative plural– previously it was typical only noun neuter, but over time it expanded the boundaries of its productivity and began to be used among nouns male : meadow A, city A, doctor A, Professor A.

In other words, all affixes are divided into alive And dead.Living affixes- This affixes that form words and forms in modern language ; they h clearly stand out as part of the word from the point of view of living connections and relationships in language. Dead affixes stand out as part of a word only through etymological analysis (hundred R th– suffix -R; su spring- console su- and etc.). Dead affixes do not form new words and forms in the modern language, but they must be known as a fact of language.

For example, the word spouse formed from the root « spring» (« yank») using the attachment su-. Root " spring» (« yank") has the meaning " couple, mostly a pair of oxen in a team».

Living affixes are divided into three groups: affixes unproductive, productive And unproductive.

Unproductive affixes do not produce new words and forms, but stand out as part of the word (dead affixes, as a rule, are no longer “visible” in words - they have merged with other morphemes and the root).

Non-productive affixes include, for example, prefixes pra-, su-, pa-, po- and etc.: great grandfather, su darkness, pa vodka, By vodir; suffixes -tuh, -tyr, -holes, -tizn-, -o and etc.: pass duh, ne duh, put tyr, povo holes, yellow tizn a, count O t; graduation -m, -mi: Yes m, e m, horse mi, bone mi.

Productive affixes actively produce new words and forms and are easily distinguished as part of a word.

Productive affixes include prefixes before-, once-, upon- etc., suffixes -ik, -nik, -its(a), -chik, -schik, -stv(o), -yva, -iva, -well, -n, -sk, -chiv, as well as overwhelming most endings: spacing chick, Krasnore chiv oh, table IR, varnish stv O.

This group of affixes is the most extensive and most problematic: some affixes, as productive, are suitable only for certain models of word formation, and for all others they are regarded as unproductive or unproductive.

Yes, suffix -ets productive in education nouns meaning "belonging to" from nouns: Komsomol - Komsomol ec, party - party ec etc. This suffix is ​​unproductive in the formation of nouns, which faces matter, from verb stems: coupe ec, singing ec, gon ec.

Suffixes -yva, -iva productive only in relation to verbs with prefixes: about sizh willow yeah, By Hajj willow t and etc.

Ending -s is productive masculine nouns in the genitive plural (factory ov, table ov ). The ending is unproductive in words neuter (shaft ov, clouds ov, points ov, hanger ov ).

Unproductive affixes rarely produce new words and forms, but stand out in words when word-formation analysis.

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Not all affixes are used to the same extent: some of them take an active part in the word formation process, while others, on the contrary, do not participate in modern word formation. From the point of view of usage and activity in word production and formation, affixes are divided into productive and unproductive.

Productive - These are morphemes that actively participate in modern word production and give new formations. These morphemes are easily distinguished in words. So, For example, in the formation of names for males in the Russian language there are over 50 various suffixes. But in modern word formation, four are the most productive: -schik- (-chick-), -ik- (-nick-), -sch-, -ist-. Their boundaries in the word are clear: gas welder/schik, concrete/schik, rocket/chick, apparatus/chick, evening/nick, absentee/nick, mass/ik, advanced/ik, nuclear/ik, Leningrad/ets, bulldozer/ist.

An important condition for the emergence of a new word is the presence productive model, according to which a new lexical unit is created. If certain affixes are involved in new formations, then we can assume that these morphemes are productive and are living linguistic realities.

Unproductive - These are affixes with the help of which new words and forms are not currently formed. Unproductive affixes are often found in long-formed, everyday and very common words, but they are no longer word-formation models ( herald, regular, spy, intercessor). Here, perhaps, are all the words with the suffix - tai-, available in Russian. This suffix no longer gives new formations. The same applies to suffixes: -ev-( O) ( brew, glow), -hell- ( A) ( blockade, clownery, colonnade), -spruce- (death, drops, cradle, blizzard), -e-( I) ( fortune teller, harvester, seamstress), -know- (illness, fear, life), -yash- (round, curly, nephew), -them- (stepfather, brother) and others, which have already ceased to be a means of word production and only retained the property of being distinguished.

The productivity of affixes, and primarily suffixes, is influenced not only by linguistic, but extralinguistic(or extralinguistic) factors, in particular, we will change social needs in certain vocabulary groups. It is known that suffixes have become unproductive in modern language -sh- (A), -their- ( a), denoting wives by husband's profession (professor). For us, the social quality of a person is more important, therefore in modern Russian the methods of forming the names of persons according to spheres of production activity, according to actions or states that characterize the public appearance of a person, his social position, according to ideological characteristics, in relation to public direction, scientific, ideological, artistic movement, etc.

Now let's consider cases of loss of productivity of suffixes due to purely language reasons. Sometimes the use of a particular suffix is ​​limited by the number of bases with which a given suffix can be combined. For example, the use of the suffix -at- is limited by the number of words denoting parts of the human and animal body, since this suffix can only be combined with these bases ( bearded, nosed, hairy, tailed, horned and etc.).

Sometimes one or another word-formation model is archaized, for example, the use of a multiplicity suffix -yva-, -iva- in prefixless verbs ( read, speak and etc.).

A characteristic feature of productive affixes is manifold And the breadth of their connections, which makes it possible to actively form new words and new forms.

In addition to productivity - unproductivity, affixes differ in their regularity. Those affixes that are repeated in the language and form a certain word-forming or formative type are called regular. Thus, in the Russian language, the word-formation type of masculine nouns with the suffix -ist- (communist, tractor driver, activist) and the feminine correlative form with the suffix -To -( A) ( commune/ist/k/a, tractor/ist/k/a, active/ist/k/a), certainly a regular type of word formation.

Regular affixes are contrasted with irregular ones, which occur in words from time to time (sporadic), most often singly. They're out specific word are incomprehensible and do not form a reproducible type of word formation and inflection. Let's give examples. Suffix -little guy - in a word hubby unit; There are no words in the Russian language in which this suffix is ​​repeated. The same applies to suffixes -ate- in a word goat, - anyok- in a word kumanek, -avets- in words beautiful/avets, frost/avets, - unok- in a word drawing, -yuh- V the word con/yuh.

Regularity and productivity are diverse but related concepts. When they talk about the regularity of affixes, they mean their repetition. For example: write - writer - writer; read - reader - reader; love - amateur - amateur, etc.; to agitate - agitation, to liquidate - liquidation, to argue - argumentation, etc.

If these regular affixes actively participate in new formations, then we are dealing with productive word-forming affixes. Consequently, all irregular affixes are at the same time unproductive, but not all regular affixes are productive.

The word-formation system of a language is constantly changing. This is precisely what can explain the presence in the language of productive and unproductive, regular and irregular affixes. Consequently, word-formative types are not given once and for all.