Morphology and syntax are two components grammars. The term "grammar" has several meanings. First of all, this term denotes the grammatical structure of a language, that is, the objective laws of the structure and functioning of words and sentences. Grammar is also called a special branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language. Books that contain a systematic description of the grammatical structure of a language are also called grammars.
To understand the specifics of grammar as a special branch of linguistics, you need to compare it with other linguistic disciplines. Phonology, which studies the laws of the functioning of phonemes, reveals much in common with grammar, which studies the laws of the structure and functioning of words and sentences. It is no coincidence that all grammars of the Russian language, starting with M. V. Lomonosov’s “Russian Grammar” (published in 1757), contain, in addition to the actual grammatical sections (morphological and syntactic), a description of the phonetic structure. And yet, in theoretical terms, scientists distinguish phonetics from grammar: the phoneme itself has no meaning, while grammar studies the meaningful units of language. However, lexicology also studies meaningful units - words. But unlike lexicology, grammar studies more than just words; but also syntactic units(phrase, sentence); In addition, grammar is abstracted from the lexical meaning of a word and studies only its grammatical properties.
Morphology is a branch of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words. Following V.V. Vinogradov, morphology is often called the “grammatical study of words” (in contrast to syntax - the study of the grammatical properties of phrases and sentences). The grammatical properties of words are grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.
The grammatical meaning of the word
Grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, the grammatical meaning is abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning, expressed formally grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucracy with a wolf (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, male, singular, instrumental case (meaning of comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc. The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies parts of speech and their grammatical features.
Morphology and syntax make up grammar.
Parts of speech in Russian
Parts of speech are groups of words united based on the commonality of their characteristics.
The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups words
Thus, all words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections and non-interjections. Interjections are unchangeable words that denote emotions (ah, alas, damn it), expressions of will (stop, that's it) or are formulas verbal communication(thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections is that they do not interact with other words in a sentence in any way. syntactic connections, are always isolated intonationally and punctuationally.
Non-interjective words can be divided into independent and function words. The difference between them is that independent words can appear in speech without function words, but function words cannot form a sentence without independent words. Function words are unchangeable and serve to convey formal semantic relationships between independent words. TO service units speech includes prepositions (to, after, during), conjunctions (and, as if, despite the fact that), particles (precisely, only, not at all).
Independent words can be divided into significant pronouns. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relationships, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf.: table - he, convenient - so, easy - so, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - a pronoun.
Significant words are divided into parts of speech taking into account the following characteristics:
1) generalized meaning,
2) morphological characteristics,
3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic connections).
There are at least five significant parts speech: noun, adjective, numeral (group of names), adverb and verb.
Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e. classes of words identified taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.
Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, in a sentence it performs the syntactic function of the subject or object.
However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, adjective, verb are determined for the most part by their morphological characteristics (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specially stipulated that it is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech distinguished based on meaning - pronoun and numeral.
A pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that “do not name an object or attribute, but point to it.” Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns (I, who), adjectives (this, which), numerals (how many, several).
The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to number: they indicate the number of objects or their order when counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words of type three and three are different.
Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to distinguish larger number parts of speech. Thus, the participle and gerund are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes the words of condition are highlighted (impossible, necessary); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In Complex 3, the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the “Adverb” section. On the other hand, it is said about state words that they “are similar in form to adverbs,” from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2 the pronoun is expanded by including non-nominal words that are grammatically correlated with adverbs (there, why, never, etc.).
The issue of parts of speech in linguistics is controversial. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for classification. Thus, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications that use several bases. School classification is exactly this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works varies and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.
There are words in the Russian language that do not fall into any of the parts of speech identified by school grammar. These are words-sentences yes and no, introductory words, not used in other syntactic functions (so, total) and some other words.
The Russian language, like other languages of the world, is ordered in a certain way: the formation of words and their functioning are subject to objective laws, without which the language could not perform its main function, the function of communication between people.
This ordering is called the grammatical structure of the language. The description of the grammatical structure of a language is the content and purpose of grammar. The word grammar also refers to the branch of linguistics that studies the features of the grammatical structure of a language, and the books in which they are described.
Morphology (from the Greek morpho "form" and logos, "study" literally "study of form") is a section of grammar in which the word is studied in terms of its grammatical properties.
Morphology studies the rules for changing words, knowledge of which is necessary to construct a sentence.
One of the main features of the grammatical structure of the Russian language is mandatory change forms of most so-called significant (independent) words in the formation of phrases and sentences. When constructing units of syntax, the forms of words must be adapted to each other: The hunter killed the bear, and not The hunter killed the bear, I draw, but not *I draw, read a newspaper, and not *read a newspaper, a wild flower, and not * wildflower and so on.
Morphology examines a word in the totality of its forms, while studying not only the mechanism (patterns) of inflection, but also the nature of its participation in the organization of communicative units. For example, in morphology, on the one hand, it is determined how nouns change by case, and on the other hand, it is established which meanings in the Russian language can be expressed through one case or another. In other words, morphology studies both the forms of words and their semantics, which is usually called grammatical.
In morphology, parts of speech are also defined and described, since inflection techniques in the Russian language are generally differentiated depending on the part-speech nature of the word. Verbs change according to persons (read, read, read), tenses (read, read, will read), moods (read, read, would read), numbers (read, read, read, read), gender (read , read, read), nouns change according to cases (country, countries, country, country, strati-
noah) and numbers (country, countries); adjectives change according to gender (native, native, native), number (native, native) and cases (native, native, native, native, native); numerals change only by cases (five, five, five), and adverbs are unchangeable words (on the left, inside out).
We can say that the belonging of a word to one or another part of speech is its grammatical property.
Since in the Russian language, in addition to changeable words, there are unchangeable words (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections) and, therefore, the sign of changeability is not enough to characterize a lexeme part-verbally, morphology determines the criteria for the distribution of words into parts of speech.
So, the grammatical properties of a word are 1) its part-verbal affiliation, 2) the ability to change in a certain way (to have a set of word forms) or to be unchangeable, and 3) its grammatical meanings.
As a result, morphology can be defined as follows: this is a section of grammar that describes parts of speech, their grammatical (morphological) forms and grammatical meanings. V.V. Vinogradov called this morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.
Note. The presented understanding of morphology is traditional and focused on the grammatical structure of the Russian language, in which inflection is actively used to express various relationships between words and is one of the main means of linguistic formation of a word. There are other definitions of morphology, in particular one in which it is understood broadly (!!!????), as a section of grammar that studies a word from the perspective of its internal structure in general. In this case, the formation of parts of speech and the corresponding grammatical meanings turn out to be only a particular aspect of it."
Morphology deals with entities varying degrees abstractness, since it characterizes both parts of speech as a whole and specific units related to parts of speech. So, we can talk about the nominative case in general of nouns and nominative case words country, land, lake, pond, etc. or in the form of a verb as such and in the form of words write, read, do, go, etc. Therefore, parallel terms are used in morphology: lexeme (word in the dictionary) and word (word in the text), word form and word form (word form in the text), however, parallel terms are often used as synonyms.
1B. A. Plotnikova. Morphology // Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1979; see also: Morphology // Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990.
I. Morphology as a grammatical study of words.
Introduction to morphology.
MORPHOLOGY
Plan:
1. Morphology as a grammatical study of words.
2. Basic concepts of morphology
3. System of grammatical classes in the SRY
4. The phenomenon of transitivity in the system of parts of speech
5. Main stages of studying morphology (independently)
Morphology(from the Greek Morphe - form, logos - teaching) - this is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, this is the grammatical doctrine of words (Academician Vinogradov). The word is the main object of morphology.
Morphology is related to other branches of linguistics:
1. With phonetics - words and their forms have a certain sound shell, which makes it possible to distinguish them from each other. They are built according to the laws of phonetics of this language, have stress, with the help of which in some cases the forms of words are differentiated (hands - im.p., plural, hands - R.p., singular).
2. With lexicology - the connection with vocabulary is manifested in the unity of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word, in taking into account the lexical meaning when distributing words into lexico-grammatical categories, the possibility of forming morphological forms in many words (bay, black - no degrees of comparison are formed).
3. With word formation - each part of speech has its own methods and means of word formation. Word-formation means contribute to the grouping of words into lexical-grammatical categories (LGR), etc.
4. With syntax - morphological forms and their combinability capabilities are the basis for phrases and sentences. Both morphology and syntax serve to achieve one goal - the formation and expression of thoughts, for which changes in forms and their combinations in a sentence are used.
Morphology + syntax = grammar.
A word is considered in morphology from the point of view of its inherent grammatical meanings, expressed by grammatical means.
IN Lately In morphology, it is customary to distinguish between a word form and a lexeme.
Word form- this is a specific use of the word
Token- this is a word in a set of specific word forms that have the same lexical meaning.
Grammatical meaning- abstract meaning, abstracted from the lexical content of the word and inherent in a number of words (im.p., singular, w.r.: aunt, road, revolution, hope, conference).
Grammatical meanings have a hierarchical structure:
Partial meanings (in Shansky - categorical), general categorical and particular categorical.
Partial values(general grammatical meanings):
These include the meanings of objectivity in nouns, actions in verbs, etc.
Members of the same morphological category that are opposed to each other are distinguished by particular-categorical meanings, so the present form. vr. Denotes an action at the moment of speech, past - an action that occurred before the start of speech, etc.
Grammatical meanings are realized in grammatical forms - these are material appearance existence of grammatical meaning.
GF (grammatical form) is a linguistic sign in which an abstract generalized meaning (GZ) finds its regular expression.
There are two main ways of expressing grammatical meanings: synthetic and analytical.
With the synthetic method, which predominates in the Russian language, grammatical meanings are expressed using form-building morphemes (endings, suffixes, prefixes (non-sov.v.: Write, Dine), postfixes: develop - develop - the meaning of the passive voice).
Synthetic methods of expression also include:
Accents, for example: cut (sov.v.) - cut (nesov.v.),
Supplementism is the formation of word forms using words of different roots (different is better, person is people).
Stress and alternation can appear in the form additional ways GZ expressions, accompanying affixation (to prove (sov.v.) – doKAZ yva t - suf. expresses the meaning of unconditional) or (strict - strict e g//f, suf.E).
Auxiliary words participate in the formation of analytical word forms, namely: the verb BE, particles let he'll say he went would (f-ma subjunctive mood), more warm.
The ordered collection of all word forms of a word is called paradigm.
Three types of paradigm:
-full – contains a complete set of inflectional forms characteristic of a given part of speech for one category or another (closet - 6 singular and 6 plural forms, swimming pool, for adjectives: beautiful, difficult, verb: go).
-incomplete (insufficient) – contains an incomplete set of inflections specific word according to one category or another (declension paradigm: milk - there are 6 singular forms, but no plural, cream - on the contrary, dream - no gender, plural); incomplete conjugation paradigm: to win - no 1l., singular, surround - no singular.
-excessive (abundant) – paradigm containing large quantity forms than in the full paradigm (conjugation: wave, rinse, move. Wave - waves (waves - colloquial) - waves (waves - colloquial))
Inflection is the formation of forms of the same word.
Grammatical category is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other, with homogeneous grammatical meanings. IN various works stands out different number grammatical categories. Traditionally, their list includes: nominal (gender, number, case), verbal (aspect, voice, person, mood, tense).
- inflectional- these are categories whose members can be represented by forms of the same word (for example: in noun: the category of number and case, in adj.: also the category of gender).
- non-inflectional- these are categories whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (category of gender for nouns).
III. The problem of parts of speech is one of eternal problems grammar.
Modern teaching about parts of speech has long history and its roots go back to antiquity (SELF YARTSEVA, KARAULOV - ENCYCLES. DICTIONARIES).
For the first time, a deep analysis of the parts of speech of the Russian language was made by Lomonosov in his “Russian Grammar (1755)”. They were given 8 parts of speech.
Main– is a name (noun, adjective, numeral), verb.
Service– pronoun, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.
Parts of speech– these are the largest grammatical classes of words, characterized by a combination of the following features: the presence of a generalized meaning abstracted from the lexical and grammatical meanings of all words of a given class; a complex of certain grammatical categories; common system paradigms; commonality of basic syntactic features.
When indicating parts of speech in modern academic literature, they rely on the classification of V.V. Vinogradov, who identified 4 semantic and grammatical classes of words: independent, auxiliary, modal words and interjections.
For significant (independent) parts of speech, with the uniqueness of each of them, the following are characteristic: general signs:
1. Reflect various phenomena objective reality, that is, they have a nominative function (except for pronouns, the function is demonstrative or deictic).
2. Capable of independent use.
3. They are members of the proposal.
Parts of speech:
Noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, state category.
Functional parts of speech have the following characteristics:
1. They do not have a nominative function.
2. They are not used independently.
3. They are not members of the proposal.
Conjunction, preposition, particle.
Independent and auxiliary parts of speech are contrasted with modal words, which express the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker:
Do not change
Are not members of the proposal
Grammatically independent.
Separately considered interjections, which express feelings and emotions, are immutable and syntactically independent; onomatopoeia, which with their sound composition reproduce the sounds made by a person, animal, or object (ha-ha, drip-drip, purr-murr).
Question about the principles of classification of parts of speech.
Principles:
1. Semantic - A.A. Potebnya comes first in classification lexical meaning, one of the disadvantages is that there is no place for formal, modal words, or interjections.
2. Morphological - (F.F. Fartunatov) classification was carried out on the basis of the presence or absence of inflectional forms. One of the main disadvantages is that there is no consideration of lexical meaning.
3. Syntactic – the possibility or impossibility of a word form functioning as a member of a sentence or a whole sentence is considered.
In Russian science, the system of parts of speech is highlighted as the result of a compromise between these principles.
Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba called for this in his article “On parts of speech in the Russian language.” His ideas were supported by Vinogradov.
However, the question of parts of speech, their number and principles of isolation still remains controversial.
Morphology is the grammar of a word, a system of language mechanisms that ensures the construction and understanding of word forms. Morphology includes, along with the classification of words and word formation, the study of any forms of words and corresponding grammatical categories.
Grammar is a dynamic mechanism consisting of grammatical meanings and a system of rules.
The basic unit of the morphological level of language is the morpheme (moneme). Morpheme is the minimum meaningful unit, the minimum sign in the language system, morph in speech.
Morphology deals with word forms that are divided into morphs (monemes, morphemes).
The traditional division of grammar into morphology (the grammar of words) and syntax (the grammar of phrases and sentences) is most important for languages with a clear structural opposition between words and morphemes (in synthetic languages). As analyticism (languages of the analytical system) increases, this division loses its value. In descriptions of languages with poor morphology (English, Chinese, Indonesian, Tibeto-Burman languages, etc.), morphology as a section of grammar recedes into the background. for amorphous (“root”) languages (Old Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese, Yoruba, etc.), the importance of morphology is practically reduced to zero.
It is difficult to draw the line between morphology and syntax (the rules for the formation of coherent speech). The construction of an utterance involves the simultaneous use of morphology and syntax. The rules governing this process are called syntho-morphological.
Ultimately everything language means serve one purpose - the implementation of meaningful communication. The rules of morphology and syntax are organically intertwined in the functioning of language system. It is important to understand the dynamics of their interaction.
There are general (theoretical) morphologies and particular morphologies individual languages. The tasks of general morphology include an inventory of the morphological methods used in the languages of the world and the morphological meanings expressed by them.
Morphology is divided into two main areas - word formation (lexical morphology) and inflection (grammatical morphology, paradigmatics). Sometimes morphology itself is understood only as inflection (the formation of word forms), i.e. the ability of a lexeme to appear in various grammatical forms that make up its paradigm.
Sometimes grammatical semantics or functional morphology are distinguished as an independent discipline. Here grammatical meanings and their oppositions are studied using the method of component analysis.
The branch of morphology that studies the formal patterns of constructing word forms is sometimes called morphemics. Morphemics examines the types and structure of morphemes, their relationships to each other and to the word as a whole. The main objects of research in morphemics are morphemes, morphs and their linear combinations (sequence of morphs, word form, etc.).
In morphemics, types of morphemes are studied according to their place in a word, according to function, types of affixes are established, linear and non-linear units of the morphological level are considered.
An important task of morphemics is to establish the principles of isolating minimally significant linear units - morphs - in word forms and the rules for combining morphs into paradigmatic units - morphemes. Morphemic analysis of a word involves isolating in a word (word form) all its constituent morphs and establishing their meanings.
Morphemics deals with the problems of alternation of phonemes within a morpheme.
The section of morphology that studies the structure of formatives, formal patterns of their compatibility (“tactics”) and context-dependent variation of phonemic structure is called morphonology. Morphonology studies the phonological structure of morphemes different types and the use of phonological differences for morphological purposes. In a narrow sense, morphonology studies the variation of phonemes within the morphs of one morpheme, i.e. their alternations, alternations. Alternating morphemes are called morphonemes. The original version of a morpheme may not coincide with any of its actual contextual representatives. For example, Russian. the morpheme son-/sn- receives a single morphonemic notation сън (or с*н) with the morphoneme ъ (or *) in the middle, since none of the members of the o/o alternation can be represented as the original one.
Morphonological phenomena cannot be explained or predicted on the basis of purely phonological data. automatic alternations (determined by the phonological environment of the morpheme) are excluded from the sphere of morphonology. Morphonological characteristics exist as morphologically determined and dictated by the rules of grammar, not phonology.
Historical morphology studies changes in the forms and meanings of individual morphemes, historical changes in the structure of words, the emergence of new grammatical categories and the disappearance of old ones, and changes in the number of grammes.
An important place in theoretical morphology is occupied by the search for morphological universals and frequentals (phenomena that are characteristic not of all, but of many languages).
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