Language is a naturally occurring (at a certain stage in the development of human society) and naturally developing sign system. Language has certain functions. The function of language is the role, purpose of language in society. Linguists identify about 12 language functions, of which two are basic - communicative and cognitive. Communicative is a function of communication, cognitive is a thought-forming function, it is also called expressive, epistemological, representative (in figurative terms, “language is the clothes of thoughts”).
Communicative function. Language is the most important means of communication, but not the only one. There are other means of transmitting information: gestures, facial expressions, works of art, scientific formulas. But all these are auxiliary means, their possibilities are limited: music conveys feelings, not thoughts, mathematical symbols convey the content of only mathematical concepts and so on. Language is the universal means of communication. The communicative function is manifested in the following areas human activity: 1) in establishing contact, 2) in storing and transmitting the traditions and culture of the people, i.e. Language is the link between generations.
cognitive the function is found in the following spheres of human activity: 1) in naming objects and phenomena of the surrounding world; 2) in the possibility of assessing these phenomena.
To these two most important are added emotional function, which manifests itself in the fact that language is a means of expressing feelings, and metalinguistic function (language is a means of scientific description of itself).
The sign essence of the language. A sign is a material object acting as a representative of another object. These are traffic lights road signs. Each sign has two sides: a material shell (a visual or auditory image) and an inner one (content, what it means, what it actually relates to). This two-sidedness of the sign in the language was called “dualism of the linguistic sign” (the term was proposed by Sergey Osipovich Kartsevsky). The most famous language sign is the word. The word has two sides: external (sound range or graphic image) and internal (what the word means). Without a signifier, without content, it's just a scale. So, we can type a series of letters on the keyboard "prol". This is not a sign, this is not a word, because it is not correlated with any object in the world around us. And without the signifier, the sign also does not exist; without the signifier it is a vague thought.
In addition to the word, there are other signs in the language - units of the language. These units are characterized by different properties, between which it is often difficult to find something in common (for example, a morpheme and a text), therefore several levels are distinguished in the language: the level of sounds, the level of morphemes, the level of words, the level of sentences. Each level combines units of the same type - all sounds, all morphemes, all words, all sentences. The law of compatibility operates in the language - units of the same level are combined: sound with sound, word with word and under. As a result, a unit of a higher level arises (the combination of phonemes creates morphemes, morphemes are combined into words, etc.). It is believed that between units different levels a hierarchical (from Gr. hieros sacred + arche power) type of connection is established, implying the arrangement of the elements of the whole from the highest to the lowest. There are two types of hierarchy - connection and subordination. The hierarchy of subordination lies in the fact that the place in the lower ranks determines the form of dependence on the upper one (for example, social hierarchy). A connection hierarchy is possible: one part, connecting to another, interacts with it and together forms a whole. Language is a model of a hierarchy of connection: the lesser manifests its functions in the greater.
Not all units are bilateral, but only units, starting with a morpheme. A sound (phoneme) is a unit that has no content; it does not correspond to any reality in the surrounding world. Let's see what the content of other units is. Morphemes: for example, the suffix TEL - a person by action, “the one who ...” - the reader (the one who reads), the teacher (the one who teaches), the prefix C - the movement from top to bottom: run away, move out, fly off, etc. . The sentence reflects the situation, the “scene”: “A man is walking”, “It is dawning”.
In this way, essence language in that it sign system. Since this is a “system of systems”, a complex, grandiose system, it is impossible to study the language “in general”. For the convenience of research, sections of linguistics are distinguished: phonemes are studied in phonology, morphemes in morphemics, sentences in syntax. The word as the most complex linguistic unit is considered at all levels of the language: from the point of view of meaning (this is one of the most important aspects of the word) it is considered in lexicology, and as a part of speech - in morphology, from the point of view of functioning as a member of a sentence - in syntax. The main, main sections of the language are phonology, lexicology, morphology and syntax. Morphology and syntax are combined into one general section called grammar.
public nature language. Language is a social phenomenon. Numerous language definitions emphasize it public function. So, by its very nature, language is a social phenomenon. The social nature of the language is manifested in its functions. The interaction of language and society is found in the fact that language arises, functions and develops only in society; in addition, the social differentiation of society is reflected in the language.
Society is heterogeneous, it is divided into men and women; young and old; educated and uneducated; living in different regions Russia. Not all differences between people are significant for language. Chief among them are territorial differences. The territorial varieties of a language are called dialects. In different regions, the same phenomena are called differently: wolf - biryuk, squirrel - veksha, beet - beetroot. Social varieties of language are called jargons. The two main ones are youth and student ( stipeshka, hostel, etc.). The thieves' slang has long existed (bear cub, piper, family, etc.)). For people of the same profession, there are professional languages, big role in which terms play, professional words: bagel - "steering wheel" and under. The speech of men and women also differs. So, for men, a stretching of consonants is characteristic ( dur-r-rak), and for women, a vowel stretch ( Oh wow very funny). Women's speech is characterized by verbosity, greater emotionality compared to men's speech, a tendency to exaggeration, hyperbolization. For male speech, it is common to use swear words to express a positive assessment, which is not typical for women; women are more likely to resort to euphemisms, female speech is characterized by evasiveness and uncertainty, as well as, by all accounts, illogicality. To express many meanings, women often use intonation, and men use vocabulary.
Language is not the only social phenomenon. Social phenomena include religion, politics, sports, art, etc. Language is the most democratic of social phenomena. Not all members of society are required to be politicians, athletes, paint, etc. But ignorance of the language puts a person outside of society, he becomes "Mowgli".
Thus, the whole language is divided into nationwide, one that is included in the language stock of most native speakers, and limited use : those linguistic means (practically words) that are known only to people connected by a non-linguistic community (territory, profession, age, etc.).
One should not think that everything in a language is conditioned by its social nature. Social factors influence the language indirectly. Society can most actively influence the vocabulary (for example, the language is constantly updated with new words: stapler, bifilife, hacker, user etc.). But the number of phonemes, types of declension, structural types suggestions etc. does not depend on social phenomena.
The concept of “modern Russian literary language ”.
"Modern language" - this term is understood in different ways. A broad understanding includes the era from Pushkin to the present day. Indeed, over the past 200 years, the language has not undergone significant changes in the phonetic, morphological and syntactic structure, and lexical changes were not so significant that we need to translate the literature of Pushkin's time. At the same time, the language lives and develops, and the living language of our contemporaries is the form that exists in the second half of the twentieth century. Therefore, a narrow understanding modern language” – from the 50s of the twentieth century to the present day. Average understanding - from M. Gorky to the present day (the entire twentieth century).
“Russian language” is the language of the Russian nation, but due to historical processes Russian is also a native language for people who are not Russian by nationality. AT Russian Federation there are many bilinguals who have two mother tongues in which they can think in much the same way. Historically, in the territory of the former Russian Empire Russian began to play the role of the language of interethnic communication.
The Russian language is part of the eastern group of Slavic languages, common ancestor which was the Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) language. The closest relatives of the Russian language are the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which are also included in the eastern group of Slavic languages.
"Literary language" - a normalized language, highest form national language. The literary language is universal, on its basis scientific essays, journalistic works are created, it underlies business speech and fiction. At the heart of the literary language is the concept of the norm. Language norm- these are the most common of the existing ones, entrenched in the practice of exemplary use, language variants that best perform their function. Language means are considered normative, which are characterized by 1) regular use; 2) the correspondence of this way of expression to the possibilities of the Russian language system; 3) public approval, and writers, scientists, the educated part of society act as judges. The norms are mobile, historically changeable (for example, the word “coffee” in the 19th century was used in the neuter gender, and in the 20th century it was used in the masculine gender, the use of the neuter gender is also acceptable).
The main collection of norms is dictionaries, reference books and textbooks. Spelling standards (spelling) are reflected in spelling dictionaries, pronunciation norms - in orthoepic. There are dictionaries of compatibility (“ Educational dictionary compatibility of the Russian language”, etc.). Stylistic norms are presented in the form of stylistic marks in explanatory dictionaries ( simple, bookish, colloquial and under.). The section of linguistics, the subject of which is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is called lexicography.
The literary language is characterized by a number of features:
1. This is a codified variety of the Russian language, usually associated with a written form of communication; it is focused on fixing and, as it were, designed for recording and reproducing what has been recorded. The leading form of the literary language is written, although it is also found in oral form. The formation of the oral form of literary speech dates back to the beginning of the 19th century and continued throughout the 20th century.
2. Literary speech serves as a means of implementing the entire complex of knowledge accumulated by native speakers of the Russian language in connection with progress in the field of material and spiritual culture; that is why literary speech has an ever-expanding scope of its application: it is used in all types of human activity and thus serves as a means of communication in greater territory compared to other forms of the Russian language.
3. Literary speech is characterized by such a system of norms that qualify as exemplary; that is why such norms appear in the minds of native speakers as obligatory, and literary speech itself is perceived as opposed to dialectal and socially limited.
4. Literary speech is such a variety of the Russian language, which is reflected in the polishing and improvement of "raw" material in acts of speech activity.
5. The system of norms of the Russian language is being codified; it is instilled in the learning process, distributed with the help of teaching aids, dictionaries, etc.
6. Literary speech is characterized by selectivity. The selection of language means is perhaps the most important of the patterns of development.
There are two FORMS of language - oral and written. Oral - primordial, this is the form in which any language originally exists. The written form arose from the need of society to convey information to distant interlocutors or another generation. The oral form of speech is characterized by spontaneity, unpreparedness. This speech is perceived immediately, directly by the organs of hearing, it exists as "speaking" with its characteristic melody, rhythm, intonation. Oral speech is focused on momentary perception, on the interlocutor and is built taking into account his reactions. Oral speech is direct, expressive, it uses different means of updating the verbal form: intonation, timbre and power of the voice, repetition, violation of word order, distortion of the sound side of the word, etc. All this is aimed at strengthening the influencing factor of the utterance and raising the emotional tone of speech activity.
Written speech is focused on the perception of the organs of vision, so this speech can be referred to more than once. Written speech is different in that the very form of speech activity reflects the conditions and purpose of communication. The choice of words, expressions, syntactic constructions, the arrangement of words in the structure of sentences - all this is subject to stylistic restrictions. So, scientific texts are distinguished by the fact that they tend to use terms, detailed structures of complex sentences, etc. In the texts of official business correspondence, there is a standardization of the form of presentation, language formulas legal practice etc.
Written and oral speech is carried out in a dialogic and monologue form. Dialogue involves spontaneity, a direct reaction to the words of the interlocutor, the use non-verbal means communication (gesture, facial expressions, posture, facial expressions, eyes, etc.), changing the topic, using short and incomplete sentences, the possibility of asking questions, clarifications in the course of communication. The monologue presupposes preparedness, structural organization (it is especially important to think over the beginning and end of the speech), lack of orientation towards the interlocutor, i.e. the impossibility of changing or restructuring the theme, etc.
The nature and essence of language
1. Language is a social phenomenon. Language, as a social phenomenon, arises in society to serve the needs of people, but there are many phenomena in language that cannot be explained only by the social nature of language. The language of an individual depends on environment and is influenced by the speech of the collective
Biological approach to language.
Language is a universal biological property as a psychophysical reserve in the human brain. language is a biological, natural phenomenon, independent of man. It is born in human body, in his vocal apparatus. Language is a tool through which a person forms thoughts and feelings, moods, desires, will and activity. Language is a tool through which a person influences people, and others influence him.
3. Mental approach to language. It is found in the fact that language-speech is not only a form of expression of thoughts and emotions, but also a means of forming thoughts, a form of existence of thinking.
Conclusion: language is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, which is unthinkable to consider only from one side. Each of the considered approaches is correct in its own way, but in order to determine the nature of the language as accurately as possible, one has to turn to all its aspects, to remember its biological nature, do not forget about the social side and consider from the point of view of the human psyche.
Language features
Language as a social phenomenon performs a number of functions:
1. Formation and expression of thought. Thought is formed in the form of words and a combination of words. Only when a global undivided thought is uttered, it acquires clarity and clarity. Human. language is the most adequate form of expression of thought. Thought can be expressed by other means, for example. in figurative-symbolic formulas, mathematical signs, etc.
communicative(or communication function) - the use of language to convey information, to be a means of communication between people. This global function is represented by sub-functions that can be used in speech in isolation or in a selective characteristic with each other:
cognitive (or cognitive function) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society; the possibility of obtaining knowledge with the help of the language in the educational activities of people.
The function of the message itself is realized in unilateral or bilateral acts of information transfer (lecture, examination).
informative (or accumulative function) - the transfer of information and its storage (chronicles, dictionaries, diaries);
regulatory and planning - the ability to regulate the behavior of people. With the help of plans, orders, instructions;
emotive- the ability of a language-speech to express feelings and emotions using various language means: interjections, emotive vocabulary, phraseology;
metalinguistic - the use of languages. as a means of research and description of the language itself.
phatic (or contact-establishing) - the ability of a language to inform communicants about their socio-psychological status and thereby determine the establishment or termination of contacts between them. This function is realized primarily when using the norms speech etiquette;
4. Language- it is naturally occurring and regular developing system objectively existing and socially fixed signs that correlate the conceptual content and typical sound.
Language is an open, dynamic system. The language system is internal organization its units and parts. Each unit of the language enters the system as a part of the whole, it is connected with other units and parts. language system directly or indirectly through linguistic categories.
The language system is complex and multifaceted, this applies to both its structure and functioning, i.e. use and development. The language system determines the ways of its development, but not the specific form, because in any language, its norm, one can find systemic (structural) and asystemic (destructive) facts. This arises both as a result of the unrealization of all the possibilities of the system, and as a result of the influence of other languages and social factors.
For example, Russian nouns potentially have a 12-element declension paradigm, but not every noun has the entire set of word forms, and there are nouns that have large quantity word forms [cf .: about the forest and in the forest, when prepositional breaks up into explanatory and local];
AT modern theories systems are analyzed different types and types of systems. For linguistics, systems that have the property of optimality and openness are important. The sign of openness and dynamism is characteristic of language as a system. The dynamism of the system is manifested in the opposite of its linguistic tradition, fixed in the literary language, the stereotype of speech activity. Potentiality as a manifestation of the dynamism and openness of the language system does not oppose it to the language with its categories and specific units.
5. One-level and multi-level language units can enter into two types of systemic relations - paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
Paradigm. (gr.-example) rel. - the relationship between units of this and different levels, grouped in the human brain on the basis of various associations. For example, similarity or closeness, adjacency of lexical meanings serves as the basis of synonymy. The similarity of form reveals itself in such categories as homonomy, paronymy, polysemy. The opposite of meanings forms antonymy, etc.
Syntagmatic (gr.-together built, connected) relative-relative row, adjacency language units one level, which are actualized in a specific speech usage - in oral or written texts. (postfix, stem root, inflection).
Eg. Turkic postfixes with the meaning plural –lar/-ler in the position on the left is the stem root, in the position on the right are postfixes with different grammars. values. Rus. potfix -nick in the position on the left has a root (tea-nick), in the position on the right - diff. Flexions (tea-nik-i),
6. Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the process of the material transforming activity of people and is mediated by language.
In psychology, there are two main type of speech: external and internal.
External speech includes oral (dialogical and monologue) and written. Dialogue is a direct communication between two or more people. Dialogic speech- this speech is supported; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it). A kind of dialogic communication is a conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.
monologue speech- a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. This type of speech also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, so the speaker has an active, gestural effect.
monologue speech- connected, contextual. The monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. He makes a number of demands on the tempo and sound of this type of speech.
Written speech is a type of monologue. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. This is because written language implies a lack of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, this type of speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks organizing the sentence.
7. inner speech is a special kind of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, for inner speech , on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. That's why inner speech extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogic. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
Any thought, regardless of whether a person wants to express it or not, is formed with the help of inner speech with the participation of movements of the speech apparatus. It goes through the stage of internal pronunciation, internal processing. Speech movements are invisible to the eye, but they can be recorded using special devices. The translation of external speech into internal (internalization) is accompanied by a reduction (contraction) of the structure of external speech, and the transition from internal speech to external (exteriorization), on the contrary, requires the deployment of the structure of internal speech, building it in accordance not only with logical rules, but also with grammatical ones.
Inner speech has the following features:
a) contraction (curtailment). It omits most of the members of the sentence and only one of the main ones remains: the subject or predicate;
b) the absence of vocalization (its soundlessness) as a result of inhibited and disinhibited articulation.
c) inner speech exists as kinesthetic, auditory or visual image the words.
8. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, a branch of linguistics that studies language primarily as a phenomenon of the psyche. From the point of view of psycholinguistics, language exists to the extent that it exists inner world speaking and listening, writing and reading.
This is a complex science, which belongs to the linguistic disciplines, since it studies the language, and to the psychological disciplines, since it studies it in a certain aspect - as a mental phenomenon. And since language is a sign system that serves society, psycholinguistics is also included in the circle of disciplines that study social communications, including the design and transfer of knowledge.
A person is born endowed with the possibility of complete mastery of the language. However, this opportunity has yet to be realized. To understand exactly how this happens, psycholinguistics studies the development of a child's speech.
Psycholinguistics also investigates the reasons why the development of speech and its functioning deviate from the norm. Psycholinguistics studies the speech defects of children and adults. These are defects that arose in the early stages of life - in the process of mastering speech, as well as defects that were the result of later anomalies - such as brain injuries, hearing loss, mental illness.
NEUROLINGUISTICS is a branch of science that is borderline for psychology, neurology and linguistics, studying the brain mechanisms of speech activity and changes in speech processes arising from local lesions of the brain.
The rise of neurolinguistics scientific discipline associated with the development of neuropsychology, as well as linguistics and psycholinguistics. According to the ideas of modern neuropsychology, neurolinguistics considers speech as a systemic function, and aphasia as systemic violation already formed speech.
9. Speech activity - interconnected speech actions aimed at achieving one goal. Speech activity is divided into writing, reading, speaking, translation, etc.
The process of speech involves, on the one hand, the formation and formulation of thoughts language means, and on the other hand, the perception of language structures and their understanding.
Thus, speech is a psycholinguistic process, a form of existence of human language.
physiological basis speech is a conditioned reflex activity of the cerebral cortex As a stimulus, the word has three forms of expression: the word heard, the word seen, the word spoken
1) lungs, bronchi, trachea;
2) larynx;
3) pharynx, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, uvula, palate, tongue, teeth and lips
The concept of speech activity. Contrasting speech with language, speech is called both speech skills, and a speech act, and the result of speech - a text, and even speech activity itself - language ability and speech behavior.
The speech activity of the speaker has a social and psychophysiological side. The social nature of speech activity lies in the fact that it is part of a person's social activity, and that both the speech act and the speech situation require public speakers who know a single language of communication, common culture, general theme.
A speech act as a psychophysical process is a connection between the speaker and the listener, which involves 3 components - speaking, perception and understanding of speech. A speech act as a dialogue presupposes the establishment of a connection between the interlocutors. In general, a speech act is a unity of message transmission and joint thinking.
10. The generation of speech occurs in the process of speech activity aimed at the verbalization of thought. This is the path from thought to word.
The path from thought to word consists mainly in the preparation of a speech statement. The well-known psycholinguist A.R. Luria identifies 4 stages on this path. It begins with a motive and a general idea (stage 1). Then it goes through the stage of inner speech, followed by the stage of formation of the syntactic structure (stage 3). The production of speech ends with the deployment of an external speech statement (stage 4).
There are two phases of speech generation:
1) preverbal stage of speech; it is connected with the appearance of the speaker's intention;
2) the verbal stage, when personal meanings acquire verbal expression.
These stages affect, respectively, the work of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex in their close interaction.
The interaction of the right and left hemispheres obeys one main goal: the translation of thought into speech. The transformation of thought into speech is associated with the transformation of a multidimensional mental image into a one-dimensional, linear statement.
Speech perception- one of the complex processes of speech activity. It includes the perception of the sound composition of the word, grammatical forms, intonation and other means of language that express a certain content of thought.
Speech understanding- the process is no less complicated than the perception of it. To understand speech talking person First of all, you must clearly hear and understand every word. But the meaning of a word is often clarified only as part of a phrase, sentence.
11. Language levels are arranged in relation to each other according to the principle of ascending or descending complexity of language units. The idea of levels implies the hierarchical structure of the language system, the dominance of some units over others and, conversely, the subordination of some units to others.
The level structure of the language becomes apparent with the stepwise linear articulation of the utterance. First, sentences are singled out, in which words are distinguished as their constituent words, which, in turn, break up into morphemes. Morphemes are divided into phonemes. Units over low level are included in units of more than high levels: phoneme-morpheme-lexeme-combination. and offer.
Grammatical units- grammatical language education, each of which is characterized by its own distinctive features:
Morpheme;
Word (word form);
Phrase;
Sentence.
Morpheme- the minimum significant part of a word or word form; construction material the words. Morphemes are distinguished by a special morphemic analysis.
Word- one of the main grammatical units, which is a unity of form (sound shell) and content (lexical and grammatical meanings).
phrase - syntactic construction, which consists of two or more significant words related to each other subordination- agreement, control, adjacency, or in some languages - juxtaposition.
Sentence- a syntactic construction representing a grammatically organized compound of words (or a word), which has a certain semantic and intonational completeness, phrases, forming different types simple sentences;
Sema- an elementary component of the meaning, implemented inside the seme, that is, the seme is the minimum piece of meaning, indecomposable into parts. words and different meanings words differ in a set of such components.
Sema - the value component reflects the attribute of the object. Since these signs may also have the most general specific character, they distinguish the following types sem: classmes(thematic; the most generalized features corresponding to the meaning of parts of speech), archisemes(features that define a group of words within a part of speech), differential(features by which words are opposed, grouped according to one archiseme and by which one seme can be distinguished from another).
12. Language meanings can be divided into two types according to their relation to language units. In the first case we are talking about the semantics of the linguistic units themselves, their content - these are structural linguistic meanings. In the second case, we are talking about the concept and other categories and transmitted information, about the semantic purpose of units of language and context - these are informative language meanings. Language meanings as the content of language units are divided into lexical and grammatical meanings.
Lexical meaning - the content of the word, reflecting in the mind and fixing in it the idea of \u200b\u200bthe object, property, process, phenomenon, etc. L. z. - a product of human mental activity, it is of a generalized nature. Usually L. h. associated with the concept.
The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which general properties for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon.
A word can have one lexical meaning ( unambiguous words): syntax, tangent, whatman,secret etc. Words that have two, three or more lexical meanings are called ambiguous:
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word in terms of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning, inherent in a number of words, not depending on their real-material content. In the field of morphology, for example, these are the grammatical meanings of parts of speech, cases, gender, tense, etc.
For example, words smoke and house have different lexical meanings, A grammatical meanings these words have the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, male, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change in cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.
13. Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality (the so-called conceptual core). The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish this object, action, phenomenon.
For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.
into the structure lexical meaning the word also includes a stylistic meaning, or connotation - this is an assessment that is given to an object, a phenomenon by a person as a result of his cognitive activity.
14. The lexical meanings of words can be considered from different angles.
Value types are classified according to the following criteria:
1) according to the method of nomination, i.e. by the nature of the connection between the meaning of the word and the subject of non-linguistic reality;
2) according to the degree of semantic motivation;
3) if possible lexical compatibility;
4) according to syntactic behavior;
5) by the nature of the nomination.
1. By the method of nomination
There are two types: direct and figurative.
direct- this is the meaning in which the word directly indicates the object, action, sign and directly correlates with the concept. This is the main meaning, the stable name of the subject.
Figurative meaning- this is the result of the transfer of the direct designation of the subject to a new subject. This value appears on the basis of comparisons, associations that unite one subject with another.
There are several types of figurative meanings of words: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
2. According to the degree of semantic motivation
Allocate values motivated and unmotivated.
Unmotivated Meaning- this is a non-derivative meaning that words have in their direct meaning with a non-derivative stem. For example, deciduous forest, residential building.
Motivated Meaning- this is a derivative meaning that words in a figurative sense and derivative words have. The figurative meaning is explained through the direct, and the word is derived in semantic relation. For example, a snub nose is a direct meaning, a ship's bow is figurative.
The meanings of derived words arise on the basis of generating bases, i.e. the word is derivative in the word-formation relation. For example, a nose is a nose.
3. By lexical compatibility
Allocate lexically free and phraseologically related.
Lexically free: in terms of lexical compatibility, such words have a relatively wide compatibility with other words. For example, high house, tall man, high ceilings (large in length). But there may be restrictions on compatibility with other words. Compatibility can be limited by logic, subject-logical relations. This is due to non-linguistic reasons. For example, you can not say "high borscht".
Compatibility can be limited and actually language relations. These words have non-free meanings or phraseologically related meanings.
Phraseologically related are values that are realized only under conditions of certain combinations given word with a limited stable range of lexical units. For example, logically, adjectives denoting color could be combined with any words that can be determined by these features: brown - brown - brown. But the language norm does not allow combining the adjective "brown" with the word coat, table, door, in contrast to the adjective "brown". The adjectives "brown" and "brown" are combined with a narrow range of nouns. "Brown" is a lexically free type of meaning, this word has a relatively wide compatibility.
Sometimes, especially in poetic works, these restrictions are lifted and the possibilities of combining words with other words increase. For example, to cry sobbingly - to write about February sobbingly (by Pasternak), a flock of comrades (from a joke).
4. By syntactic behavior
Allocate syntactically free, syntactically determined and constructively limited meanings.
Syntactically free values- these are the meanings that the word of a certain part of speech has in its usual syntactic function.
Syntactically conditional values- these are the meanings that appear when the word performs a syntactic function unusual for it.
For example, a crow and a raven are different birds. A crow is a bird with gray plumage, a raven is a useful bird. Crow - syntactically free speech. Your sister is such a crow figurative meaning"distracted person"); syntactically determined. As a rule, this word is not used as a subject in a figurative sense. Only possible in combination with demonstrative pronoun: this crow always forgets everything.
Structurally limited values are values that are implemented only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction.
Mirage is an optical phenomenon. The mirage of love is a deceptive sign, an illusion. This is the figurative meaning that the word "mirage" acquires in the construction "mirage + noun in genitive case". It is often found in poetic speech.
5. By the nature of the nomination
There are nominative and non-nominative.
Nominative meanings are meanings that are used to name objects, actions, signs and do not contain their assessment, characteristics. There are no additional evaluative semes in the structure of the lexical meaning of such words.
Non-nominative meanings are the meanings of words that are not only named, but also characterized. Meaning also includes additional emotional and evaluative features.
1. Naturalistic (biological) approach to language
The development of a naturalistic approach to language is associated with the name of the outstanding German researcher August Schleicher (1821-1868). Schleicher's naturalistic philosophy of language is most clearly set forth in such works as "Darwin's Theory and the Science of Language" 1863, "The Significance of Language for natural history man" 1865. According to the basic position of the naturalistic trend, linguistics is adjacent to the naturalistic sciences. The difference between the natural and historical sciences is whether the will of people can or cannot influence the object of science: in natural sciences laws that do not depend on the will of people prevail; in historical sciences subjectivity cannot be avoided. In the work "Darwin's theory and the science of language," Sh. directly indicated that "the laws established by Darwin for plant and animal species are applicable, according to at least in the main features of their own and to the organisms of languages. "The most striking influence of Darwin's theory is manifested in the transfer by Schleicher of the position of the struggle for existence in the plant and animal world to the language. I am convinced that in the present period of human life, the winners in the struggle for existence are predominantly Indo-Germanic languages S. transfers to languages the law of variability of species established by Darwin. In his opinion, those languages that, according to botanists and zoologists, would be species of the same genus, are recognized in linguistics as children of one common basic language, from which they originated by gradual changes.
Schleicher also sees the closeness of language to natural organisms in the ability of language to evolve. In this regard, Schleicher states: "The life of a language does not differ significantly from the life of all other living organisms - plants and animals." Like these latter, it has a period of growth from the simplest structures to more complex forms and a period of aging, in which languages are increasingly moving away from the achieved the highest level developments and their forms suffer damage.
With all the shortcomings, the naturalistic direction in linguistics should be considered as a stage in the progressive movement of the science of language. The desire of representatives of this trend, in particular Schleicher, to apply the exact methods of the natural sciences to the study of language should be considered valuable. Erroneous in the concept of Schleicher. and his followers was a too straightforward transfer into the language of the laws inherent in biological organisms who really grow, develop, and then grow decrepit and die. Languages, of course, also arise, develop, and sometimes die. But this death is not biological, but socio-historical in nature. The language dies only with the disappearance of the society that speaks it, the collective of people.
However, despite the erroneous nature of the naturalistic concept in linguistics, one should always take into account the fact that the comparison of language with a living organism contributed to the establishment of a systematic view of language as an object with its own structure.
2. Mental approach to language
Another well-known point of view on the nature and essence of language is that language is a phenomenon mental. One of the most prominent representatives who represented psychological point view of the language was Geiman Steinthal (1823-1899). Steinthal's psychological concept is presented most clearly and consistently in his work Grammar, Logic and Psychology, Their Principles and Relationships. Steinthal considered language to be a mental phenomenon that develops on the basis of the laws of psychology. He denied the role of thinking in the formation of language, attaching importance to the psyche. Schleicher's logic. completely excluded, arguing that "the categories of language and logic incompatible can also hardly be correlated with each other as the concept of a circle and red." Thus, Steital categorically denied the participation of thinking in the development of language. Shtenthal focused all his attention on the individual act of speech, considering language as a phenomenon of a mental order.
3. Language is a social phenomenon
Finally, there is a point of view that language is a phenomenon social.
The language of an individual depends on the environment and is influenced by the speech of the collective. If small children fall into the conditions of life of animals, then they acquire the skills of animal life and lose everything human forever.
Dane Elmslev in his book "Prolegomena to the Theory of Language" gives an exhaustive description of language as a phenomenon: "The language of human speech is an inexhaustible supply of various treasures. Language is inseparable from a person and follows him in all his actions. Language is a tool through which a person forms a thought and feelings, moods, desires, will and activity.Language is the instrument through which man influences men and others influence him.Language is the primary and most necessary foundation of human society.But it is also the ultimate indispensable support of the human person, the refuge of man in hours loneliness, when the mind enters into a struggle with life and the conflict is engendered by the monologue of a poet or thinker.But language is not an external phenomenon that only accompanies a person.It is deeply connected with human mind. It is the wealth of memory inherited by the individual and the tribe. Language is so deeply rooted in the individual, the family, the nation, humanity and life itself, that we sometimes cannot help asking whether language is not just a reflection of phenomena, but their embodiment, the seed from which they grew. For these reasons, language has always attracted the attention of man, he was surprised, he was described in poetry and science. Science began to consider language as a sequence of sounds and expressive gestures, accessible to an exact physical and physiological description. Language is seen as a system of signs and as a stable entity used as a key to the system of human thought.
4. Language as a system of signs
Language is considered as a system of signs. A sign can be defined as a kind of material unit that creates a language as a phenomenon.
With regard to language, the term sign can be defined by the following points:
1. The sign must be material, that is, it must be accessible to sensory perception, like any other thing.
2. The sign has no meaning, but is aimed at meaning, for this it exists.
3. The content of a sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of a thing is exhausted by its material characteristics.
4. The content of a sign is determined by its distinctive features, which are analytically distinguished and separated from non-distinctive ones.
5. Language functions according to Buhler
The Austrian psychologist, philosopher and linguist Karl Buhler, describing in his book "Theory of Language" the various directions of the signs of the language, defines 3 main functions of the language:
Language functions according to Buhler:
1) the function of expression, or expressive function, when the state of the speaker is expressed.
2) The function of calling, addressing the listener, or appellative function.
3) The function of presentation, or representative, when one says or tells something to another,
6. Functions of the language according to the Reformed
There are other points of view on the functions performed by the language, for example, as Reformatsky A.A. understood them.
1) Nominative, that is, the words of the language can name things and phenomena of reality.
2) communicative; Suggestions serve this purpose.
3) Expressive, thanks to it the emotional state of the speaker is expressed.
Within the framework of the expressive function, one can also single out a deictic (pointing) function that combines some elements of the language with gestures.
1.1. Ideal and material in language
1.2. Social and biological in language
1.3. Social and mental in language
1.4. Social and individual in language
Language features
Literature
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Essence of language
It is believed that understanding the essence of language is associated with the answer to at least two questions:
ideal language or material,
whether language is a biological, mental, social or individual phenomenon
In the history of linguistics, different answers to these questions are known [Girutsky, p. 29].
1. Language is a phenomenon biological, natural, independent of man ( August Schleicher(Schleicher, 1821–1868), "The German language"):
“Languages, these natural organisms organized in sound matter ..., show their properties natural organism not only in the fact that their growth occurs according to certain laws. The life of a language does not differ significantly from the life of all other living organisms - plants, animals. Like these latter, it has a period of growth from the simplest structures to more complex forms, and a period of aging" [ Schleicher A. Die deutsche Sprache. Stuttgart, 1869. S. 3; cit. Quoted from: Vendina, p. 22].
2. Language is a phenomenon mental arising from the action of the collective or individual spirit.
2.1. Supporters socio-psychological direction tried to explain the essence of language based on the social nature of the human psyche.
The founder of this approach Wilhelm von Humboldt(vonHumboldt, 1767–1835) believed that language is an expression folk spirit, by which he understood the spiritual and intellectual activity of the people, the originality of the "national" consciousness.
W. Humboldt's ideas about language as an expression of the national spirit found an original development in the works of outstanding linguists of the second half of the 19th century. ( G. Steinthal,A. A. Potebnya,W. Wundt). The essence of language, in their opinion, is hidden in the psychology of the people. At the same time, language is such a product of the human spirit, which differs from both logical and psychological categories. If the categories logic are essentially results thinking, a psychological categories are a reflection spiritual human life as a whole language- a specific product of the history of the spiritual life of the people [Alefirenko, p. 22–23].
2.2. Theorists individual psychological direction (young-gram-ism) K. Brugman,A. Leskin,G. Ostgof,G. Paul and others argued that language exists only conscious individual people . According to G. Paul (1846–1921), “there are as many separate languages in the world as there are individuals” (this idea is reflected in the concept of “idiolect” - an individual variety of a language), and German, Latin and other languages are only abstractions of linguistic science" [Cit. Quoted from: Alefirenko, p. 23]. At the same time, they did not deny a common language: it is something in between, summed up from individual languages (uzus) [Circumnavigation].
Despite the well-known shortcomings and erroneous ideas about the essence of language, both areas of psychologism in linguistics had a fruitful impact on the formation of modern psycholinguistics. This became possible due to the steady orientation of the domestic science of language, primarily F.F. Fortunatov, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay and L.V. Shcherba, to the "factor of the speaking person" [Alefirenko, p. 23–24].
3. Language is a phenomenon social that arises and develops only in a collective. Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913): “Language is a social element of speech activity, external to the individual, who by himself can neither create language nor change it” [ Saussure F. Works on linguistics. M., 1977, p. 110; cit. Quoted from: Vendina, p. 22].
In modern linguistics, the explanation of the essence of language from the standpoint of a single direction (biological, psychological or social) seems clearly unsatisfactory. The nature of language is as complex as the person himself, whose specific activity it is. And in a person are most closely intertwined biological,mental and social factors[Alefirenko, p. 27, 32].
AT present time language is understood as a complex combination
ideal and material
social (public) and individual,
biological and mental [Girutsky, p. 29; Grechko, p. 270].
When discussing this issue, use
data of genetics, psychophysiology, neuropsychology, etc.,
data on speech ontogenesis (individual development of the organism) of a person (in particular, the results of the study of children's speech)
This approach to comprehending the essence of the language looks more convincing, although it is represented not so much by reliable conclusions as by assumptions and heated discussions [Alefirenko, p. 27].
