) consider these two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not limited to functional aspect speech sounds, but also covers, along with this, its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener (perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be the Polish-born scientist Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, who also worked in Russia. Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle also made outstanding contributions to the development of phonology.

The most important concepts of phonology

Phonemes, allophones and oppositions

The basic concept of phonology is phoneme, a minimal linguistic unit that primarily has a semantic-distinguishing function. The manifestation of a phoneme in speech is a background, a specific segment of sounding speech that has certain acoustic properties. The number of phonics is potentially infinite, but in each language they are distributed into different phonemes depending on the structure of each phonological set. Phonemes belonging to the same phoneme are called allophones.

The concept also plays a key role in phonology oppositions(opposition). Two units are considered opposed if there are so-called minimal pairs, that is, pairs of words that do not differ in anything other than these two units (for example, in Russian: tom - house - com - rum - som - nom - scrap). If two given backgrounds enter into such opposition, they belong to different phonemes. On the contrary, if two backgrounds are in additional distribution, that is, they do not occur in the same context, is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for classifying them as one phoneme. Thus, in Russian they never occur in the same context [a] (as in the word mat) and [а̂] (as in the word crush): the first sound is pronounced only between hard consonants (and/or vowels), the second - only between two soft consonants. Thus, they can refer to the same phoneme (if other necessary conditions are met). On the contrary, in German similar sounds are the only word distinguishers: Ähre - [’ὲ:rә] ( ear) and Ehre - [’é:rә] ( honor), and therefore they belong to different phonemes.

Distinguishing Features

Each corresponding member of any opposition differs from the other due to various phonological features. So, the initial sound of the word house different from the initial sound of the word volume the fact that the voice is involved in its formation, that is, it is voiced. In the same way the last sound of the word moss different from the last sound of the word mock(from get wet) in that the first is slotted, and the second is explosive. All linguistic oppositions can be represented in this way: of course, there are also oppositions whose members differ in more than one characteristic: cf. about V ate - about h ate .

The features by which the backgrounds of different phonemes are contrasted in a given language are called distinctive, or differential. The set of distinctive features depends on the structure of the phonological system of a given language. So, in English or Thai, a distinctive sign is the presence of aspiration in consonants: the first sounds of English. pin and bin differ precisely in the presence or absence of aspiration. On the contrary, in Russian or Italian, aspiration is not a distinctive feature: if you pronounce a Russian word drank with aspiration after the first consonant, its meaning will not change. On the contrary, in Russian or Irish languages ​​hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants are contrasted, cf. Russian ox - led. In contrast, in English velarized and non-velarized [l] are allophones: pill pronounced with a velarized [ɫ], and lip- with regular [l] (distribution depends on the position of the sound in the syllable).

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

For more information on phonological typology, see Vocalic systems, Consonantal systems

The tasks of phonology, in addition to specific language descriptions, include the description of various systems of vowel and consonant phonemes. The structure of these systems is determined by the set and type of oppositions that form these systems, which, in turn, requires the preliminary selection of a set of phonological features relevant for a given language and the assignment of these features to each phoneme: even for structurally and genetically similar languages, sometimes different decisions need to be made. For example, in some dialects of the Irish language, voiceless aspirated and voiced unaspirated consonants are contrasted, and the sign of voiceless-voiced consonants is meaningfully distinctive, and aspiration is predictable. On the contrary, in other dialects, voicing has no phonological significance, automatically accompanying distinctive unaspiratedness. At the same time, it is significant that in both dialects fricatives are contrasted in terms of voicedness and voicelessness; Accordingly, the structure of the consonantal system as a whole in these two groups of dialects differs greatly.

In the typology of vocal systems, a division into very rare linear (Abkhazian, Aranda), rectangular and triangular systems is accepted. In triangular systems (characteristic, for example, of most European or Bantu languages), the most important paradigmatic relationship is the opposition in rise, vowel phonemes are concentrated at the “extreme points” of the vocal triangle (rare vowels of the central row). In rectangular systems (often associated with the development of vowel harmony), the opposition of row and rise is very significant; alternations associated specifically with row are very typical for such languages ​​(such as, for example, Turkic vowel harmony).

Universal phonological classifications

Trubetskoy's work proposed, among other things, the calculation of distinctive features found in different vocal and consonantal systems. However, he did not make a clear distinction between features related to articulatory properties (e.g., “place of formation”) and acoustic features such as “opacity correlation” (roughly corresponding to vowel tension-laxity). In the work of R. O. Jacobson, M. Halle and G. Fant, a universal classification of segments was proposed according to the distinctive characteristics associated with acoustic characteristics of the speech signal. Later, the universal phonological classification Chomsky-Halle, proposed in the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle, based rather on the articulatory features of segments, became widespread. In some modern theories, the concept of a feature plays an even greater role than the concept of phoneme itself; sometimes the place of traditional signs is taken by other units, for example articulatory gesture. There are also theories that consider segments not just as bundles, but as hierarchically organized sets of features, which makes it possible to limit the set possible operations over the segments.

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

“Fundamentals of Phonology” and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

The criteria used by Trubetskoy were very close to those distribution-based methods that were being actively developed at that time in American descriptivism, in the works of Leonard Bloomfield, Morris Swadesh and others. Edward Sapir was somewhat close to the structuralists in his views. In particular, in famous work“Sound patterns in language,” he emphasized that the linguistic significance of articulatory events is determined not by their physical nature, but by how they relate to other events in the system of a given language: for example, the sound produced when blowing out a candle with acoustic point is similar in appearance to a sound that appears in a number of varieties of English in words which or white([ʍ] ), however, their linguistic significance is completely different.

In American structuralist phonology, the concept of two levels of representation was developed. These two levels were introduced to analyze facts like devoicing of final voiced sounds in languages ​​like German or Russian. Thus, for Trubetskoy, the sound sequence was analyzed in phonological terms as /raT/, with an archiphoneme (a unit with an incomplete set of feature specifications) in the final position (where neutralization occurred). The phonological representation /raT/ is correlated with two lexical units, orthographically Rad"wheel" and Rat"advice". In the procedural interpretation proposed by American structuralists, these two units have different phonemic composition, respectively /rad/ and /rat/ (cf. forms genitive case Rates And Rades); a rule is postulated that translates /d/ into /t/ in word-final position. At the same time, in earlier versions American structuralism, the number of levels does not exceed two, even if this requires extremely non-trivial rules for the transition between them.

European schools of structuralism

The use of purely formal, distributive criteria has received greatest distribution in the original concept of scientists working in Denmark, primarily L. Hjelmslev, called glossematics. In the field of studying sound systems, Hjelmslev insisted, in particular, on the separation of substance (purely formal relations between linguistic units that create meaning) and form (those features of linguistic units that relate to physical properties their manifestations).

The original concept of the phonological structure of languages ​​was also proposed by the British researcher J.R. Furse and his London school of structuralism. In Furs' model, a significant role was played by the concept of prosody, understood as a meaning-creating unit covering more than one segment (background); Thus, the role of classical phonemic analysis was reduced and at the same time a fairly simple analysis of such phenomena as, for example, assimilation was given.

The ideas of structuralism also developed in the USSR, in particular within the framework of the Moscow (R. I. Avanesov) and Leningrad (L. V. Shcherba) phonological schools.

Universal classifications and generative phonology

Significant advances in the development of instrumental phonetics have led to the fact that many generalizations regarding the sound structure of the world's languages ​​have received a solid phonetic basis. First significant work, where the goal was to create a universal classification of possible sounds of natural language, was the book “Preliminaries of Speech Analysis” by R. O. Jacobson, Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle. This work attempts to present a universal classification of distinctive segments based on their acoustic correlates.

The development of generative phonology is usually associated with the work of Morris Halle “The sound structure of the Russian language”. Halle noticed that many phenomena that are very similar from a phonetic point of view are described in completely different ways within traditional phonological models. As an example, he cited assimilation by voicing (sandhi in Russian): in the traditional description, voicing in the syntagma (corresponds to spelling I wish I could) can be described as an alternation of two phonemes (since /k/ and /g/ in Russian are undoubtedly different phonemes, cf. bark And mountain). At the same time, a completely similar process of voicing in the syntagma [ʒe dʒ bɨ] (I'd like to burn) is described in other terms (allophonic variation). Halle argued that a description in terms of a universal classification of sounds (according to which the voicing feature is distinctive for both /g/ and /dʒ/) is more adequate to the actual functioning of the language system.

The most significant contribution to the establishment of generative phonology was made by the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle “The Sound Pattern of English”, SPE. It was the first to formulate the proposition that the grammar of a language (its phonological aspect) is a set of sounds/segments and rules for their transformation (phonological rules). The rules can be applied either randomly or in a specific order. The concepts of phoneme, allophone and syllable were excluded from the terminological arsenal. According to SPE principles, a segment undergoes transformation in a specific environment; moreover, the latter can be characterized as a segment having certain characteristics, or as a sequence of a certain number of segments. The system for representing phonological rules includes a set of differential features that have the meaning “+/-”. Only the most essential features are used in the rule representation formula. For example, the deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word in the Russian language in the system of rules of generative phonology is written as

Consonant - sonorant

In most cases, the order in which the rules are applied appears to be a necessary condition for an adequate description of phonological transformations. Some rules can be applied several times (cyclically) at different stages of morpholonic derivation. Thus, the rule for removing super-short (ь, ъ) in the Russian language is applied every time morphemes containing these segments are added to the stem. SPE's provisions on cyclicity in the process of derivation were further developed in the theory of lexical phonology (P. Kiparsky, G. E. Bui, E. Rubakh). Another direction in the development of generative phonology was autosegmental phonology (J. Goldsmith) and the theory of feature geometry (J. Clements).

see also

Modern phonological theories

Leningrad Phonological School

Our phonemes of speech perception turn out to be identical to the concept of phonemes that is developed by the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS). (Please allow me not to rename it St. Petersburg. Not at all out of special love for Comrade V.I. Lenin, but because it was formed under this very name). The founder of this school, academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, worked in the first half of the 20th century in St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad. He and his students focused on the task of teaching foreign languages, setting correct pronunciation. Most foreign language textbooks in their phonetic part use the concepts and terminology developed by Shcherba. Shcherba’s phonological theory itself was best presented in his textbook “Phonetics French" Subsequently, these same concepts were supported by researchers involved in the instrumental study of sound speech and designing automatic speech recognition systems.

Moscow Phonological School

The concept of phonemes in speech production turns out to coincide with the phonological system according to the theory of the Moscow Phonological School (MPS). A bright representative This school is Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky. The main works in which the views of this direction are formulated are devoted to the description of the native (Russian) language. Initially, each phonological school considered its constructions as the only correct teaching about the sound structure of the language. Over time, however, mainly in the bowels of the Moscow school, the tendency to comprehensively discuss problems and synthesize phonological theories prevailed. The first attempt at such a synthesis was made by one of the founders of the IMF, Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov. He put forward the concept of “weak phonemes”, which, along with “strong” ones, are part of linguistic signs. If the phoneme of speech perception is a set of indistinguishable sounds determined by position in speech, the phoneme of speech production is a program for selecting one or another sound depending on the position, then Avanesov’s weak phoneme is a set of differential features (those and only those) that must be specified for definition of sound at a given position. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, Avanesov's phonemes really occupy an intermediate position between the phonemes of speech production and speech perception. They are associated with commands on executive bodies speech developed by programs for the implementation of signs in order to create one or another acoustic effect, corresponding to the required phoneme of speech perception.

Prague Phonological School

Another phonological theory, intermediate between the theories of LPS and MPS, was developed by the so-called Prague Phonological School (PPS), which arose in Prague simultaneously with the works of MPS and LPS. Russian linguists who emigrated from the revolution. It was this school that became most famous in the West, and its most prominent representative Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy is considered the founder and classic of world phonology. Similar to Avanesov, Trubetskoy distinguishes two types of sound units in the composition of a word - phonemes and archiphonemes. Archiphonemes appear in cases where the conditions of the speech chain do not make it possible to recognize which particular phoneme of speech production was the basis for the appearance of a given sound. The concept of archiphoneme essentially coincides with the concept of Avanesov’s weak phoneme. Another interpretation of the phenomenon of neutralization of phoneme differences in the speech chain was given by Moscow phonologist Pyotr Savich Kuznetsov in the concept of hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is the set of all phonemes that can produce a given sound. Such a unit, from the point of view of the structure of the language mechanism, corresponds to the development of a system of hypotheses regarding the comparison of the auditorily perceived chain of phonemes of speech perception with one or another sign (word), represented in memory by a chain of phonemes of speech production.

American phonology

In those same years - at the beginning of the 20th century - a school of descriptive phonology developed in the United States, which solved the problem of describing the languages ​​of the American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school. In particular, American dicryptivists most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the speech stream into phonemes of speech perception. In the post-war years, under the influence of the successes of computer technology, American linguists for the first time directly raised the question of technical modeling of language ability. The pioneer of these works was also a native of Russia (or rather, from Poland) Naum Chomsky (Americans pronounce this name as Noum Chomsky). His work founded a field called generative linguistics. Its task was posed as the task of constructing a formal model (automaton) of the production (generation) of correct statements in a specific language. The phonological part of the generative theory arose thanks to the work of another Russian, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, who, in connection with World War II, emigrated from Prague (where he was a prominent member of the Prague School) to America. Describing the generation (production) of speech, generative phonology naturally came to a concept close to the Moscow phonological school. True, it must be said that at first the generativists tried to interpret speech production too abstractly as the action of some formal calculus, like algebra, which, however, led to the emergence within the framework of mathematics of the theory of formal languages, which is already indirectly related to linguistics. The general scheme of phonetic speech production in generative phonology is that linguistic signs, through successive transformations according to linguistic rules, are transformed from an internal (deep) representation in the phonemes of speech production into a surface representation in speech sound types. Adopting the terminology of generativists, we can call phonemes of speech production deep phonemes, and phonemes of speech perception surface phonemes.

Notes

Phonetics and phonology
Basic Concepts	Phonetics Speech sound Speech flow Segmentation Articulatory apparatus Phonation Articulation Place of formation of consonants Formant Vowels Consonants Stress Tone Intonation Syllable Mora IPA RLA Phonetic transcription Universal phonetic classifications Phonology Phoneme Opposition Position Neutralization Differential feature Minimal pair Phonologization Allophone Phoneme variant Phoneme variation Archphoneme Hyperphoneme Alternation Phonemic transcription
Personalities	I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay N. S. Trubetskoy L. V. Shcherba L. R. Zinder M. I. Matusevich L. V. Bondarko V. B. Kasevich R. I. Avanesov V. N. Sidorov A. A Reformatsky M. V. Panov R. O. Jacobson N. Chomsky M. Halle G. Fant
Phonological concepts	Kazan linguistic school Phonological concept of N. S. Trubetskoy St. Petersburg phonological school Moscow phonological school Phonological concept of R. I. Avanesov Phonological concept of M. V. Panova Generative phonology
Sections and disciplines	Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Perceptual phonetics Prosody Accentology Orthoepy Extranormal phonetics
Morphonology Morphology Syntax Portal:Linguistics

Phonology languages ​​of the world
Esperanto () Finnish () Gujarati () Hawaiian () Hindi-Urdu () Hungarian () Greek: Ancient Greek ()/Koine ()/Modern () Eskimo (

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY

A branch of linguistics of the 20th century that studies speech sounds in their functional, meaningful relation. Phonics should not be confused with phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech in their acoustic sound. F. originated at the beginning of the twentieth century. At its origins are Russian scientists: F. F. Fortunatov, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, L. V. Shcherba. The founders of structural linguistics are Russian emigrant linguists, the organizers of the Prague Linguistic Circle N. S. Trubetskoy and R. O. Jacobson ( cm. STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS). Phonics is based on the concept of a phoneme as “a set of essential features characteristic of a given sound formation” (definition by N. S. Trubetskoy). Thus, a phoneme is an unobservable abstract entity ( cm. ATOMIC FACT), this is the relationship between F. and logical positivism, on the one hand, and quantum mechanics, on the other ( cm. LOGICAL POSITIVISM), which also postulate unobservable objects. The phoneme has three main functions - to distinguish meaning, to delimit the ends of words and to highlight the word as a whole (in the Russian language, this function is performed by stress). Main function phonemes are semantically distinctive, or significative. Let’s say if there are two words “house” and “com”, then they differ only in one phoneme. D is pronounced between the teeth and with the participation of the voice, K - with the back palate and without the participation of the voice. Thus, we can say that the phonemes d and k differ from each other by two differential features - place of formation and voiced-voicedness. A phoneme is a bundle of differential features. Trubetskoy classified differential features into three groups: 1. Privativnye - when the presence of a feature is contrasted with the absence of a feature, for example, sonority (work vocal cords during articulation) is the presence of a sign, and deafness (vocal cords do not work) is the absence of a sign. 2. Gradual, or stepwise - there are almost none of them in Russian philosophy. In morphology, the positive, comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are differentiated stepwise (big, more, greatest). 3. Equipolant, or equivalent, features, when one feature in one member of the opposition is replaced by another in another member. Thus, for the phonemes k and d, the privative opposition is based on voicedness/voicelessness, and the equivalent opposition is based on the place of formation. In the Russian phonological system there are 5 vowel phonemes and 32 consonants (glasnost and consonantism, or, as they say, vocalism and consonantism, are the first differential feature for a phoneme: we can usually immediately determine whether it is a vowel or a consonant). Vowels form a syllable. Almost any language has more consonants than vowels, but not all languages ​​have as few vowels as Russian. There are 12 of them in German, 14 in Estonian. Russian is a bright consonantal, consonant language. The main differential features of Russian consonant phonemes are the following: 1. Voicedness-voicelessness: there are five pairs of such phonemes - b-p, v-f, g-k, d-t, zh-sh. 2. Hardness-softness: almost all Russian phonemes can be both hard and soft with the exception of sh and ts, which are always hard, and ch, shch and j, which are always soft. 3. Method of formation: slit-bow. In the first case, a gap is formed between the organs of speech, as in the sounds v, f, zh, sh, z, s - they are called fricative. In the second case, the organs of speech close and the air that forms the sound seems to explode this closure - this is how the sounds b, i, d, t, n, m, g, k are formed. 4. Place of formation - in this regard, sounds are divided into labial ( b, p, c, f, m), dental (d, t, n), lingual (z, s, w, sch, c, h) and palatal (g, j, x). In order to understand how phonemes change meaning, the method of minimal pairs is used, that is, they take pairs of words that differ not just in one phoneme, but only in one differential feature of this phoneme. For example, goal-kol. Only one differential feature differs in these words (voiced-voiced phonemes g and k), and the words turn out to be completely different. Let us characterize some two consonant phonemes, for example b and t, as they occur in the words “bank” and “tank”. Both of these phonemes are hard (unlike, for example, the phonemes b and t in the words “white” and “body” - here they are both soft). The sound b is voiced, the sound t is unvoiced. According to the place of formation, b is labial, and t is dental. According to the method of formation, b and t are occlusive. Thus, the phonemes b and t in the words “bank” and “tank” differ in two differential features - voiced-voiceless and place of formation (labial-dental). Let us now characterize all the phonemes in the word “dictionary”. C - consonant, voiceless, hard, fricative, lingual phoneme. L - the so-called smooth consonant, hard, voiced, dental. O - stands in a pre-stressed weak position, where it is reduced and coincides with the evuk a, that is, it sounds the same as in the word “slavar”, if there were such a word. In phonetic transcription, such a sound is designated by the sign F. V - voiced, hard, labial-dental, fricative. A - stands in strong position under stress is a vowel of the middle row and the back elevation of the tongue. R - voiced, soft, “trembling” by the method of formation (middle between fricative and stop), lingual. The soft sign does not mean any phoneme, but serves as a sign of the softness of the preceding phoneme p, which is denoted as p." The phonetic notation of the entire word "dictionary" will be as follows: (S L F V A R") In the 1950s. R. O. Yakobson, in collaboration with American linguists, created a completely new f., built not on articulatory differential features, like Trubetskoy, but on acoustic ones, using acoustic equipment. His classification, unlike Trubetskoy’s classification, was universal - it contained 12 differential features with which it was possible to describe the phonological systems of all languages ​​of the world. This was already the beginning of the era of generative F. ( cm. GENERATIVE LINGUISTICS). Philosophy is extremely important for the humanities of the twentieth century. as a methodological basis. The ease and convincingness with which the phonological system is built with the help of differential features, binary oppositions ( cm. BINARY OPPOSITION) allowed F. to become a model for other disciplines related to structural linguistics and semiotics, that is, for morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, structural anthropology, cultural studies, structural poetics.

Dictionary of 20th century culture. V.P.Rudnev.

Synonyms:

• PHILOSOPHY OF THE TEXT
• FORMAL SCHOOL

See what “PHONOLOGY” is in other dictionaries:

PHONOLOGY- (Greek, from phone sound, and logos word). The doctrine of voice sounds. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. PHONOLOGY [Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

phonology- psychophonetics Dictionary of Russian synonyms. phonology noun, number of synonyms: 3 linguistics (73) ... Synonym dictionary

phonology- and, f. phonologie f. linguistic The doctrine of the sound matter of language from the point of view of its function. BAS 1. Basically, this is a type of functional phonology that grew up on the soil of the Sorbonne. VYa 1996 4 123. Lex. Michelson 1866: phonology; Dal 3:... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

PHONOLOGY- (from the Greek phone sound and...logy), a branch of linguistics that studies the structural and functional patterns of the sound structure of a language... Modern encyclopedia

PHONOLOGY- (from the Greek phone sound and...logy) a branch of linguistics that studies the structural and functional patterns of the sound structure of a language... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

PHONOLOGY- PHONOLOGY, phonology, many. no, female (from Greek phone sound and logos teaching) (ling.). A department of linguistics that studies the system of phonemes of a language and their changes. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

PHONOLOGY- PHONOLOGY, and, female. 1. Section of linguistics: the study of phonemes. Phonology specialist. 2. The phoneme system of the language. F. Russian language. | adj. phonological, aya, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Phonology- (from Greek jwnh = voice, sound and logoV = word, speech, teaching) the study of the sounds of human speech, the same as phonetics ... Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

phonology- PHONOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of speech, their functional roles and place in the language system. The foundation of F. was laid at the end of the 19th century. in the works of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Most significant development this discipline received then... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

phonology- the science of the sounds of language that perform a meaning-distinguishing function; the science of phonemes. phoneme. allophone. prosodema. epenthesis. elision. apocope. transcription. transcribe. sound combination. diphthong. triphthong. monophthongization. full consent. divergents... ... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

Books

• Phonology of the modern Kalmyk language, Suseeva Danara. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. The book presents for the first time a description of phonology as an integral part of the grammatical system...

PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY(from Greek phone - sound and ...logy), chapter linguistics, the science of the sound structure of a language, studying the structure and functioning of the smallest insignificant units of language (syllables, phonemes). F. is different from phonetics the fact that the focus of her attention is not the sounds themselves as physical sounds. given, and the role (function) they perform in speech as components of more complex meaningful units - morphemes, words. Therefore, phonetics is sometimes called function or phonetics. The relationship between f. and phonetics, as defined by N.S. Trubetskoy, comes down to the fact that the beginning of any phonological. description consists of identifying meanings. sound opposites; phonetic the description is taken as the starting point and material basis. Basic The unit of F. is the phoneme, basic. object of study - opposition (opposition) phonemes that together form a phonological language system (phonological paradigmatics). The description of the phoneme system involves the use of the terms distinguish. features (RP), which serve as the basis for the opposition of phonemes. RPs are formulated as a generalization of articulations. and acoustic properties of sounds that realize one or another phoneme (dullness - sonority, openness - closedness, etc.). The most important concept of f. is the concept of position (see. Position phonological), which allows you to describe phonological. syntagmatics, i.e., the rules for the implementation of phonemes in various conditions of their occurrence in a speech sequence and, in particular, the rules neutralization phonemic oppositions and positional variability of phonemes.

In accordance with the thesis about the level organization of language (see. Language levels) in F. distinguishes between segmental (phonemic) and supersegmental (prosodic) levels; the latter has its units parallel to the phonemes of the segmental level - prosodemes, tonemes and etc.

(cm. Supersegmental units of language), which can also be described in terms of special RP (for example, signs of register and contour when describing tonal oppositions). Both segmental and supersegmental units of F. can perform meaning discrimination. function (to contribute to the recognition and discrimination of significant units of language), which is the main one for them. In addition, F. studies the delimiting (discriminating) function of sound units, which consists in signaling the boundaries of words and morphemes in the flow of speech, in connection with which they speak of phonological. boundary signals (for example, a fixed stress in the Czech language indicates the beginning of a word; phonemes [h] and [n] in it. language are possible - respectively - only at the beginning and at the end of a word, while they are indicators of its boundaries). Finally, the third function is phonological. units, ch. arr. supersegmental (duration, pitch, etc.), - expressive (expression of the emotional state of the speaker and his attitude to what is being communicated).

Along with synchronized F. (see Synchrony), studying phonological language system in a certain historical. period, there is a diachronic. F. (see Diachrony), giving phonological explanation of sound changes in the history of language by describing the processes of phonologization, dephonologization and rephonologization of sound differences, i.e., for example, the transformation of positional variants of one phoneme into independent ones. phonemes or, conversely, the disappearance of a certain phonemic opposition, or, finally, a change in the basis of phonemic opposition.

In the 70s 20th century Generative grammar develops as part of the general theory of generative grammar (see Mathematical linguistics). It is constructed as a system of rules for the placement of stress and rules for the development of abstract symbols of morphemes into specific sound chains. In the generating F. center. the unit is no longer the phoneme, but the RP, since it is in terms of the RP and positions that all phonological ones are formulated. rules. The ideas of generative f. are used in both synchronic and diachronic. F.

F. as an independent linguistic. discipline in its modern understanding developed in the 20-30s. 20th century; its creators were N. S. Trubetskoy, R. Jacobson, S.O. Kartsevsky, laid out the basic F.'s ideas at the 1st International. Congress of Linguists (The Hague, 1928). The most important milestone in the development of F. was Trubetskoy’s book “Fundamentals of Phonology” (1st German ed. - 1939) - the first systematic. a statement of the tasks, principles and methods of f. However, the prerequisites for the creation of f. developed back in the end. 19th century thanks to the efforts of him. scientist I. Winteler and English. scientist G. Sweet; essential general theoretical The emergence of F. was influenced by the works of F. de Saussure and K. Bühler. Particularly great is the contribution to preparing the ground for the development of phonology by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. His works provide the first development of the idea of ​​the phoneme and its characteristics, although over time this concept has changed. Based on the research of Baudouin de Courtenay, two countries emerged. phonological schools - Leningrad (L. V. Shcherba, L. R. Zinder, M. I. Matusevich, L. V. Bondarko, etc.) and Moscow (V. N. Sidorov, R. I. Avanesov, P. S. Kuznetsov, A. A. Reformatsky, A. M. Sukhotin, M. V. Panov, etc.) - and the original concept of S. I. Bernstein. Basic the difference between these schools lies in the understanding of the phoneme and the degree of autonomy of phonemes in relation to morphology (the role of the morphological criterion in determining the identity of phonemes). In Europe linguistics, the problems of F. were developed in the works of members Prague Linguistic Circle - main phonological center in Europe - and the London Phonological Institute. schools (founder - D. Jones; since the 40s called the London Linguistic School); The latter’s contribution to the development of supersegmental physiology was especially significant (the works of J. Fers, W. Allen, F. Palmer, R. Robins, and others) in the 40-60s. 20th century To a lesser extent, F. was developed within the framework of Copenhagen linguistics. schools (see Glossematics). The development of philosophy was noticeably influenced by the works of certain scientists who did not formally belong to the Caucasus. school, but ideologically closest to the concept of Prague linguistics. mug - A. Martinet, E. Kurilovich, B. Malmberg, A. Sommerfelt. Means. F. received its development in America. descriptive linguistics(works of L. Bloomfield, E. Sapir and their students - M. Swadesha and W. Twaddell). An important American achievement. F. (C. Hockett, G. Gligon, B. Block, J. Treyger, K. Pike, etc.) - development of a method of distributional analysis (see. Distribution).

Lit.: Trubetskoy N. S., Fundamentals of Phonology, trans. from German, M., I960; Martinet A., The principle of economy in phonetic changes (Problems of diachronic phonology), trans. from French, M., 1960; Zinder L. R., General phonetics, Leningrad, 1960; Bernstein

S.I., Basic concepts of phonology, "Questions of Linguistics", 1962, No. 5; Jacobson R., Halle M., Phonology and its relation to phonetics, in: New in linguistics, v. 2, M., 1962; Baudouin de Courtenay. A., Selected works on general linguistics, vol. 1 - 2, M., 1963 Main directions of structuralism, M. 1964; Prague Linguistic Circle Sat. Art., M., 1967; Reformatsky A. A. From the history of Russian phonology. Essay Reader, M., 1970; Shcherba L.V., Language system and speech activity, L., 1974; Martinet A., Phonology as functional phonetics, L., 1949; Hoenigswald H. M., Language change and linguistic reconstruction, Chi., 1960; Jakobson R., Selected writings, v. 1, 's-Gravenhage, 1962; Chomsky N., Halle M., The sound pattern of English, N.Y., 1968; see also lit. at Art. Phoneme, V. A. Vinogradov.

Phonetics- a branch of linguistics in which the sound structure of a language is studied, i.e. speech sounds, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three sides to speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:

1. Speech acoustics. She studies the physical signs of speech.
2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. She studies the biological characteristics of speech, i.e. the work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.
3. Phonology. She studies speech sounds as a means of communication, i.e. the function or role of sounds used in a language.

Phonology is often distinguished as a separate discipline from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in in a broad sense) - speech acoustics and speech physiology are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.

Acoustics of speech sounds

Speech sounds- These are vibrations in the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone- These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

Pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have more short wave. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range from 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually within the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz, and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of vibration of the eardrum is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for humans - the sound of the sea, the forest - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of vibrations of a man's speech sounds is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women, who speak with a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men's vocal cords are on average 23 mm, and women's are 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

The power of sound(loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. A whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech is from 40 to 60 dB, the volume of a scream reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing at up to 110 - 130 dB. The Guinness Book of World Records records the record of a fourteen-year-old girl who screamed over a taking off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. When the sound intensity exceeds 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Characteristic of different speech sounds different strength. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [i], being unstressed and generally having less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [i] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different volumes. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a person's hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background, equal to a decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

Sound has a complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Base tone is a tone generated by vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone- a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of a body when it perceives a sound wave that has the same frequency as the vibration frequency of this body. The overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. Speech intonation is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and timbre is created by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. Each person's timbre is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formanta- these are overtones amplified by resonators that characterize a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is not formed in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even when whispering. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of a vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person’s voice is characterized by its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristics of consonants are very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the tongue, and the second is the degree of advancement of the tongue). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data presented are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the vowel ratios, despite the discrepancy in numbers, remain approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, of the vowel [i] will always be smaller than that of [a], and the second is larger.

Approximate frequencies of Russian vowels This diagram clearly illustrates the correspondence of acoustic and articulatory characteristics of vowels: the first formant is a rise, the second is a row.
	2500	2000	1500	1000	500
200	And				at
400		uh	s	O
600
800			A

The frequency characteristics of sounds are flexible, since the formants are correlated with the lowest fundamental tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for a listener to identify sounds isolated from a stream of speech.

Articulation of speech sounds

When communicating using language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses the speech apparatus, which consists of the following components:

1. speech organs;
2. hearing organs;
3. organs of vision.

Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound. The speech organs themselves include:

• the brain, which through the motor speech center (Broca's area) sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of speech production (articulation);
• breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and rib cage), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;
• organs of speech pronunciation (articulation), which are usually also called speech organs (in the narrow sense).

Organs of articulation are divided into active and passive. Active organs perform the movements necessary to produce sound, and passive organs are fulcrum points for the active organ.

Passive organs- these are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, upper jaw.

• cricoid cartilage, located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in back;
• thyroid cartilage, located at the top in front (in men it protrudes like an Adam’s apple, or Adam’s apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110 degrees), covers the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;
• paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located at the back from above. They can move apart and move.

Speech organs (pronunciation apparatus)

Russians and Latin names speech organs and their derivatives

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage there are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords. They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes. During non-speech breathing and when pronouncing dull sounds, they are spread apart and relaxed. The gap has the shape of a triangle.

A person speaks as he exhales, while he inhales only the donkeys shout: “ya.” Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with a larynx amputation are also able to speak with a so-called esophageal voice, using muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.

To produce sound great importance has an oral (epiglottic) cavity in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating timbre. Wherein big role play by the size and shape of the mouth and nose.

The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions:

• depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator;
• creates barriers when pronouncing consonants.

The lips and tongue also serve as a barrier.

The soft palate in an elevated position blocks the entrance to the nasal cavity, and sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose, and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants.

Classification of speech sounds

Each language usually has about 50 speech sounds. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of obstacle and a certain place of formation - the focus. The set of vowels in a language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As their name suggests, vowels are formed using the voice, i.e. they are always sonorant.

Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

1. Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation. When the front part of the tongue is raised, front vowels (i, e), middle - average(s), rear - rear vowels (o, u).

2. Rise, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of varying volumes. Vowels differ open, or, in other words, wide(a) and closed, that is narrow(and, y).

In some languages, for example, in it. and French, sounds similar in articulation differ only in a slight difference in the rise of the tongue.

3. Labialization those. depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not.

There are rounded (labial, labialized), for example, [⊃], [υ] and unrounded vowels, for example, [i], [ε].

4. Nasalization those. depending on whether the velum is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatine curtain is raised, blocking the path of air flow through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic) nasal vowels are widely used along with non-nasal vowels.

5. Longitude. In a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e. they differ, for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [⊃], [υ] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [⊃:], .

In Latin and ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.

This is clearly seen in the first words of Virgil’s poem “Aeneid,” written in dactyl (hexameter):

A rma vir um que cano (long syllables emphasized)

A rma v i rumque c a no (dynamic accents highlighted)

6. Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs And diphthongs. A monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically uniform vowel.

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element. Diphthongs are of two types - descending And ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong and the second weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and German language: time, Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian language There are no diphthongs. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise” and “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declensed, this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for the diphthong: “tram-em, para-yu”. But in Russian language meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has at the beginning or end the sound of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.

Classification of consonants

There are 4 main articulatory features of consonants.

• Sonants in which the voice dominates the noise (m, n, l, p).
• Noisy ringing. Noise prevails over voice (b, c, d, h, g).
• Noisy voiceless words that are pronounced without voice (p, f, t, s, w).

2. Method of articulation

The essence of this method is the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

• Occlusive consonants are formed by a stop that forms an obstacle to the air stream. They are divided into three groups:
  1. explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b, t, d, k, g);
  2. affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without explosion (ts, h);
  3. stops nasals, which have a stop without a stop (m, n).
• Slotted consonants are formed by the friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico" - true) or spirants (Latin " spiro" - blowing): (v, f, s, w, x);
• Occlusion-slit, which include the following sonants:
  1. lateral(l), in which the bow and fissure are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);
  2. trembling(p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

3. Active organ

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

• Labial two types:
  1. labiolabial (bilabial) (p, b, m)
  2. labiodental (v, f)
• Lingual consonants, which are divided into anterior, midlingual and posterior lingual;
  1. front-lingual divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):
     • dorsal(Latin dorsum- dorsum): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);
     • apical(lat. arekh- top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);
     • kakuminal(lat. cacumen- top), or bifocal, during articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.
  2. although middle-language consonants, the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (th); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;
  3. back-lingual consonants include (k, h). Plingual are divided into three groups:
     • reed (uvular), for example, French [r];
     • pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];
     • laryngeal: they are found as separate sounds in the Arabic language.

4. Passive organ

According to the passive organ, i.e. place of articulation, distinguished between dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds(th, l, t, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by bringing the tongue closer to the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Syllable

Syllable- the minimum unit of pronunciation of speech sounds into which you can divide your speech by pauses. The word in speech is divided not into sounds, but into syllables. In speech, it is syllables that are recognized and pronounced. Therefore, with the development of writing among all peoples, syllabic signs first appeared in the alphabets, and only then letters reflecting individual sounds.

The division into syllables is based on the difference in sonority of sounds. A sound that is more sonorous than neighboring sounds is called syllabic and forms a syllable.

A syllable usually has a peak (core) and a periphery. As a core, i.e. The syllabic sound is usually a vowel, and the periphery consists of a non-syllabic sound or several such sounds, usually represented by consonants. But a syllable can consist of only one vowel without any peripherals, e.g. diphthong in English pronouns I“I” or two or more vowels (Italian. vuoi). Peripheral vowels are non-syllabic.

But syllables may not have a vowel, for example, in the patronymic Ivanovna or in the interjections “ks-ks”, “tsss”. Consonants can be syllabic if they are sonants or occur between two consonants. Such syllables are very common in the Czech language: prst“finger” (cf. Old Russian. finger), trh“market” (cf. Russian. bargain), vlk"wolf", srdce, srbsky, Trnka(famous Czech linguist). In a sentence Vlk prchl skrz tvrz(the wolf ran through the fortress) there is not a single vowel. But in examples from the Czech language it is clear that the syllabic consonant is always sonorant.

The division into syllables is explained different theories, which mutually complement each other.

Sonoration theory: in a syllable, the most sonorous sound is the syllabic. Therefore, in order of decreasing sonority, syllabic sounds most often are vowels, sonorant voiced consonants, noisy voiced consonants, and sometimes voiceless consonants (tss).

Dynamic theory: syllabic sound is the strongest, most intense.

Expiratory theory: a syllable is created by one moment of exhalation, a push of exhaled air. The number of syllables in a word is the number of times the candle flame flickers when the word is pronounced. But often the flame behaves contrary to the laws of this theory (for example, with a two-syllable “ay” it will flutter once).

Types of syllables

Open syllable is a syllable ending with a vowel sound, e.g. yeah, oh.

Closed syllable is a syllable ending with a consonant, e.g. hell, mind, cat.

Covered syllable begins with a consonant sound, e.g. glad, pop.

Uncovered syllable starts with a vowel sound: ah, he, ah, really.

In Russian, the syllables are mostly open, while in Japanese almost all are open (Fu-ji-ya-ma, i-ke-ba-na, sa-mu-rai, ha-ra-ki-ri).

There are also cases of extremely closed and covered syllables, for example, splash, English. and fr. strict(strict), German sprichst(you speak), Georgian - msxverpl(victim).

There are languages ​​where the roots and syllables are the same. Such languages ​​are called monosyllabic, e.g. whale. language - typical monosyllabic.

Often in speech it is very difficult to determine the boundary of a syllable.

Rus. They led me by the arm and took my friends away. They beat the viper - they killed the vipers. Palette - half a liter.

English an ocean - a notion; an aim - a name.

Supersegmental units of language

Sound units of language can be segmental (linear) and supersegmental.

Segmental units- these are sounds (phonemes), syllables, words, etc. Longer language units are divided into shorter segments.

Supersegmental units, or otherwise prosodic(from Greek prosodia- refrain, stress) are layered onto a chain of segments - syllables, words, phrases, sentences. Typical supersegmental units are stress and intonation.

Tact- a group of words united by one stress and separated from each other by a pause.

Proclitic- unstressed syllable before a stressed syllable, e.g. I d at small.

Enclitic- unstressed syllable after a stressed syllable, e.g. zn A Yu I .

Unstressed words - articles, prepositions, particles - often act as enclitics. Sometimes they pull the emphasis on themselves: “p O d hand."

Thus, the boundaries of words and measures may not coincide.

Accent

Stress (accent) is the emphasis of a sound, syllable, word, group of words.

The three main types of stress are force, quantity and musical.

1. Power (dynamic) stress is related to the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound wave; the greater the amplitude, the stronger the sound is pronounced.
2. Quantitative (quantitative) stress is associated with the duration, length of the sound; a stressed syllable has a longer duration than unstressed syllables.
3. Musical (polytonic) the emphasis is due to relative height tone, with a change in this pitch.

Usually in languages ​​that have stress, all three stresses are intertwined, but one of them predominates and the main type of stress in a particular language is determined by it.

In Russian, force stress, being the main one, is accompanied by the length of the stressed syllable.

Intonation

Intonation refers to all prosodic phenomena in syntactic units - phrases and words.

Intonation consists of the following 5 elements, the first two of which are the main components of intonation:

1. melody of speech (voice movement in pitch);
2. accent;
3. pause;
4. rate of speech;
5. voice timbre.

Modifications of sounds in the stream of speech

1. Combinatorial. Depending on the proximity of other sounds.
2. Positional changes. Associated with position in an unstressed syllable, at the end of a word, etc.

1. Combinatorial sound variation

A. Accommodation

Accommodation is the adaptation of the articulation of consonants under the influence of vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants.

Two types of accommodation - progressive and regressive.

The excursion is the beginning of articulation. Recursion is the end of articulation.

Progressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound affects the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, the vowels “a”, “o”, “u” after soft consonants are more advanced (mat - mint, mol - chalk, luk - hatch).

Regressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound is influenced by the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, a vowel in the vicinity of “m” or “n” is nasalized (in the word “dom” the articulation of “m” is anticipated by the nasalization of the vowel “o”, and in the word “bratu” “t” is pronounced with a rounding before “u” ").

B. Assimilation and its types.

1. Consonantal and vocal assimilation

Consonantal assimilation- likening a consonant to a consonant, for example. in the word “boat” the voiced consonant “d” is replaced by a voiceless “t” - (“tray”).

Vocal assimilation- likening a vowel to a vowel, for example, instead of “it happens” in common parlance they often say “byvat”.

2. Progressive and regressive assimilation

Progressive assimilation- the preceding sound influences the subsequent one. In Russian language progressive assimilation is very rare, for example, the dialect pronunciation of the word “Vanka” as “Vankya”. Progressive assimilation is often found in English. ( cats, balls), French- subsister, German, bash. (at + lar = attar) and other languages.

Regressive assimilation- the subsequent sound affects the previous one. It is most typical for the Russian language “boat [tray]”, vodka [votka], “got up at three [fstal f tri]”

In eng. " newspaper"[z] under the influence of [p] turns into [s], in fr. absolu[b] - in [p], German. Staub ends with [p].

In bash. "kitep bara" ( leaves) turns into “kitebbara”.

3. Complete and incomplete assimilation

An example of complete assimilation is the word “assimilation” itself [ ad(j) + simil(similar, identical) + atio(suffix) = assimilatio)]. A similar example of assimilation is “agglutination” [ ad + glutin(glue) + atio = agglutinatio].

Rus. sew [shshhyt], highest (highest), eng. cupboard“cabinet”, “buffet” is pronounced [´k∧bed]. German Zimber turned into Zimmer"room", selbst"sam" is pronounced .

With incomplete assimilation, the sound loses only part of its characteristics, for example, “where - where”, “sitting - here”, where consonants lose the sign of voicing.

4. Distant and contact assimilation

Distant assimilation. One sound influences another at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds.

Rus. hooligan - hooligan (colloquial), English. foot"leg" - feet"legs", goose"goose" - geese"geese". In Old English language fori(plural number from fot"leg"), " i" changed the vowel of the root and then dropped out. It's the same in him. language: Fuss"leg"- Fusse"legs", Gans"goose"- Gänse"geese".

With contact assimilation, the interacting sounds are in direct contact.

Synharmonism

Synharmonism (vowel harmony)- distact progressive assimilation along the row and labialization. Vowels of suffixes and usually non-first syllables of a word are likened by row or by rounding (front vowels - front vowels, back vowels - back vowels), i.e. for example, in a simple word there can only be vowels “i”, “e” or only “u”, “o”.

This phenomenon is characteristic, for example, of the languages ​​of the Turkic family of languages ​​(Turkish, Bashkir, Tatar, Uzbek and others), Finno-Ugric languages ​​(Hungarian, Finnish and others), as well as one of the most ancient languages ​​- Sumerian.

For example, ball(child) + lar(plural ending) = balalar. Here all the vowels are back: the vowel [a] in bash. language closer to the back row.

But for the word “keshe” (person), the ending will not be “lar”, but “ler” - kesheler. Letter uh denotes the front vowel [ae].

More examples: Hung. levelemben"in my letter" Magyarorszagon"in Hungary", köszönöm“thank you” (synharmonism by labialization), Finn. talossa- “in the house”, tour. evlerinde"in their house." Traces of synharmonism are clearly visible in Russian borrowed from the Turkic languages. words drum, chipmunk, pencil, cockroach and etc.

Synharmonism emphasizes the unity of the word, but leads to some phonetic monotony of the words.

Dissimilation

This is the opposite of assimilation. Represents the dissimilarity of articulation of two identical or similar sounds.

February turned into February(cf. English) February, German February, fr. fevrier), corridor - corridor(colloquially), fr. couroir - couloir(Russian couloir), camel - camel- examples of distant dissimilation.

Contact dissimilation is observed in words easily[lehko], boring[boring].

Metathesis

Metathesis(gr. permutation) - mutual rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word.

Word marmor(gr. μαρμαρος) passed into Russian. marble, taler (German) Teller or Swedish talrik) - plate, dolon became palm, cheesecake - cheesecake, rigging - rigging, neuro(-pathologist) - nerve. English thridda - third (third), german brennen switched to English burn (burn), bridd - in bird (bird).

German Brennstein - Bernstein, fr. formaticu - fromage.

For example, USSR President Gorbachev always pronounced Arzebazhan instead of Azerbaijan - it was more convenient for him.

Haplology

Haplology(Greek: ´απλοος [ haplos] - simple) - simplification of a word due to dissimilation, in which the same or similar syllables are dropped. For example, miner lolo gya - mineralogy, core nope syy - snub-nosed, bli zozo bright - myopic, tragic coco media - tragicomedy, sti Pepe India - scholarship. But in the word itself gap lolo gia - haplology (*haplogy) No.

Eng. miners" rights instead of miners's rights(if identical sounding formants of the plural and the possessive case coincide, the last formant disappears).

2. Positional changes

A. Reduction

Change (weakening) of consonant and vowel sounds in quality and quantity (length) depending on their place in the word, location in unstressed syllables, etc.

Rus. d O m - house A- houses O childhood In unstressed syllables, “o” is reduced. The reduction can be complete: Vanya - Vanya, Ivanovich - Ivanovich, Ivanovna - Ivanna.

Eng. nama-name(the second vowel was first reduced partially, and then completely, remaining in spelling). Good morning - g"morning - morning.

Apocope- loss of sound at the end of a word: so - so.

Syncope- loss of sound not at the end of the word: Ivanovich - Ivanovich.

B. Stun

Loss of voicing occurs in many languages. This is usually explained by the premature return of the vocal cords to a resting state, e.g. meadows - meadow[onion], pipe - pipes[dead body].

Prosthesis- the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word, for example, Russian. osem - eight, mustache - caterpillar, fatherland - patrimony, Spanish - estudiante from lat. students, estrella from Stella(star), bash. ystakan, yshtan(glass, pants), Hung. asztal(table).

Epenthesis- the appearance of a sound in the middle of a word, for example. rus. Italy[Italy] from Italia, John - Ivan, in common parlance - kakava, rubel, shpien, bash. and Tat. pronunciation of “iks”, “act” as [ikis], [akyt].

Epithesis- the appearance of a sound at the end of a word: Russian. song - song.

Substitution. Replacing a sound alien to a given language with the sound of the native language, for example, German. Herzog- Duke, Hitler- Hitler (sound corresponding to German. " h"not in Russian), English. meeting- rally (sound " ng"[η] is absent in Russian), instead of fr. sound denoted by letter u (tu, pure) and German ü in Russian language written and pronounced [yu].

Diaeresis(Greek: miscarriage). Omission of sound: Russian. with l ntse, sir d tse, ches T ny, wait a minute T lush; bash. ultyr (sit down) - utyr.

Elision. Dropping the final vowel before the preceding vowel. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of Romance languages, for example, French. l"arbre(article le + arbre), D"Artagnan - de Artagnan, D"Arc - de Arc), bash. neither ashley - nishley.

Phonology

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme. The term “phoneme” was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental version of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme- this is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of ​​sound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only the shades of the phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the specific.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in pitch, strength, duration, timbre, but all the different millions of sounds [a] are designated by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet are often not the same, but parallels can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages ​​it almost coincides. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter in the sound alphabet. If in the stream of speech of thousands different sounds It is possible to distinguish different words only thanks to phonemes.

Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

In the word “milk” one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.

Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of “phoneme” and “speech sound” do not coincide.

In a word " boy» two phonemes, not three, as it differs from words by, be, bee, bar etc.

There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word “children’s” /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word “sew” /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. For example, /t/ is voiceless in contrast to voiced /d/, front-lingual in contrast to /p/, plosive in contrast to /s/, etc.

The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian language the word “there” can be pronounced with short [a] and long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in English and German language Phonemes also differ in longitude. bit And bee, German Bann And Bahn). In Russian language the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential feature, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

General features that cannot be used to distinguish phonemes are called integral features. For example, the voicing feature of [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral feature in relation to [x]. The phoneme is realized in the form of one of the possible options. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones. Sometimes the terms " shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or " divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position Phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: catfish, myself.

Weak position- this is the position of neutralization of phonemes, where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: With O ma, s A ma; n O ha, n A ha; ro To, ro G; ro T, ro d .

Neutralization of phonemes- this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone.

The same phoneme can change its sound, but only within limits that do not affect its distinctive features. No matter how much birch trees differ from each other, they cannot be confused with oak.

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man pronounces a sound in a low voice and lisps, and a girl pronounces a sound in a high voice and burrs, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is a random, individual, speech, not linguistic variation.

Distribution

To identify the phonemes of a particular language, you need to know in what positions they occur. Distribution - distribution of phonemes according to pronunciation positions.

1. Contrasting distribution

Two sounds occur in the same environment and yet distinguish words. In this case, they are representatives of different phonemes.

For example, from a number of words “tom, house, lump, scrap, rum, som” it is clear that in Russian. language there are phonemes /t/, /d/, /k/, /l/, /m/, /s/, since in the same environment [ ohm] they allow you to distinguish different words.

2. Additional distribution

Two sounds never occur in the same environment and the meaning of words is not distinguished.

They are variants, allophones of the same phoneme.

For example, the vowel phoneme /e/ in Russian can have different allophones depending on different environments.

In the word “seven” [e] appears as the most closed allophone (after the soft and before the soft consonant)yu

In the word “sel” [e] appears as a less closed allophone (after a soft consonant and before a hard consonant).

In the word “six” [e] appears as a more open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the soft consonant).

In the word “pole” [e] appears as the most open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the hard consonant).

In Russian, [ы] is considered a variant of the phoneme /i/ in the position after hard consonants. For example, be - beat. Therefore, despite the visually identical environment, here we have different environments [bit´] - [b´it´]

In Japanese, the phoneme /r/ is pronounced as an intermediate between [r] and [l], and these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.

3. Free variation (alternation)

Sounds occur in the same environments and do not differentiate between words and meanings. These are variants of the same linguistic unit.

For example, in French language There are two variants of /r/ - front-lingual (vibrating) as in Russian and uvular (grassing). The last option is normative, but the first is quite acceptable. In Russian, both options are equal - “land” and “earth”.

Phonological schools. Trubetskoy's phonology

On the issue of neutralizing phonemes in words like “meadow”, there are different points of view regarding the phoneme denoted by the letter “g”, but reflecting the unvoiced sound [k].

Linguists related to Leningrad school(Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and others) believe that in the pair “meadow - meadows” the sounds [k] and [g] belong to two different phonemes /k/ and /g/.

However, linguists Moscow school(Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.) based on the morphological principle, they believe that in the word “meadow” the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme /r/. They also believe that for the variants [k] and [g] in the words “lug-luga” there is a common phoneme / k/y/, which they called hyperphoneme.

Hyperphoneme combines all the characteristics of the sounds [k] and [g] - velarity, explosiveness, deafness, sonority, etc. The same hyperphoneme / a/o/ is present in the unstressed first vowels in the words “b” A ran", "m O l O ko".

Outstanding Russian linguist Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890-1938), one of the theorists of the Prague Linguistic Circle ( scientific school), which he emigrated after the revolution of 1917, believed that in this case there is a special phoneme, which he called an archiphoneme.

Archphoneme- this is a set of common features of neutralizing phonemes.

For example, archiphoneme / k/y/ combines general signs neutralized phonemes /k/ and /r/ without the voicing separating them.

If an archiphoneme is a unit with an incomplete set of features, then a hyperphoneme is a double or even triple set of features. In his classic work “Fundamentals of Phonology” N.S. Trubetskoy also gave a classification of phonological oppositions, i.e. contrasting phonemes in order to identify similarities and differences.

1. Private oppositions

Private (lat. privo- deprive) oppositions are distinguished by the presence or absence of any feature in a pair of phonemes, for example, in one of the members of the pair b/p there is no sonority, but the other has it.

2. Gradual oppositions

Gradual (lat. degree- degree) of opposition are distinguished by different degrees of attribute that members of the opposition have.

For example, /e/ and /i/ in Russian. language in particular, they differ in different degrees of tongue elevation during articulation.

In English the opposition involves three vowels with varying degrees of openness: /i/, /e/, /ae/.

3. Equivalent oppositions

All members of the opposition have equal rights; their signs are so heterogeneous that there is no basis for contrasting the signs.

E.g. consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ are articulated in completely different ways: one is labial, the other is anterior lingual, the third is posterior lingual, and they are united only by the fact that they are consonants.

Phoneme systems

Each language has its own phoneme system (phonological system).

Phonological systems differ from each other:

1. Number of phonemes.
2. The relationship between vowel and consonant phonemes.
3. Phonological oppositions.

IN different languages there are organizations of phoneme groups (phonological oppositions) characteristic of their systems.

For example, in Russian language phonemically contrasting hard and soft consonants., in French - nasal and non-nasal consonants, in English. and German languages ​​- long and short vowels.

Relationships between vowel and consonant phonemes in some languages

Language	Number of phonemes	Number of vowels	Number of consonants
Russian	43	6	37
English	44	12 + 8 dif.	24
German	42	15 + 3 dif.	24
French	35	15	20
Bashkir	35	9	26
Tatar	34	9	25
Spanish	44	5 + 14 dif.; 4 trif.	21
Italian	32	7	24
Finnish	21	8	13
Abkhazian	68	2 (a, s) + 8 dif.	58
Ubykh (Türkiye)	82	2 (a, s)	80
Quechua (Peru)	31	3 (a, i, y)	28
Hawaiian	13	5	8
Tahitian	14	6	8
Rotokas (Papua)	11	5	6 (g, k, p, r, t, v)

In some works, you can find numbers that differ from those given below, since researchers rely on different criteria for defining and counting phonemes (for example, they include borrowed phonemes or exclude diphthongs, etc.).

If we take into account the implementation of phonemes in speech (all phonetic variants), then the ratio of vowels and consonants in each language will be different than in the table, for example, in English. 38% - 62%, in it. language 36% - 64%, in French 44% - 56%.

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Phonology also studies the sounds of a language, but from a functional and systemic point of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between the signs and texts of a language.

Phonology- a section of language that studies the structural and functional patterns (the role of sounds in the language system) of the sound structure of the language.

The main concept and unit of phonology is the phoneme, or phonological distinction. (differential) sign. Phoneme- this is the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language, capable of distinguishing larger units (morphemes and words).

When choosing a segmental phoneme as the main unit of the phonological level, the description of this level (over which a suprasegmental or prosodic level is built, including stress, tone, intonation, etc.) largely comes down to identifying different positional combinatorial variants (allophones) of each phoneme. Many phonological schools and directions, when addressing issues of identifying phonemes and their variants, turn to the grammatical (morphological) role of the corresponding sound units. A special morphonological level is introduced and the linguistic discipline that studies it is morphonology, the subject of which is the study of the phonological composition of morphological units of language - morphs (parts of word forms) - and various kinds of grammatically determined alternations of phonemes.

Phoneme functions:

Discriminating

Constitutive (for construction).

The problems of phonemes were dealt with by Baudouin de Courtenay, Shcherba, Trubetskoy, and Jacobson.

If sounds are related to speech, then phonemes are related to language. Sound is a variant, phoneme is an invariant.

For example: Danish, phonemes |t|, |s| form the sound [ts].

1. The concept of phonological opposition.

Phonological opposition- This is the opposition of phonemes in the language system.

The classification of phonological oppositions was developed by Trubetskoy (PLK) in the 30s of the 20th century.

Criteria:

1. by number of participants:

- binary opposition– 2 participants |z|vs|s|.

- ternary opposition(3 participants)

|b| (labial), |d| (front-lingual), |r|, (posterior-lingual).

Group opposition (more than 3 participants)

2. by occurrence in a given language:

- proportional opposition(you can build a proportion)

voiced - voiceless

soft – hard

nasal – non-nasal

- isolated(no proportion, no other similar opposition)

For example: |p| and |l|.

3. in relation to opposition members:

- private. The difference is in the 1st differentiated feature. Anyone who has a certain characteristic is called a mark And marked, who does not have a sign - unmarked And roved.

For example: the sign is sonority. |p| and |b|. The marked word will be |b|, since it is voiced.

- gradual(different degrees of symptom manifestation).

For example, |a| |o| |y| - different degrees of openness, i.e. different degrees of manifestation of this characteristic.

- equipolant(when units are opposed according to several characteristics and as a result they are equal (in terms of characteristics).

For example: |b| vs|s’| signs:

Softness/ringing

Labial/forelingual

Occlusive/slotted

4. by volume of distinctive power:

|t| and |n|, there and to us - always differ in speech.

|t| and |d|, rod and pond - do not differ in speech.

- permanent opposition– when phonemes have different strengths regardless of their opposition. For example, |y|.

- neutral opposition– when in a certain position any sign is neutralized, i.e. the phoneme does not perform a distinctive function.

[p r u t], |d| - phoneme, [t] – sound, because in a weak position, in a strong position the phoneme will give the sound [d].