What are the particles of speech. Particles in Russian: classification and spelling

What is a particle in Russian? Previously, particles meant all service parts of speech. In the XIX century. A. V. Dobiash, a representative of the Kharkov linguistic school, began to single out particles in a separate category, which was the beginning of a narrow approach to the question of particles. VV Vinogradov also devoted his works to their research.

Indicative particles in Russian are included in the category.To learn how to correctly highlight examples of pointing particles in a sentence, it is not enough to learn this list, you need to correctly identify semantic relationship within a phrase or sentence.

Particle as a separate part of speech

In modern morphology, a particle is a service part of speech that carries an additional semantic, evaluative or emotional meaning words, phrases or sentences, and can also serve to form some forms of the word.

By themselves, particles do not express lexical meaning, but they can be homonymous with some significant words.

Compare:

1. She has not arrived yet (not yet - adverb). When else is she coming? (also a particle)
2. The summer was cold (it was - a verb). Was gone, but returned (it was - a particle).

The main difference between particles and prepositions and conjunctions is their inability to express grammatical relations. Connects them with the rest official words immutability and absence syntactic role(that is, they are not members of the proposals). However, it is worth noting that the word "yes" as an affirmative particle, and the word "no" as a negative, no, can become independent indivisible sentences. But at the same time, one should not confuse the particle "no" and the negative word "no", which is used in impersonal offers... For example: "No, just listen to how she sings!" (no - particle). "I have no time" (no - negative word). During parsing the particle can stand out together with the main word on which it depends, or not stand out at all.

Particle types depending on their composition

According to their composition, particles are divided into simple and composite. Simple ones consist of one word (whether, whether, the same), and compound ones - from two (rarely more) words (that would, nevertheless, hardly). Composite, in turn, can be dismembered, when in a sentence it is possible to separate a particle in other words.

1. I would like to go to Moscow.
2. I wish I could go to Moscow.

And indivisible, when the separation of a particle in other words is impossible. The phraseologized particles, those combinations of service words, the semantic connection between which has now lost its original meaning (no other than that and behold, whether the case and others) are also classified as indivisible.

Particle functions

Orally and written speech particles perform the following expression functions:

• incentive, subjunctiveness, convention, desirability;
• subjective-modal characteristics and assessments;
• purpose, questioning, affirmation or denial;
• actions or states depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.

Particle discharges

In accordance with the functions performed, all particles are divided into categories:

1. Form-forming (let, yes, let’s, and so on). Used to form imperative and conditional mood(let him run, he would run).
2. Negative (neither water, nor bread; does not bring, not at all funny).
3. Expressing a sign (action, state) depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.
4. Modal particles. They carry additional semantic connotations or express feelings.

Modal particle types

Group modal particles is quite extensive and can be divided into several types:

1. Pointing particles (here, there).
2. Interrogative particles (perhaps, really).
3. Refinement particles (exactly).
4. Excretory-restrictive particles (just, just, if only).
5. Amplifying particles (even, after all, after all).
6. Exclamation particles (like, what for, well, right).
7. Particles expressing doubt (hardly, hardly).
8. Affirmative particles (yes, yes).
9. Particles expressing mitigation to the claim (s).

Pointing particles

The discharge of a particular particle can only be defined in context, since many of them are homonymous. Therefore, it is necessary to know what values ​​the particles of each discharge have. Indicative particles are those that indicate objects, actions and phenomena of the surrounding reality, as well as connect and indicate words. The most common examples of this type: this, here, there, it, vernacular - in, some others. According to some studies, a post-positive particle is also adjacent to the demonstrative particles - the same in combinations of the type: at the same time, in the same place, the same, in the same place where it is combined with pronouns by the method of agglutination. Examples of pointing particles: "This is my house", "There is my garden", "What kind of song is this sounding?"

Some features of pointing particles

The specifics of the use of pointer particles can be seen on the example of the pointer particle - out. The fact is that in the process of using this particle in various contexts, there is a shift in emphasis from it. For example, in the sentences: "There he goes" and "There it is," the intonation difference is clearly traced.

More clearly, you can trace the relationship of the remaining categories of particles with the indexes in the table.

Particles are often used both in oral and written speech, therefore, to use them correctly, you need to be able to determine their meaning and rank. To practice this skill, you can look for examples of pointer particles or other digits in works of art with daily reading.

Particles have no lexical meanings(and this differs from significant parts speech) and do not express grammatical relations between words and sentences (and this is different from service units speech).

Particles are:

Amplifying (but, even, then, and, no, after all, and others.)

Restrictive (only, only, etc.)

Pointers (here, there, this)

Interrogative (whether, really, really, really, a)

Exclamation points (what, like, etc.)

Negative (not, not at all, far from, not at all)

Form-forming particles, which serve to form word forms and new words, occupy an intermediate position between service words and prefixes and suffixes:

1) particles would, let, let it be, yes, -ka, it was, serving to express moods or shades of moods in verbs;

2) undefined particles: something, something, something;

3) negative particle "not" serves not only to express negation, but also to form words with the opposite meaning. In this case, it acts as a prefix:

friend - foe, cheerful - unhappy, clever - stupid.

Separate Particle Spelling

1) Particles whether (b), same (f), whether (e) are written separately:

I would have read it, if only, here, which one, however, however, hardly, hardly.

The rule does not apply to those cases when the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, too, really, or and etc.

2) Particles after all, there, here, even, they say are written separately:

so in fact, over there, like that, even he; brought, they say.

Hyphenated Particles

1) Particles are written with a hyphen -de, -ka, some- (coy-), (-kas - dial.), -something, -s, -tka, -tco, -that:

you-de, she-de, n-ka, nat-ka, look, some, some-something, someone, some, from somewhere, yes-s, well-tka, look- maybe, somewhere, sometime, something.

Particle -de(colloquial) is used in the transmission of someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (say) and in the meaning of the particles "say", "they say":

And if I see that the penalty is small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table.

My countryman turned to the commander at a halt: so and so - let me leave, they say, a dear case, they say, because local, just a stone's throw from the yard.

2) Particle say(colloquial) was formed by the merger of two words: de and say.

3) Particle -with(made from the word sir) gives a tinge of servility, servility:

Chatsky. Lured by honors and nobility?

Molchalin. No, sir, everyone has their own talent ...

Chatsky. You?

Molchalin. Two-s: moderation and accuracy.

If between the particle ko- (koi-) and the pronoun there is a preposition, then the whole combination is written apart:

from someone, on something, from someone, from someone with someone.

4) Particle -so("nevertheless", "nevertheless", "nevertheless", "indeed", "in the end") is written with a hyphen:

after the verbs - persuaded, did appear;

after adverbs - surely, for a long time, again, again;

after particles - after all, pretty much, really, downright.

In other cases, the particle is still written separately:

The secretary, although he felt his weak dissatisfaction, nevertheless was glad to have such old women in the district's assets.

But although the temptation was great, I still managed to overcome myself.

5) Particle -then is added with a hyphen to pronouns and adverbs both to express ambiguity and to give the expression an emotional coloring:

And why did your heart go bad?

Note 1... Separately, a combination is written like that ("namely") before listing homogeneous members:

In mixed forests, a variety of trees are found, such as: birch, aspen, cedar, pine.

Notice 2... If the particle "-that" is inside compound word, written with a hyphen, then the hyphen is placed before the particle, and after it is omitted:

Tie up crosswise (compare: crosswise);

Exactly exactly, but that's not the point (compare: exactly).

Note 3... If a particle that is written with a hyphen is after another particle, then the hyphen is not written:

all the same, somewhere else; with whom, they say, it does not happen like this (compare: after all, with whom, they say, it doesn’t happen).

Exception: before the particle -with a hyphen is saved: Will you have a bite, sir?

Particles "not" and "no" - in the next post.

Service. It is intended to indicate various emotional and semantic shades. Also, with its help, completely new words and their forms are formed.

All particles in Russian are divided into two large categories:

1) those that express shades of various meanings and emotions (modal);

2) form-building and word-building.

This division is based on what meaning and what role this part of speech plays in the sentence.

Modal particles in Russian

Depending on the shades of meanings and emotions expressed by them, the particles, in turn, are subdivided into the following groups:

1) incentive: let, well, -ka, well, come on, come on;

2) negative and affirmative: no, yes, not, definitely, not at all;

3) exclamation-evaluative particles: well and, of course, what for, what, how, what;

4) interrogative: what, really, is it, is it;

5) amplifying particles: yes and, and, but, even;

6) concessive at least, nevertheless, nevertheless;

7) comparative: as if, as if, exactly, as if;

8) excretory and restrictive particles: only, unique, only, exclusively, almost;

9) clarifying: exactly, exactly, exactly, exactly;

10) indicative: here and there and, here, this, there, that.

Form-forming and word-forming particles in Russian

The latter are:

1) particles are neither, if they are used as prefixes for the formation of adjectives, nouns, adverbs, as well as pronouns (indefinite and negative): untruth, someone, nothing, etc .;

2) particles, something, something. They are used as affixes. With their help, indefinite pronouns and adverbs are formed: something, somewhere, here and there, etc.

Form-forming particle - would. With its help, the mood of the verb can be changed to the subjunctive: I would help, I would win.

Particles in Russian. Classification by origin

In Russian, some particles originate from various parts of speech, while others do not. On this basis, their following classification is made into:

1. Derivatives. They can come from adverbs: barely, directly, only, etc .; from the verbs: come on, let it go, see, etc .; from pronouns: -this, everything, -this, it, etc .; from unions: and, yes, but, or, or, etc.

2. Non-derivative particles. Their origin is not associated with any part of speech: -ka, won, here and others.

Particles in Russian. Spelling "not" is merged with words

The unstressed particle is not used when one intends to express negation. It is spelled together with words only in the following cases:

a) if it serves as a prefix for nouns, adverbs and adjectives: unkind, sad, bad luck;

b) if the word does not occur in use without it: ridiculous, out of place, slob;

c) if the forms of indefinite and negative pronouns are offerless: no one, someone, nothing, a certain;

d) if there are no dependent words with full participle: non-heating sun, uncorrected error.

Particles in Russian. Spelling "no" is merged with words

This unstressed particle is used to express gain. It is spelled together with the words when it acts as a prefix:

a) in negative adverbs: nothing, nowhere, nowhere, not at all, not at all, not at all, nowhere;

b) in negative pronouns (in their non-sentence forms): I didn't have a chance to lead anyone on the road.

In a sentence. Particles in Russian are designed to give a variety of additional shades to words or even whole sentences. The second role of particles is word formation, with their help the forms of words are formed.

For example:

1. Only he needs you.

Particle only reinforces the meaning of the pronoun you in a sentence.

2. Let be will be the way you want.

With the help of a particle let be the imperative mood of the verb is formed: let be will.

Although the particles in the Russian language are not members of the sentence, they are inextricably included in its composition. For example:

1. Not the wind noises outside the window and no rain.

Particles are needed:

Imperative ( yes, let it be, let it, come on): let be will try;

Conditional ( would, b): sat down would, told would ;

2) in the formation of adverbs and adjectives, the degrees of their comparison - less, more, most... For example: more important,less interesting, most brave, more powerfully, less brightly;

3) when creating a discharge: something, something, something, or... For example: something, some, anyone, somebody and etc.

The role of such particles is close to that of morphemes.

Particle values

Particles in the Russian language give a sentence as a whole or to one word different shades.

Particles is it really, is it, is it (eh)- interrogative. They are often used in questions. For example: Really forgiven? Is it is there anything more interesting?

Exclamation particles what the how convey indignation, surprise, delight. For example: How the world is wide! What the lovely!

Amplifying particles ( after all, something, even, the same, all the same) are used if you need to strengthen a separate word... For example: Even do not think! All the same great! He the same it's his own fault!

In Russian it is not and nor... They approach denial in different ways. Particle not makes both the word and the whole sentence negative:

1. Not happen this! The whole proposal is negative.

2. Not the wind broke a branch. The only negative word is wind.

In the case of two particles not in a sentence instead of negative they create positive value: I AM not can not agree with you!

No- a particle designed to strengthen the meaning of negation, especially if there is already a negation or a particle in the sentence not... For example: From the sky not fell nor drops. There is no forest nor mushroom, nor berries.

In Russian, these are those that are associated with the expression of shades of meaning, attitude or feeling. This group includes the above categories and some others. Non-modal particles, not associated with the expression of feelings, were classified by Vinogradov as semantic.

This category of particles includes:

A group of qualifiers such as exactly, exactly, just etc. For example: exactly this, smooth as many.

A group of excretory-restrictive particles - only, only, exclusively etc. For example: only this is, exclusively white.

Particles indicating here, there that seem to indicate an object, worthy of attention... For example: Here road!

All particles in the Russian language perform grammatical, lexical and word-formation functions. With skillful use, they can enrich our speech, make it more colorful and varied.

By itself, the word "particle" says that it is a small part of something. Ever since school, we remember the concept of a particle from the Russian language, as well as an elementary particle from a course in physics and chemistry. Let's figure out what a particle is in this or that science.

What is a particle in Russian?

In Russian, a particle is an unremarkable or service part of speech, which serves to give a shade to various words, phrases, sentences, as well as to form words, for example. Particles, like other service parts of speech - a preposition, conjunctions, interjections, can be distinguished by the fact that it is impossible to ask a question to them.

There are several types of particles:

1. Form-building - they serve to form the conditional and imperative verb. For example, "would", "let", "let", "come on". Unlike other particles, they are components verb form and are the same member of the sentence as the verb.
2. Semantic particles - serve to express shades of feelings speaking person... By semantic meaning particles can be divided into negative (neither, not); interrogative (really, really); indicative (here, this, that); clarifying (exactly, exactly); amplifying (even, after all, after all), and others.

Many philologists believe that particles are close to adverbs, conjunctions and interjections, as well as introductory words... The particle does not have its meaning, but the meaning takes on that which is expressed by it in the sentence.

What is an elementary particle?

Elementary particles are called the smallest indivisible objects that are part of the atom. Their structure is studied by the physics of elementary particles, and from 1932 to the present day more than 400 elementary particles have been discovered.

Everything elementary particles it is customary to divide by three large groups that stand out depending on their electromagnetic and gravitational behavior.

• So, bosons are carriers of weak electromagnetic interaction. Also bosons are characterized by a half-integer spin. This group includes photons, neutrons, protons.
• Leptons are direct participants in electromagnetic interaction. To date, about 6 leptons are known. The most famous of them is the electron (e), and this elementary particle has the smallest atomic mass.
• Hadrons are the heaviest elementary particles that also participate in electromagnetic and gravitational interactions. By mass, hadrons are divided into three groups - baryons, mesons and resonances. The most famous baryon is the proton.

Each elementary particle is characterized by mass, lifetime, spin and electrical discharge... The discovery of elementary particles made it possible to take a big step, as in nuclear physics and in molecular kinetic. Today it is believed that the true elementary particles are leptons and quarks.

So, now you know what a preposition, conjunction, particle is, and how the particle differs from other service parts of speech. And also what characterizes elementary particles in physics.