Section II Morphology. Significant parts of speech are what

Lesson 1.6 The remaining parts of speech: adverb, adjective, numeral N: Vasily, I propose to analyze all the remaining parts of speech that we have not touched. V: Let's get started. N: Let's start with the adjective. The name is an adjective, both in Russian and in English language answers the question "which one?

§ 67. In Swedish, just as in Russian, there are often cases of transition from one part of speech to another.

Such cases include, for example, substantiation- the transition of any significant part of speech or function word to the category of nouns. Substance takes place when given word used to designate the corresponding concept as a subject of reasoning, thought, etc. Compare, for example, union men but and concept ett men one but as a synonym for a noun with meaning objection, difficulty, snag: Har finns ettmen. (Strindberg) There is one thing here. Acquiring the meaning of a noun (beginning to designate an object in broad sense words), such a substantiated word also receives some formal features of a noun - gender, usually middle (except certain cases substantiation of adjectives and participles, see § 233), the article, definite and indefinite, etc. In terms of its functions in a sentence, a substantiated word no longer differs from common name noun.

Another example of a transition from one part of speech to another is transition of adverbs into prepositions, in particular, cf. av(in phrases av oh an back and forth) and the preposition that arose from it av from; adverb for too much(ex. for mycket too much, for store too big) and preposition for for, for; adverb over over, more (Det hande over hundra år sedan. This happened over 100 years ago.) and preposition over above. On the other hand, some of the adverbs are prepositional constructions in origin, for example. i dag today(from in a day); afterhand gradually(from later by, after And hand hand); till fots on foot(from combination till to, to And fot leg in will give birth. fall).

Similar phenomena take place in the region verb(significant verbs often turn into connectives or auxiliaries, see §§ 279–280).

Finally, an example of a transition from one part of speech to another is the transformation various parts speeches in modal words And interjections. For example, the modal word tank just think about it is by origin imperative from the verb tanka think, cf. Tank, jag vet inte mer om henne, än hon lever!(Lagerlöf) Come to think of it, I don't know anything about her except that she's alive!. Or the interjection se, se in the following example is in origin the form imperative mood from the verb se see: Se, se, ni vuxna män, här är arbete för er! Härär… plank, foga samman en noddam.(Lagerlöf) Come on, men, here's something for you! Here... boards, put together a temporary dam.

Since ancient times, the minds of scientists have been occupied with the question of parts of speech. Plato, Aristotle, Panini, Yaska were engaged in research on them. As for Russian linguistics, the names of V. V. Vinogradov, L. V. Shcherba, A. A. Shakhmatov and others should be noted.

Difficulty isolating parts of speech

Parts of speech are the most necessary and general categories in the grammar of any language. With the clarification of the question about them, its grammatical description begins. Speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of certain units of the language. In other words, certain categories or groups are distinguished in the lexicon, characterized by certain features. However, on what basis should parts of speech be distinguished? What is the distribution of words based on them? Let's answer this question together.

The problem of the essence of parts of speech, as well as the principles of their selection in different languages is one of the most in linguistics. Various and numerous statements on the question of interest to us. Very often they contradict each other and are not clear. Some believe that individual parts are distinguished on the basis of one leading feature, which is inherent in words belonging to a particular grouping. Others believe that the basis for the allocation of parts of speech is a combination of various features, while none of them is leading. If the first opinion is considered correct, then what will be the main sign in this case? A logical category enclosed in a lexical meaning? Or is it itself? Or connection lexical meaning from grammatical category? Its syntactic function or morphological nature? And should different parts of speech be distinguished on different or on the same basis?

Agree, there are a lot of questions. Our knowledge of the grammatical nature of words is still not deep enough for their grammatical classification to be built on a scientific basis. The division into parts of speech of various words that arose gradually and subsequently entrenched in the tradition is not yet a classification. Such a division is simply a statement that there are different groupings of words that are united by some features common to them. The latter are more or less essential, but not always clear.

Isolation of parts of speech in Russian

Modern Russian has a large number of variant morphological forms. Of particular difficulty is the word formation of significant variable parts of speech. Some of their forms were recognized as normative and entrenched in literary language, while others are considered This determines the need in-depth study such a topic as the word formation of significant changeable parts of speech. At school, they usually receive special attention.

Parts of speech are studied in such a section of grammar as morphology. It examines words in terms of their meaning and change. They can vary in numbers, genders, persons, cases, etc. A noun, for example, denotes an object. It can change by cases and numbers. The adjective does not mean an object, but its attribute. It varies by number, gender and case. However, in Russian there are words that do not change in any way. These are, for example, conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs.

Service and independent parts of speech

So, groups of words that are combined on the basis of common features are called parts of speech. At the same time, the signs for different groups of words are not homogeneous. Distinguish between significant and non-significant parts of speech. The latter are also called office. Significant parts of speech are independent. Both of them perform miscellaneous work. Independent words in a sentence, naming objects, actions, signs, are members of a sentence, while auxiliary words most often connect independent words. Let's consider the latter in more detail.

Pronominal and significant words

Independent parts of speech can be pronominal or significant. Significant words denote signs, objects, actions, quantity, relationships, naming them. Pronouns only point to them, but do not name them. In a sentence, they serve as deputies of the significant. Pronominal words form a separate part of speech called the pronoun. Significant are divided into different parts of speech based on the following features:

Morphological;

Generalized value;

Syntactic behavior (functions and links in the text).

There are at least 5 groups, considering significant parts of speech. These are three names (adjective, noun, numeral), as well as a verb and an adverb. Sometimes the forms of the verb (germs and participles) are distinguished separately. As you can see, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words. That is, they are distinguished taking into account the syntactic behavior, and the generalized meaning.

Noun

Let's begin to describe the parts of speech of the Russian language (significant) with It includes words that:

1) are common or proper, inanimate or animate, have a permanent generic attribute, as well as non-permanent (for the main part of nouns) signs of case and number;

2) have the meaning of objectivity, therefore they answer the question "what?" or who?";

3) most often in the proposal they are additions or subjects, but they can also be other members of it.

Note that when highlighting nouns, the grammatical features of words are the main ones, and not, for example, their meaning. The main features of significant parts of speech can be different. You will soon see this. As for the meaning of a noun, this is the only part of speech whose meaning can be very different. Let us turn to examples: a face (a girl), an object (a pen), an animal (a dog), an abstract concept (pride), a sign (height), an attitude (inequality), an action (study). These words, from the point of view of meaning, are united by the fact that in relation to them we can ask one question: "what?" or who?" This, in fact, is their objectivity.

We turn to the consideration of the next part of speech - the name of the adjective.

Adjective

This is an independent part of speech, significant. It combines words that:

1) Change in cases, numbers and gender, and some - in degrees of comparison and in brevity / completeness.

2) Designate some non-procedural sign of the subject, and therefore answer the questions "whose?" or "what?"

3) They act in the sentence as the nominal part of the SIS (compound nominal predicate) or definitions.

Adjectives always depend on nouns. Therefore, questions to them should be asked from the latter. Adjectives are needed in order to select the right one from a multitude of identical objects. Without them, our speech would look like a painting painted in gray paint. Thanks to adjectives, it becomes figurative and more precise, since they allow you to highlight different features of one object.

Numeral

This is another significant part speech, independent. It includes words denoting numbers, the order of objects when counting, or their number. The numeral answers next questions: "which?" or "how much?" It is a part of speech that combines words based on a common meaning. And the meaning of numerals is the relation to the number. Note that their grammatical features are heterogeneous. They depend on the category according to the value of one or another numeral.

These words play big role in our life. We measure by numbers time, distance, number of objects and their size, cost, weight. Numerals in writing are often replaced by numbers. However, in documents, for example, it is necessary that the amount be indicated not only in numbers, but also in words.

Adverb

We continue to reveal the question: "What parts of speech are significant?" An adverb denotes a sign of a state, sign, action, rarely - an object. Note that it is immutable. An exception to this rule is only qualitative adverbs ending in -о/-е. All of them adjoin either an adjective, or a verb, or another adverb, that is, they characterize significant parts of speech. Examples: very fast, run fast, very fast. An adverb in a sentence is usually an adverb. Sometimes it can also be attached to a noun. Examples are: racing, Warsaw coffee, soft-boiled egg. The adverb in these cases acts as Adverbs are classified on two grounds - by meaning and by function.

Verb

We turn to the verb, considering the significant parts of speech. This is a word denoting a state (to rejoice), an action (to write), a property (to limp), a sign (to turn white), an attitude (to equal). For different groups verb forms heterogeneous grammatical features. Such a concept as a "verbal word" combines: conjugated forms (impersonal and personal), non-conjugated (participles and participles), as well as an infinitive ( indefinite form). Verbs are very important for speech. They allow us to give a name to different actions.

Participle

As a morphological phenomenon, participles are ambiguously interpreted in linguistics. Sometimes significant words that are participles are considered as separate parts of speech, and sometimes as a form of a verb. They denote a sign of some object by action. The participle combines the properties of a verb and an adjective. It is used in writing more often than orally.

gerund

Let's talk a little about the participle, revealing the topic "Significant parts of speech". These are words that, like participles, can be considered either as a special form of the verb, or as an independent part of speech. The signs of adverb are as follows:

1) The designation of an additional action, so the participle answers the following questions: "what did you do?" or "doing what?"

2) The presence of grammatical features of both the adverb and the verb.

So, we have considered significant parts of speech. verb, numeral, noun and adjective. Sometimes gerunds and participles are also distinguished separately. Now you will not be mistaken when answering the question: "What parts of speech are significant?" However, we suggest that you go further and complete your acquaintance with independent parts of speech by considering the pronoun.

Pronoun

The pronoun is an independent part of speech that indicates signs, objects or quantities, but does not name them. They are different. They depend on which part of speech the pronouns replace in the text. They can be classified according to grammatical features and by value. Pronouns in speech are used instead of adjectives, nouns, adverbs and numerals. They help to combine sentences into a coherent text, to avoid repeating the same words.

So, we examined the independent parts of speech (pronominal and significant), and we briefly described. We invite you to get to know the latter in more detail, since they also play important role in language. We hope you have learned to distinguish between significant and auxiliary parts of speech.

Traditionally allocated significant and auxiliary parts of speech as capable or incapable of performing a nominative function, i.e. designate and name individual concepts. Separate, as a rule, are interjections that do not name anything, but express feelings, express will, give an expressive assessment, etc. Separately, onomatopoeic words can be distinguished - various kinds of conditional reproduction of sounds accompanying human actions or uttered by some animal.

Significant parts of speech are grammatical categories of words that satisfy several requirements:

• they are able to express and name certain concepts or point to them, and therefore have an independent lexical meaning;
• in the overwhelming majority of cases, they are morphologically formed and have grammatical meaning;
• can be members of a sentence and enter into various syntactic relations;
• they cannot be represented as some kind of closed list - they are open set words.

The division of parts of speech into significant and auxiliary in the domestic science of language under different names exists since the 18th century.

Significant parts of speech are nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, a verb together with participial and participle forms (which some researchers recognize as separate parts of speech), words of the state category, adverbs.

Within one or another significant part of speech, lexico-grammatical categories are distinguished - subsets of words that have a similar lexical meaning, which has a certain effect on the ability of words to express certain grammatical meanings (number, person, pledge, etc. .) and form certain grammatical forms. Words belonging to the same lexico-grammatical category, as a rule, not only belong to the same inflectional type, but also have similar derivational characteristics and syntactic functions.

Let's demonstrate this concept on the example of adverbs, within which it is customary to distinguish between two lexical and grammatical categories: definitive (or proper-characterizing) and circumstantial adverbs. The class of definitive adverbs in terms of their semantics is quite heterogeneous: there are qualitative adverbs (correctly, sincerely), quantitative adverbs (many, very) and the way and manner of action (probably running). Circumstantial adverbs indicate different circumstances of an action: place (near, at home), direction (up), time (now, summer), purpose (on purpose), reason (blindly), compatibility (together, in pairs) and other Belonging to a group quality adverbs manifests itself in the presence of suffixes -o or -e in these words, as well as in the ability to form degrees of comparison, like adjectives. Two categories of adverbs also show different syntactic properties: attributive adverbs are adjacent to individual words, and circumstantial ones can adjoin the whole sentence. material from the site

Lexico-grammatical categories are presented in all significant parts of speech. So, in particular, among nouns, categories of proper and common nouns are distinguished, and within common nouns, specific, real, abstract and collective names are distinguished; verbs are divided into personal and impersonal, transitive and intransitive, reflexive verbs from different types values ​​(see Recurrence), etc.

Service parts of speech- words that do not have their own lexical meaning (lexically non-independent), serving to express syntactic relations between full-value words and sentences, as well as to express additional shades of meaning and subjective modality.

By the absence of lexical meaning and by grammatical functions official words opposed to significant words. Service parts of speech do not change and are not members of the sentence.

Functional words include conjunctions, prepositions and particles.

To find out which parts of speech are independent, you should understand the signs that characterize them. Independent parts of speech are the main words in sentences. Without them, it is impossible to transmit at least some information. All words that name objects, denote actions (what happens to them) and describe them - these are uniquely independent parts of speech.

In contrast to them, there are service words - they only serve the rest of the parts of speech and help to unite them. There is a third category of words - interjections, which are neither independent nor auxiliary.

Independent parts of speech can interact and transmit any informational messages without the help of service ones. But service ones without independent ones are not used.

Signs of independent parts of speech

In order not to be mistaken in determining which group certain words belong to, you can do this according to the following criteria.

• By the word, which is an independent part of speech, it is possible to ask a question. Who? What is he doing? Which? Where? Where?
• In a sentence, independent parts of speech are necessarily its members.
• Each individual part of speech that falls under this general category has grammatical and morphological features.

Independent parts of speech

• Noun. It always answers the questions: who, what? This part of speech can be animate object, and inanimate. In a sentence, the noun is mostly the subject or the object.
• Adjective. Describes the characteristics of nouns and pronouns. What or what? Can be qualitative, relative, possessive.
• Verb. Expresses action. What is he doing? What have you been doing? What will do? In a sentence, this part of speech usually becomes a predicate.
• Adverb. The word that does not change. answers the questions: how?, when?, where? etc.
• Communion and participle. Sometimes they are called special forms of the verb.
• Numeral. Talking about quantity. Answers the questions: how much, which in the account?
• Pronoun. When pointing to an object, it is used instead of a noun.

Independent parts of speech are differentiated into two categories: significant and pronominal. It is known that significant - they name an object, an action with an object, or characterize it. And the pronouns only point to it.

Very often, students confuse independent and significant parts of speech, believing that they are one and the same. However, it is only true that all significant parts of speech are independent, and pronouns include only pronouns.