Vassalage to the golden hordes fell into the principality. Vassal and tributary dependence of Russia

• 1. Returning from Europe, Batu in 1243 formed on the Lower Volga one of the largest states of the Middle Ages - the Golden Horde. The city of Saray-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital of the state. The unity of the Horde was based on a system of brutal terror.
• 2. Despite the long and ruinous nature of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Russia retained its statehood, was not assimilated by the conquerors. The Mongols, who stood at a lower stage of development, could not impose their language and culture on the inhabitants of the Russian lands. But Russia for a long time found itself in political and economic dependence on the Horde khans.

Political dependence(vassal) consisted in the fact that the prince became the great prince in Russia, who received a label from the khan of the Golden Horde for a great reign, for which he had to go to the Horde. A struggle began between the princes for the right to possess the label (khan's letter). The khans constantly pitted the princes against each other, not allowing anyone to become too strong.

Economic dependence (tributary) consisted in the fact that Russia had to pay a heavy tribute, which had to be paid in silver annually. In 1254, Mongolian scribes ("censors") carried out a census of the Russian population for taxation. Each farm of a peasant and a city dweller was a unit of taxation. To collect tribute, the Horde punitive detachments were created, led by the Baskaks. The Baskaks were located in the principalities, controlled life in them, maintaining order, collecting tribute. Non-payers were taken into slavery. Only the clergy were exempted from taxes; knowing his influence on the population, the lands of the clergy were protected. Church leaders tried to soften the situation in the country, to reconcile the warring princes.

“Perhaps, it was in those terrible for Russia decades of the middle of the XIII century that the final choice was made between two sociocultural models of development: between East and West, between Asia and Europe. With all the conventionality of such a dichotomy, it gives a general idea of ​​the main trend of the ongoing changes, which have managed not only to emerge, but also to receive an additional impulse from the outside. Now they will be performed at an ever-increasing pace and on an ever-increasing scale, and in 300 years they will receive their logical conclusion in the extreme forms of despotic rule by the distant descendant of Alexander - Ivan IV. Trying to shift the responsibility for the entire future fate of the country onto one person, we somehow forget that in his decision he found understanding and support, even if not from all contemporaries, but from almost all descendants. What made such a choice “within us”?

First of all, let's not forget that Russia in the 13th century is, for the most part, a traditional society. Traditions, customs are its unshakable foundation. Any attempt to change the usual course of things, to break the established order once and for all is inevitably perceived tragically, calls into question the very existence of the world in which a person lives. Under the conditions of the middle of the XIII century, apparently, paradoxical as it may sound to us, representatives of the Western European civilization were seen as a greater threat to the inhabitants of North-Eastern Russia than the invaders who came from the East. The Knights of the Order carried with them new life... It was clear that they were accompanied by a new law, a new urban life, new forms of government. European knights carried a new ideology -catholic religion... And the Catholics were just as intolerant of their Orthodox "brothers in Christ" as the Orthodox were of the Catholics.

Unlike the restless western neighbors of Russia, the Golden Horde was "its own". Apparently, the Mongol khans tried not to interfere in the internal affairs of the newly subjugated "horde of Zalesskaya" for no particular reason. The system of government in the Mongolian uluses surprisingly successfully "laid down" on the "model" of a despotic monarchy, which had already been "tested" in the Northeast by the descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky for several decades. Real power continued to remain in the hands of their princes, albeit now receiving labels for the great reign from the hands of the Mongol khans. But life - where it generally remained after the invasion - was the same, albeit hard. But the most important thing is that the Mongols showed a forward-flowing tolerance enviable for Europeans. So the choice made by Alexander Yaroslavich cannot be viewed only as an act of the prince's personal will. Behind him were the real interests of the people and their internal psychological capabilities, regardless of whether they are understandable to us and we consider them sufficient for such a responsible decision.

Economic dependence on the Horde of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia was expressed in the withdrawal of artisans to the Horde centers and cities, the payment of a very burdensome regular tribute ("Horde exit"), ruinous additional extortions, as well as in the existence of a special service organization of direct producers, which should were to provide all the needs of ambassadors, messengers, special representatives who came from the khan to Russia. Political dependence was manifested primarily in the fact that the decisive condition for the legitimacy of the power of any sovereign prince (grand or appanage) was the khan's grant (label). The heredity of princely tables within the boundaries of the local dynasties of Rurikovich was then an important, but still less significant factor in the legitimacy of the power of the monarchs. Russian princes were also obliged to participate with their troops in the campaigns of the rulers of the Golden Horde.

The forms of Horde control were historically variable. The first, which existed for a relatively short time, was the institution of direct representatives of the khan ("baskaki"). Then the method of indirect control was adopted. The most striking example is the former Vladimir-Suzdal land. The grand-ducal table in Vladimir was not hereditarily assigned by the khans to any one line of descendants of the Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest. The prince who received a label on him, he was personally responsible to the khan for the correct payment of the exit by all the princes, their timely participation in the Horde military campaigns, their loyalty to the Saransk ruler, etc. As a reward, he received the right to control and judge the population of the territories of the Vladimir table, the right to deliver the exit from all the princes and lands in the Horde, the princely table in Veliky Novgorod (a close relative and their governors were usually sent there), the status of the "oldest" prince. Throughout most of the XIV century. The Vladimir great reign became the object of fierce rivalry between the Moscow, Tver, and then the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princely dynasties, which made it easier for the khans to function as an arbiter.

The victory of the Moscow Rurikovichs (they united the territories of the Moscow and Vladimir great principalities in their hands) became the reason last change: from the end of the XIV century. all the great and independent reigns of North-Eastern Russia began to communicate directly with the Horde both in connection with the payment of tribute, and in order to receive khan's labels, and on other issues.

The documents

During the existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has survived. But on the other hand, there are many documents of this time in Russian.

Lack of objective evidence to support the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

On this moment there are no originals of any historical documents that would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But on the other hand, there are many forgeries designed to convince us of the existence of an invention called the "Tatar-Mongol yoke". Here is one of these fakes. This text is called "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land" and in each publication it is declared "an excerpt from what has not come down to us intact poetry... About the Tatar-Mongol invasion "

On all maps that were published before 1772 and were not corrected later, you can see the following picture. The western part of Russia is called Muscovy, or Moscow Tartary ... In this small part of Russia, the Romanov dynasty ruled. Until the end of the 18th century, the Moscow Tsar was called the ruler of Moscow Tartary or the Duke (Prince) of Moscow. The rest of Russia, which occupied almost the entire continent of Eurasia in the east and south of Muscovy at that time, is called Tartaria or the Russian Empire

In the 1st edition of the British Encyclopedia of 1771, the following is written about this part of Russia:

“Tartaria, a huge country in the northern part of Asia, bordering Siberia in the north and west: which is called Great Tartary. Those Tartars living south of Muscovy and Siberia are called Astrakhan, Cherkassk and Dagestan, living in the northwest of the Caspian Sea are called Kalmyk Tartars and which occupy the territory between Siberia and the Caspian Sea; Uzbek Tartars and Mongols who live north of Persia and India and, finally, Tibetans, who live northwest of China ... "

Ticket 11.

General conditions for the development of culture. Already in the second half of the XI century, turbulent times set in in Russia, the struggle for power and princely feuds flared up with renewed vigor. By tradition, the Grand Duke "seats" his sons according to their destinies. The land is allocated by seniority. The princes had to take care of the protection of their territories, of the zemstvo system. They had the right to issue judicial statutes.

From Pravda Yaroslavichi we learn about the structure of the patrimony. Its center was the princely or boyar court with many storerooms and cellars, where the princely "good" was kept: iron, copper, wine. It was considered prestigious to have herds of horses. The prince, as a rule, received two names, one at birth, the other at baptism. The custom was for babies of both sexes. Boys from 2 to 4 years old underwent the rite of being cut - the first cut of hair. On this occasion, feasts were held in my father's house. The baby was put on a horse for the first time.

They married children early: sons - at 11 years old, daughters - at 8, and sometimes at 5-7 years old. CM. Soloviev gives a description of the wedding of the daughter of Vsevolod III - Verhuslava, who married Rostislav Rurikovich: “... and gave her countless gold and silver; and the matchmakers bestowed great gifts, and sent them away with great honor; he rode for his sweet daughter up to three camps, and father and mother cried for her, because she was sweet and young to them: only eight years ... Prince Rurik ... played his son Rostislav a rich wedding, which had never happened in Russia, too 20 princes feasted on it; to his daughter-in-law he gave many gifts and the city of Bryagin ... ". Large land holdings were concentrated in the hands of the prince. The servants were also in his undivided power. Wealth was replenished at the expense of the lands and property of the guilty people or boyars who served his predecessor.

Tribute remained the main source of income. Hence the desire to buy settlements or occupy new, empty lands and populate them, which became one of the reasons for the princely strife, which sometimes lasted 12-17 years. To wage a war according to the rules meant to inflict as much harm on the enemy volost as possible - to burn, plunder, kill, take prisoner. It happened that the population of cities was completely transported from one place to another, settling in free territories. Peace was concluded by kissing the cross, was fragile and constantly violated. All this causes massive discontent, popular uprisings. It is no coincidence that additional articles on the protection of the property of the feudal lord and his patrimony are introduced into the “Russkaya Pravda” (“Pravda Yaroslavichi”).

The change of princes did little to strengthen the princely power. Each new prince tried to introduce his own rules and show how untenable his predecessor was. Striving for stability locals create opposition to the authorities in the face of the city veche, which over time become more powerful. Cities begin to choose their own favorite princes and expel those who are too zealous, not listening to the local voice. The princes were forced to reckon with the opinion of the veche. Cities are acquiring the importance of a leading political force, more and more freedom.

In order to end the strife, on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, in 1097 the Lyubech congress of princes was held, where the principle "Let each one keep his fatherland" was proclaimed. In fact, this meant the division of Russia. However, strife continued after the Lyubech Congress. Only the need to resist the emerging by the middle of the XI century. in the southern Russian steppes, the nomads - Polovtsy still kept Kievan Rus from disintegration into separate principalities for some time.

Nomad invasions have become a real disaster. The annals indicate 37 significant Polovtsian raids. Princes in civil strife considered it normal to resort to the help of the Polovtsians. Volosts were devastated and ruined. As a consequence, physical disasters come. In all local chronicles we find descriptions of crop failures, hunger and diseases that devastated the land no worse than the Polovtsians.

The disintegration of the state political unity, the decline in the prestige of the princely power lead to an increase in the role of the clergy. Bishops become the main advisers of the prince, take part in the reconciliation of princes, pacification popular uprisings, act as intermediaries between the population and the princes.

A special attitude and respect of the people for monasticism is being developed. This is a different, higher world. Legends about miraculous icons and healings. "The exploits of St. monks shine with miracles more than worldly power ... "- wrote the chronicler of the XII century. In Turov, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Vladimir, Smolensk, Novgorod and many other cities, monasteries appear, including women's ones. The daughter of Vsevolod Yaroslavich Yanka in her youth went to a monastery and "gathered around her many nuns and lived with them according to the monastic order."

Monasteries are gaining strength very quickly. They receive land as a gift, priceless Jewelry, icons, various amounts of money, precious salaries for monastic icons are made. Even individual monks become rich. According to the chroniclers, they kept their "goods" in cells and did not want to distribute it to the poor. There were times when the monastic brethren refused to bury the poor monks.

At the same time, monasteries are still centers of education. Schools and colleges for the training of clergy operate here. In Russia, they understood the importance of education. The princes who were familiar with "book wisdom" were especially respected. In the Tatishchevsky vault, praise is given to Konstantin Vsevolodovich for being smart, having many ancient Greek books translated into Russian, collecting information about the affairs of the ancient glorious princes, and often writing himself.

“The whole Russian land is torn to pieces,” the chronicler wrote in 1132. Kievan Rus disintegrates. Separate principalities were formed - Chernigov, Polotsk, Pereyaslavskoe, Galitsky, Volyn, Smolensk, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Kiev, Novgorod land and a number of other small principalities. However, the process of disintegration did not end there. The number of princes became more and more and the Russian land was crumbling. By the middle of the XII century. based Kievan Rus formed about 15 principalities and lands, by the beginning of the thirteenth century. there were about 50 of them.

Over time, the Kiev metropolis, "for two centuries devastated by fire and sword, foreigners and their own," as Karamzin writes, loses its significance. Its role is transferred to other principalities. Dneprovskaya Rus is replaced by Upper Volga Rus.

The collapse of Kievan Rus had extremely important positive consequences. Small areas were easier to manage. Now each ruler took care of the principality as his property, sought to strengthen and enrich it. On new quality level the economy rises (handicraft, agricultural production). The absence of internal borders contributes to the development of trade, commodity-money relations.

Russia was called "the country of cities" before. Now there are more of them, they are increasing in size, their social and political importance is growing. The city consisted of several parts. The city itself was surrounded by embankments with a moat and wooden, less often stone walls. This inner part was called Detinets. Settlements were formed around the main city, which were also surrounded by walls. It turned out to be a double reinforcement.

The outer city was called a prison. Walls with towers and gates were erected. Each gate had its own name: on the cardinal points - Eastern, according to decorations - Gold, Silver, according to those parts of the urban population that adjoined them - Zhidovsky, Lyadsky. They built bridges over rivers, prisons, cellars, houses and princely chambers, shopping areas. Most of the buildings were wooden, so Russia did not escape the troubles characteristic of all medieval cities: fires often devastated half of the city. 11 large fires are mentioned in Novgorod from 1054 to 1228.

With the territorial disintegration, the political unity of the Russian lands finally collapsed. Two irreconcilable tendencies enter into confrontation: the desire to create a powerful centralized state structure(Vladimir-Suzdal lands) and the development of, albeit limited, but still, democratic foundations state structure(Novgorod).

Public consciousness, it is quite obvious (the creation of city veche, the choice of princes by the townspeople, the reaction of the population to the increasing enslavement), is inclined towards a democratic choice, which was explained by the age-old Slavic traditions, and the fall of the authority of the princely power, the inability of the rulers to agree among themselves, the intensification of internecine conflicts.

But most importantly, in opposition to the political disintegration, economic, social and church-moral ties between different regions of Russia are strengthening. IN. Klyuchevsky calls this process the awakening in Russian society of "a sense of zemstvo unity, the emergence of the Russian nationality" (issue - author).

Major trends in literature and art. The period of feudal fragmentation became a time of unprecedented flourishing of artistic culture. The princes in the allocated territory are trying to settle down and introduce orders similar to those of Kiev. This became one of the reasons for the extremely rapid spread of high cultural traditions throughout Russia.

Quantity new churches, stone buildings, monuments of monumental architecture numbered in the thousands. They needed icons, liturgical utensils, masters who could decorate the interior. On the eve of the Tatar invasion, many artels are working everywhere. Despite the strengthening of the Church, which at this time was too carried away by worldly affairs, the destruction of centralization leads to freedom of creativity. Each artel develops its own style, tries to take into account the tastes of the customer.

As a result, the regions are developing their own art schools, and new features associated with local living conditions, socio-political and geographical conditions are infused into the artistic culture.

Literature of this period developed as rapidly as architecture and painting. The variety of genres of literary works is striking: hagiographic (biographies of saints), various epistles, historical stories, geographical writings, etc. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, chronicles were compiled in Chernigov, Vladimir, Smolensk and many other cities.

Many works are permeated by the idea of ​​the unity of Russia in the face of external danger. An unknown author left an invaluable written monument "The Lay of Igor's Campaign", which tells about Igor Svyatoslavich's campaign against the Polovtsy in 1185. The prince of the small Novgorod-Seversky principality with small forces goes on a long campaign. And this was caused not only by the desire to protect the Russian land from the Polovtsians, but also by the thirst for glory. The author is sympathetic to Igor Svyatoslavich, he emphasizes that he is fearless, noble, he himself understands and deeply experiences his mistake. The main reproach is addressed to the princes, who "with their sedition began ... to lead the nasty to the Russian land, ... because of the strife, after all, violence started from the Polovtsian land!"

The fragmented state cannot successfully defend itself against enemies, and an appeal to the princes sounds passionately: "Enter, gentlemen, into the golden stirrup for the insult of this time ... Block the gates of Paul with your sharp arrows for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the brave Svyatoslavich!" ...

The story is based on the traditions of Russian folk art. The most lyrical moment of the work is the crying monologue of Yaroslavna, Igor's faithful and devoted wife. According to an old pagan tradition, she refers to the elements of nature as to animate forces: “O wind, sail! ... About Dnepr Slavutich! " The author calls the Russian soldiers the sons of Dazhdbog. He often uses epithets characteristic of oral folk art: gray wolf, open field, black earth.

"The Word about Igor's Regiment" had a tremendous impact on the entire Russian culture. It became a model for the creation of " Zadonshchyna"- a poetic work about the victory of Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field. In the 19th and 20th centuries, writers and artists never cease to turn to the events of that time. The paintings of I. Vasnetsov, V. Serov, N. Roerich are well known.

The disintegration of Kievan Rus into separate principalities leads to a weakening military power, the princes were never able to unite in the face of danger, which is the main negative consequence of the period of feudal fragmentation.

Since the middle of the 13th century, Russia has been a gloomy picture. Ruined and burnt cities, devastated villages, overgrown with forest arable land; the population was exterminated, driven away by the Tatars. Crafts die down, some disappear altogether. The production of spinning wheels from Ovruch slate, glass bracelets, items with niello and granulation, cloisonné enamel, and multicolored glazed ceramics used in construction ceased; stone construction was suspended. Even lands that have not experienced a direct attack from enemies have suffered.

In literary works, the invasion is perceived as a catastrophe, an invasion of otherworldly forces, something unprecedented. In the middle and second half of the thirteenth century, works appear dedicated to the events of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. They are very emotional and poetic. A significant place among them is occupied by the "Lay of the death of the Russian land." This is a lament about "the light, bright and adorned Russian land." V literary works recorded the most important events this difficult period for Russia. In "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu", the national hero, warrior Evpatiy Kolovrat gathered a small squad and fiercely went to the enemy: "One fought with a thousand, and two with darkness." This battle was more like revenge of the dead rebel Russians.

The life of Alexander Nevsky told about the Neva battle with the Swedes, about Ice battle on Lake Peipsi, on the relationship of Alexander Nevsky with the Golden Horde and on the death of the prince. All these and other works are permeated with warmth, lyrical grief about the past, about the former greatness of Russia.

It is difficult to imagine the damage done by the Tatar-Mongols. The development of Russian culture was interrupted for more than two centuries. V. Klyuchevsky calls the XIII, XIV centuries. “Sometimes of general decline in Russia”, when “people became timid and cowardly”, when the entire population of the country (from a commoner to a prince) acts in the name of personal interests, when they physically destroy brave, enterprising princes and openly support not too talented, but obedient when the Russian rulers adopt the eastern manners of luxury and permissiveness. And these shifts in public consciousness had, perhaps, the most negative, and most importantly, long-term consequences, when, according to the same Klyuchevsky, the instincts of "self-preservation and capture" become the main features.

I. TYPES, FORMS AND DIRECTIONS OF ORGANIZATION OF INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS

A) Depending on the nature of the publication, the underlying idea, the images used, etc.

The success of the Mongol invasion in 1237-1240 marked the beginning of Rus' dependence on the Golden Horde. Numerous defeats of Russian troops, the fall of Ryazan, Vladimir, Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Chernigov and many other cities led to the fact that the Russian princes were forced to recognize the power of the Mongol rulers over themselves. At first, the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde was only political: Russian self-government was preserved, but from now on the princes went to the Horde in order to receive a label from the Mongol ruler to reign. Subsequently, a tribute was imposed on Russia.

Now the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde is usually called the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, the meaning of this term needs to be treated with caution. First of all, it appeared as early as 1479, and became widespread only in the 16th century and was invented not by Russians at all, but by Poles. In addition, although tribute was imposed on Russia, although the princes in high degree depended on the Mongol khans, however, it cannot be said that dependence on the Golden Horde was so humiliating for the Russian people. First of all, the Mongol-Tatars did not take away our faith, and faith is the cornerstone of the people's self-awareness. By the way, this is precisely why the holy prince Alexander Nevsky preferred to have the protection of Khan Baty, and not the help of Western states: the West demanded to abandon Orthodoxy and convert to Catholicism. Secondly, they left the Russian princes to manage their lands themselves and took care, mainly of receiving tribute in full. Moreover, many princes tried to use the connections in the Horde in conflicts with each other. On this, for example, the external and domestic politics Ivan Kalita, who managed to make the Moscow principality the most important in Russia and laid the foundation for the unification of the Russian lands. The Mongol-Tatars did not keep troops on our territory, but their invasions brought a lot of grief. However, military campaigns, as a rule, were only a consequence of disobedience, but the khans preferred to punish it extremely cruelly.

From the XIV century, the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde began to gradually weaken. Russian princes more and more often began to successfully "show their teeth" to the Mongol khans, and Dmitry Donskoy, who defeated Mamai in the famous Battle of Kulikovo, became the first prince in 140 years to transfer the grand ducal power to his son Vasily without receiving the khan's reign. The weakening of the dependence of the Russian principalities was a consequence of the weakening of the Golden Horde itself: the internecine wars of the khans and the fragmentation of the Horde into several parts could not but affect the military and political power of the Mongol-Tatars.

Historians have different assessments of the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde. In the opinion of many, the Mongol-Tatar yoke has largely slowed down the historical development of the Russian people. In their opinion, it is because of him that we have lagged behind in many respects European states and only with the coming to power of Peter the Great did the Russian state manage to slightly eliminate this lag. Others, on the contrary, believe that dependence on the Golden Horde was more a blessing than a misfortune. So, Karamzin believed that the Mongol-Tatar yoke was very important role in the development of Russian statehood, and Klyuchevsky believed that the Horde largely prevented the fratricidal civil strife in Russia. Lev Gumilev considered the relationship between Russia and the Golden Horde to be a political alliance, beneficial primarily for Russia, and believed that they should be called "symbiosis".

In 1243, after returning to the Polovtsian steppe within the boundaries of the paternal ulus, which significantly increased due to the conquered lands and was still part of the Great Mongol Empire, Khan Batu created a new public education, which received the name "Ulu Ulus". In Russian chronicles this state was usually called "Horde", in European chronicles - "Tataria", and in Arab and Persian sources the old name of this territory - "Desht-i-Kypchak", that is, the Polovtsian steppe, was much more often used. The name of this state, "The Golden Horde", widespread in scientific and educational literature, first appeared only in the "Kazan Chronicler", which was created in mid XVI century, when this state ceased to exist long ago.

The structure of the new state formation, the capital of which was the city of Sarai-Batu, founded in the lower reaches of the Volga, included the Polovtsian Steppe, Crimea, the Lower and Middle Volga regions, Southern Urals and Western Siberia. All the lands of the ruined Russian principalities, contrary to popular belief, were not included in this state, because: 1) they were not occupied by Mongolian troops and 2) the Mongols did not create a permanent administration here, preserving the previous order of government. Practically all Russian lands were forced to recognize vassal dependence from the Horde, the main elements of which were: 1) the receipt of khan's labels, that is, special written letters for the great and appanage reigns and 2) the payment of tribute in the form of the “Horde exit”, or “black pine forest”. Thus, the familiar concept of the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" ("barbarian yoke"), introduced into the "scientific" circulation at the end of the XV-XVI centuries. Polish diplomat and chronicler J. Dlugosz and professor at Krakow University M. Mekhovsky, and then, at the beginning of the 19th century, reanimated by H. Kruse, P.N. Naumov and N.M. Karamzin, needs a serious reassessment, but not at all the one proposed by the modern "Eurasians". In particular, their recognized "gurus" L.N. Gumilev and V.V. Kozhinov constantly wrote that the Horde tribute was not a form of vassal dependence of the Russian lands on the Horde, but the usual payment for the hiring of first-class Horde cavalry by the Russian princes in the fight against the Catholic West. Moreover, the constant motive of their numerous publications was that under the Tatars, the Russian people lived as freely as before the mythical Mongol invasion, the "horrors" of which were exorbitantly inflated under the pen of the ancient Russian chroniclers.

These speculations of modern "Eurasians" are largely related to the fact that the question of the actual size of the Horde tribute in the historical literature has not yet been fully developed. The main reason for this situation is distrust of the unique data of the first Russian historian V.N. Tatishchev, who had at his disposal the chronicle vaults that have not come down to us. One of these vaults contained direct evidence that the "Horde exit" to Saray was "Half a day from the plow, and there are two working men in the plow." One of the greatest Soviet historians, academician B.D. Grekov, who wrote together with the famous professor-orientalist A.Yu. Yakubovsky's classic work "The Golden Horde and its Fall" (1950), agreed that the tax-paying unit of the "Horde exit" was indeed "plow", but he doubted that it could only be worked by two plowmen. A close relationship between the area of ​​arable land, the number of draft animals and the number of workers has always been assumed. In particular, in one of the Novgorod letters it was explained that "Two horses in the plow, and the third harness", and in another Novgorod letter it was said that “Three plowshares, and one person on one horse yells(plows - E.S.), and whoever is on three horses and yells at a third himself, otherwise it is a plow. " It is reliably known that the average land allotment, which could be processed by 2-3 plowmen on horseback, was about 7-8 acres of land, and the average gross grain yield from such a "plow" was about 160-220 poods per year.

It is not difficult to assume that the half-hryvna mentioned in the chronicle was a severed part of the whole Novgorod hryvnia, or the so-called ruble, which would soon become the main counting unit in all of medieval Russia. As established by professor N.P. Pavlov, at the beginning of the 15th century. one ruble could buy about 90-250 poods of grain. Thus, the annual Horde tribute from one "plow" in the amount of one ruble was a real robbery, which practically left no room for simple reproduction. natural product, therefore, one can only wonder how people survived during the years of Horde rule.

It is also well known that the "plow" was not the only form of taxation of Russian lands. The same Novgorod charters contain a list of equivalent substitutions for the "sowing tribute" for the commercial population of Novgorod lands, in particular, "yard", "house", "seine", "smithy", "shop", etc. Professor V.V. Kargalov, who studied this issue in detail, counted 14 types of various tributes in the form of yasak (soft junk), tamga (trade duty), kharaj (plow duty) and others. The "Horde exit" was often expressed both in military service and in the maintenance of numerous Tatar embassies, which lived for months in Russia, taking the so-called "tusk", the size of which was not regulated at all. Therefore, the maintenance of such embassies was often more expensive than the "black forest" itself, and it was this "tuska" that was the cause of many anti-Horde uprisings in Russia.

Concerning the annual amount of "Horde exit", which was paid from all Russian lands, there is no reliable data on this in the annals. However, in the "Spiritual Charter" of the specific Serpukhov prince Vladimir Andreevich, dated 1402, it was explicitly stated that the Grand Duke annually sent tribute to Sarai in the amount of 5000 rubles in silver. Leading specialist in the history of Russian-Horde relations, the author of the fundamental monograph "Mongols and Russia" Professor A.N. Nasonov doubted the reliability of this evidence and believed that the size of the "black pine forest" was significantly higher than the indicated amount. Another well-known expert on this issue, Professor V.A. Kuchkin believed that the annual Horde tribute was about 15,000 silver rubles. A similar point of view was expressed by Professor A.G. Kuzmin, who drew particular attention to the fact that the silver content of the then Moscow ruble was equivalent to the Novgorod hryvnia, therefore reasonably believed that over the past century the size of the Horde tribute has grown significantly and actually amounted to about 3000 kilograms of silver per year. Taking into account the fact that in Russia its own production of silver did not yet exist and its entire volume came to Russia only as a result of foreign trade exchange, this amount was simply colossal.

This is how the Horde domination in Russia actually looked, and these facts are not so deeply hidden so as not to notice them, including by our home-grown "Eurasians". However, they prefer not to do this, which once again proves all the speculativeness and speculativeness of their "scientific" constructions, and at the same time demonstrates their disrespect for the memory of their ancestors.

2. The political situation in North-Eastern Russia in the second half of the XIII - early XIV centuries.

The return of Batu to the Polovtsian steppe chronologically coincided with political crisis in the Mongol state, which was associated with the death of the great khan Ogedei (1229―1241). The new pretender to the khan's throne, Khan Guyuk, met with stiff opposition from other descendants of Genghis Khan, including the influential Khan Batu, who refused to recognize his rights to his father's throne. Therefore, the actual control of the empire was concentrated in the hands of his mother, the great Khatun Turakina (1241-1246), who was a cunning, domineering and insidious woman. She treated Batu with obvious hostility and he, obviously, paid her in the same coin. In any case, he invariably refused all the calls of Karakorum to come to a new kurultai for the election of the great khan, referring to his ill health.

Judging by the description of Batu, which was contained in the famous "History of the Mongols" by the papal legate Plano Carpini, he was really unwell. Therefore, even then he was forced to shift part of his power to the eldest son Sartak, although he still held the main threads of control in his hands. It is natural that uneasy relationship with Karakorum demanded that Batu strengthen their rear, which forced him to change the previous way of maintaining domination in the conquered Russian lands and move from direct repression to diplomacy of the Mongol type, the main element of which was the well-known principle of "divide and rule".

According to the new order established in the Horde, all Russian princes were now confirmed in Sarai, so in 1243 the great Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) was summoned there. His first visit to Sarai ended quite well, since he not only confirmed his rights to the great Vladimir throne, but also received a label for the great Kiev reign. And although Kiev, lying in ruins, was practically depopulated, it was still the center of the Russian metropolis, and this circumstance was especially important for Yaroslav. According to many historians (A. Nasonov, A. Kuzmin, A. Gorsky), Baty preferred exactly his candidacy because he much less trusted other applicants for the Grand Ducal throne, in particular Mikhail of Chernigov and Daniel Galitsky, who already then began to actively contact Roman throne and European monarchs.

However, already in the summer of 1245 "Grand Duke Yaroslav, and with his brother and sons, went to the Tatars to Batyev", from where he soon left for Karakorum to confirm his rights to the Grand Duke's throne. By the time of his arrival in the capital of the Mongol Empire, a kurultai of the Mongol nobility finally took place here, at which Guyuk (1246-1248) was elected the new great khan. Chronicle sources do not contain information about the meeting of Prince Yaroslav with the Great Khan, but it is reliably known that at a reception at the Khatuns of Turakina he was poisoned and died shortly after leaving Karakorum. Probably, the death of the Grand Duke was due to the fact that the Mongols suspected him of having links with Catholic emissaries, since a similar fate was prepared for the Chernigov Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich, who was summoned by Baty to Sarai, where, under the pretext of his refusal to undergo the pagan rite of worship of fire and the Mongolian idols were cruelly executed.

In Vladimir itself, the grand-ducal throne was taken by the younger brother of the murdered Yaroslav, Prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich (1246-1250), who moved here from Pereyaslavl, completely devastated by the Tatars during the second campaign against Russia. How he obtained the throne of his father is not entirely clear, but, probably, in the capital of the Mongol Empire this unauthorized seizure of power was not recognized, since soon, by order of Khan Guyuk, the sons of the late Prince Alexander and Andrey were summoned to Karakorum. By the time of their arrival, the power in the empire had changed again and the widow of the great khan Ogul Haymish (1248―1251) became the real ruler in Karakorum. This time the Grand Duke's label was divided, since the elder brother, Prince of Novgorod Alexander received a label for the great reign in Kiev, and the younger brother, Prince Andrei of Suzdal, received a label for the great reign in Vladimir. Having violated the khan's will, Alexander did not go to ruined Kiev, but returned to Novgorod, although he retained the grand ducal title and de jure became the "oldest" prince in Russia.

Immediately after these events, another round of the struggle for power began in Karakorum, in which Khan Batu took an active part. Probably, these circumstances distracted his attention from the western possessions of his ulus, where a military-political alliance of the two Russian princes soon arose. In 1250, Grand Duke Andrei married the daughter of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel Ustinia and became one of the leaders of the "anti-Horde union", which in every possible way supported the Catholic West. It was then, at the initiative of Pope Innocent IV, that negotiations began with Daniel and Andrew to organize a grandiose crusade against the Mongols, but on condition that the head of the Russian Metropolitanate, Kirill, signed a union with the papal see to unite the two churches. Negotiations with the papal legates obviously dragged on, since the papal ambassadors did not give real guarantees of military support for the Russian princes.

Meanwhile, a new great khan Mongke (1251-1259) was elected in Karakorum, who was enthroned with the active support of Batu. This circumstance untied his hands and allowed him to turn his attention to the conquered Russian lands, where a real threat arose to the rule of the Mongols. In 1252, on his direct orders, Temnik Kuremsa, having received military detachments from Sarai, fell upon Galicia-Volyn Rus. Daniel Galitsky managed to repel the invasion of the Mongols and defend his Carpathian cities, although he still lost a number of steppe plain lands.

Simultaneously with the invasion of Kuremsa, Batu sent the army of the Temnik Nevryuya to North-Eastern Russia. The circumstances and reasons for this campaign are still not entirely clear, since completely different versions of the events that took place are presented in different chronicles. The lost lists of the Nikon and Rostov chronicles said that Alexander Nevsky went to Sarai “ And he complained about his brother, the Grand Duke Andrew, as if he had merged the Khan, taking the great reign under him, as the oldest, and took his father's towns to him, and did not pay the khan out and tamga in full. The Khan was angry with Andrey and ordered Nevryui Saltan to go to Andrey and bring him before him. " Many historians (S. Soloviev, V. Kargalov, V. Egorov) perceived this chronicle article as truth, but did not attach serious importance to it. A number of authors, on the contrary, clinging to this chronicle article, made far-reaching conclusions with diametrically opposite assessments. Almost all "Eurasians" (G. Vernadsky, L. Gumilev) immediately made up a whole theory that Alexander Nevsky became the founder of the Russian-Mongolian military alliance, which laid a solid foundation for the salutary symbiosis of the Russian-Turkic (Eurasian) civilization, which successfully repelled aggression the Catholic West. Their liberal opponents (J. Fennel, A. Sakharov, I. Danilevsky), on the contrary, immediately nailed Alexander Nevsky to the "shameful pillar of history", christening the Grand Duke a traitor to Russian national interests and a loyal servant of the Horde.

None of the surviving annals contains the above text, therefore, even in the century before last, a number of historians (N. Karamzin, M. Pogodin) rightly doubted the reliability of this information, and the "Eurasian" N.A. Klepinin even defended Alexander Nevsky. Moreover, as established by authoritative historians (A. Kuzmin, A. Gorsky), this chronicle text clearly contradicted the well-known fact that the "exit" and "tamga" began to be levied from the Russian lands only after the Mongolian " census ”conducted their first census. There are other arguments in favor of the supporters of this version. In particular, the Novgorod First and Ipatiev Chronicles do not report anything about the invasion of Nevryuya at all, and according to the Rogozhsky Chronicler and the Sophia Chronicle, “Nevryuev's Host” was in 1251, that is, exactly one year before Alexander Nevsky's trip to the Horde. Therefore, according to the logic of things, the invasion of Nevryui, like the invasion of Kuremsa, was a direct reaction to the military alliance of princes Daniel and Andrew. Moreover, as N.A. Klepinin and A.G. Kuzmin, his own uncle, Prince Svyatoslav, who was expelled by him from the grand throne, had more reason to inform the Horde about Prince Andrey. Apparently, it was he who "laid down" the obstinate nephew during his visit to Sarai in 1250.

As you know, unlike Prince Daniel, Prince Andrey failed to recapture the "Nevryuev army", and the Mongols ruined many volosts and cities of North-Eastern Russia, first of all, the family nest of all Yaroslavichs, the city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Having suffered a crushing defeat, he fled "overseas" and his further fate is not entirely clear. According to the deaf reports of some chronicles, Prince Andrew was killed in some kind of battle with the Germans or Estonians. According to other chronicle sources, in 1255 he returned to Russia "And Alexander pleased him with love, and at least give him Suzdal, but do not dare the king", did not dare to give his brother the Suzdal throne. Finally, according to the third chronicle evidence, in 1256 “Prince Andrey went to Gorodets and to Novgrad and the Lower princes. Prince Boris Vasilkovich of Rostov went to the Tatars with many gifts to ask for Andrey. Likewise, Prince Alexander Yaroslavich has his own ambassador to the Tatars with many gifts to ask for Andrew. Prince Boris Vasilkovich of Rostov was with Ulavchiy and gave gifts, and a great reception of honor, and ask for forgiveness for Andrew, and return with much honor to your fatherland. "

Whatever the further fate of Andrew, but immediately after his flight from Vladimir in 1252 "The idea of ​​Oleksandr, prince of Novgorod and Yaroslavich to the Tatars, and letting go and with great honor, which gave him old-fashionedness in all his brothers as a prince." Returning to the capital Vladimir, Alexander Nevsky was solemnly greeted by Metropolitan Kirill and "Citizens with crosses, and there will be joy in the city of Volodymeri and throughout the land of Suzhdal." Despite such an enthusiastic reception, captured by the chronicler, the entire period of the reign of Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263) turned out to be very difficult for the Russian lands, since it was he who had to make the fateful choice between the West and the Horde.

In 1255, Khan Batu died in Sarai, and his eldest son Sartak went to Karakorum, where the great khan Mongke recognized his rights to his father's throne. However, returning to the lands of his "Ulu Ulus", he unexpectedly died. The reliable reasons for his death are still shrouded in mystery, but the eastern chronicles contain a completely reliable version that he became a victim of yet another power struggle and was poisoned by his own uncle, Khan Berke. However, power in Sarai did not go to him, but to Batu's widow Khatun Burakchin, who became regent under her young grandson Ulagchi (1255―1257). But after the unexpected death of the baby, she was executed, and Berke (1257―1266) seized power in Sarai, who was in hostile relations with the great Khan Mongke.

Most historians (B. Grekov, A. Kuzmin, A. Gorsky, V. Egorov) rightly believe that Berke's assertion on the khan throne was a turning point in the entire system of the former relations between the Horde and Russia that developed under Batu. The reason for the change in this relationship was that "The same winter arrived in numbers, and scoured the whole land of Suzhdalsk, and Ryazan, and Muryom, and put foremen, and centurions, and thousands, and temniks, and went to the Horde." Immediately after this census was carried out in Russia, a fundamentally new system management, headed by the Mongolian Baskaks, whose main function was to tightly control the collection of the Horde tribute from all subordinate Russian lands.

In 1258, the Mongols tried to conduct a similar population census in the Novgorod lands, but this was not done immediately, because when "There will be news from Russia of evil, as if the Tatars want tamgas and tithes in Novgorod, and people are confused." Despite the fact that together with the Mongolian Baskaks they came "Men to number" from the Grand Duke himself, his eldest son, Prince of Novgorod Vasily Alexandrovich, "Listening to the evil counselor of the Novgorodians", raised an uprising against the Mongols and the grand ducal servants. As a result "The numbered with great anger, came to the Grand Duke Alexander, and said and wanted to go to the Horde." It is not difficult to predict what could follow after these threats, since the memory of the terrible "Nevrueva rati" was still very fresh. Therefore, the great prince, "I am in misfortune, call the brethren and hardly beg the khan's ambassadors" don't go to Saray. Moreover, Alexander Yaroslavich himself, together with his younger brother Andrei Yaroslavich and his nephew Boris Vasilkovich, accompanied the Mongolian clerks to Novgorod.

As a result, the Novgorod prince Vasily fled to Pskov, but the Novgorodians themselves refused to obey the will of the Horde and only "Gave many gifts of the khanov and his ambassador, and letting them go in peace." Alexander Nevsky tried to reason with the obstinate fellow countrymen, but the Novgorodians rebelled, and a new uprising broke out in the city, during which his henchman, the Novgorod mayor Mikhalko Stepanich, was killed. The Grand Duke, fearing a new invasion of the Tatars, was forced to harshly suppress the uprising of Novgorod smerds, execute the young prince's advisers, and send him under strong guard to Suzdal. In 1259, the census returned to Vladimir, and then, accompanied by the Grand Duke, went to Novgorod, where “I’ve found the whole land of Novgorod and Pskov, not exactly a sacred tradition”.

After a complete census of the population, the collection of the "black pine forest" from the subordinate Russian lands was left to the mercy of Muslim merchants - the Besermen, who were always accompanied by Mongolian armed detachments. As a rule, tribute collectors did not stand on ceremony with the taxable population. "And in the volost there is a lot of evil uchinish, who takes the dimness of the oak Tatar." It was this "tuska" that most of all outraged the Russian people, and this kind of illegal extortion in the form of provisions and lodging will be the main reason all anti-Mongol uprisings in Russia. In particular, already in 1262. "From fierce languor, intolerable violence of the filthy", in Rostov, Suzdal and other Russian cities, powerful uprisings broke out, during which both the Horde Baskaks themselves and the Mongols accompanying them were killed.

Some modern authors (J. Fennel, R. Skrynnikov, I. Danilevsky) argued that it was Alexander Nevsky, being a loyal henchman of the Horde khans, with the help of the punitive detachments sent from Sarai, harshly suppressed all the speeches of the townspeople. This conclusion is purely speculative, since there is no such information in all the annals. Probably closer to the truth are those historians (A. Nasonov, A. Kuzmin) who believed that they managed to avoid a new Horde invasion of Russia only because the tribute collectors came from Karakorum, with whom Berke actually broke off all relations. In addition, it was then that Berke entered into a struggle with his cousin, Khan Hulagu, so he really hoped to receive impressive help from the Russian princes in the form of a large military contingent for a campaign in Northern Persia.

As a result, Khan Berke considered it sufficient to summon only the Grand Duke himself to Sarai, for “The need is great from a foreigner, and they drive Christians out, commanding them to fight with them. The great prince Alexander will go to the tsar in order to exterminate the people from the misfortune of that. " Berke could not get a Russian military contingent, and just in case he left Alexander Nevsky in Sarai. Only in next year The Grand Duke was released on his way, but in November 1263 he died in the border town of Gorodets. Such a sudden death of the Grand Duke gave rise to many different versions, including the quite reasonable assumption that the Mongols themselves poisoned him. Naturally, such a version did not fit into the concept of the "Eurasians" in any way, so Professor L.N. Gumilev accused the grand duke of poisoning the insidious Catholic agents who then had a hand in the death of the great Lithuanian prince Mindaugas, with whom Alexander Nevsky concluded a military alliance against the crusaders just a year ago.

The reign of Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky has become an integral part historical memory of the Russian people. For almost a quarter of a century, during the most difficult period of Russian history, with sword and skillful diplomacy, he defended Holy Russia from deadly threats both from the West and from the East. He did not know major defeats either on the battlefield or in the diplomatic field, and his descendants should be judged not so much by the results they achieved, but by the most difficult obstacles that he had to overcome. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the anonymous author of his Life was sincere in his lamentation: “Oh, woe to you, poor man! How can you write the death of your master! What a zenitsy will not fall, coupled with tears! How your heart will not snatch from the bitter tuga! My child, understand, as if the sun of the land of Suzdal is already coming out! ".

After the death of Alexander Nevsky, all his sons - Vasily, Dmitry, Andrey and Daniel were still very young and foolish, so Khan Berke passed the label to his great reign younger brother, Prince of Tver Yaroslav Yaroslavich (1264―1271). It was under him that the khan's throne in Sarai was taken by another grandson of Genghis Khan, Mengu-Timur (1266―1282), under whom “Ulu Ulus” finally fell away from Karakorum and became a sovereign state. What was the nature of Sarai's relations with the conquered Russian lands at that time, it is not entirely clear, since some chronicles say that “ was weak in Russia from Tatar violence ", and Russian Orthodox Church the first "tarkhanna letter" was given, exempting her from paying the "black pine forest" in Sarai. Other chronicles tell that it was under Khan Mengu that the former control system flourished, and the Mongol armed detachments accompanying the Baskaks began to regularly perform police functions unusual for them.

Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavich was extremely far from solving both current problems and understanding the most important promising tasks. Already in 1270 he had an acute conflict with the Novgorodians, who, having gathered at the veche, told him: "We cannot tolerate your violence, poide, prince, good from us, but we will get ourselves a prince." Yaroslav sent his eldest son Svyatoslav to the Novgorodians, agreeing "To correct in all the will of Novgorod", however, the obstinate Novgorodians were adamant and reiterated to him: “Prince, we don’t want you, go good from us, if it’s not like that, then we will drive you away and I don’t want you.”

Having received such an unambiguous answer, Yaroslav sent his confidants to Sarai, who accused the Novgorodians of not keeping an eye on the Grand Duke, not giving an "outlet" to the Horde, and blaspheming the Great Khan. Naturally, this denunciation angered Mengu, who set about preparing a new campaign against Russia. The situation was defused by the Kostroma prince Vasily Yaroslavich, who drove off to Sarai and convinced the great khan that the conflict with the Novgorodians had arisen solely through the fault of his older brother. In the Horde itself, there was an actual split, since the influential Temnik Nogai, who ruled in its western uluses, separated from Sarai and began to skillfully play on the contradictions of different political elites both in the Horde itself and in the conquered Russian lands. A number of appanage princes of the southeast and north-east of Russia recognized him as their suzerain.

In 1271, the Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavich died "Going from the Horde" and the label for the great reign was received by his younger brother Vasily Yaroslavich (1272―1276), who also had an acute conflict with the Novgorod prince Dmitry Alexandrovich. At first, the parties tried to resolve it peacefully, but this was not done. Then in 1272-1273. together with the prince of Tver Svyatoslav Yaroslavich and the "khan's Tatars" the grand duke twice went on campaigns to the Novgorod pyatiny, where the Russian-Horde army subjected Volok, Bezhetsk and Vologda to total plunder. Only after this pogrom did the Novgorodians bow their heads before the Grand Duke and recognized his rights to the Novgorod throne.

In 1275, the Mongols conducted a new census of Russian lands. One of the annals contained fairly accurate information about the amount of the tribute that the Russian lands paid to Sarai: “The great prince Vasily will go to the Horde to see the khan. When the great prince came to the Horde and brought a tribute from all the land for half a quarter from the plow, and in the plow there were two men of labor, and gifts were many, and the exit of persons, and the khan honored him with honor, but in the speech: “there is little yasak, but there are many people in your land, because they are not given by all ”. The prince is the great, weakening by the number of the former Baskaks. And the khan gave orders to send new numbers to the whole Russian land with great cities, so that people will not hide. "

Soon after visiting the Horde, Vasily Yaroslavich also died suddenly and his recent rival, the outcast prince Dmitry Alexandrovich (1276-1281), who returned to himself the Novgorod throne, became his successor to the Grand Duke's throne. The beginning of his great reign did not foreshadow serious threats, but after five years a new bloody strife broke out, which had extremely grave consequences for all Russian lands. In 1281 his younger brother, Prince of Gorodets Andrei Alexandrovich went to Sarai, "Looking for a great reign under his elder brother." Having presented the aged Khan Mengu with rich gifts, he achieved the desired label and, together with the Tatar army, moved to Russia. While Prince Andrei on the borders of Rus summoned other Russian princes under his banners, the Mongol armies of Kavdygai and Alchedai went to Murom, Vladimir, Yuryev, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl, where "Everything is empty and looted people, husbands and wives, and children, and babies, the property has been looted and taken to the full." In this situation, Grand Duke Dmitry with his court and a small retinue fled to the Novgorod lands and stopped at Koporye, preparing to flee across the sea on occasion. Soon he changed his plans and went south, to Khan Nogai, who had long been in hostile relations with Sarai. Meanwhile, the Mongols continued the total plunder of the Russian lands near Rostov, Tver and Torzhok, where “ he wasted cities, volosts, villages, graveyards, monasteries, and robbish churches. " As a result of the pogrom, Prince Andrei managed to establish himself in Vladimir, but his elder brother did not recognize his rights to the grand princely throne and continued to fight against him. In 1283, having received military support from Nogai, Dmitry returned to the Vladimir throne, and Andrei went back to Gorodets.

The second period of the reign of Grand Duke Dmitry Alexandrovich (1283-1294) chronologically coincided with a new round of the struggle for power, but already in Sarai itself, which in the Russian chronicles received a very capacious and sonorous name - "zamyatnya". This bitter struggle for the khan's throne lasted for almost eight years, until Khan Tokhta (1290―1312) was established on it with the active support of Nogai, and real diarchy was de facto consolidated in the Horde.

In 1293 the Gorodets prince went to Sarai and, as the anonymous chronicler tells, “Bi cholom Andrei, the prince of the crown prince with other princes against Dmitry the prince with complaints, and release the king of his brother Duden with a lot of rats against Dmitry. Oh, there is a lot of mischief by the peasants of the innocent cities: Volodimer, Moscow, Dmitrov, Volok and other towns, putting all the land empty, and Dmitriy run into Pskov. " The devastation perpetrated by the Tatars was similar in scale to the terrible invasion of Batu, therefore the authority of the newly made Grand Duke was seriously undermined in all Russian lands, including among many appanage princes and influential church hierarchs. So soon after "Duden's rati" Prince Andrew "I will come to Torzhek" and put up with my brother "Dmitry", however, the next year he died suddenly and the label for the great reign was again given to Andrew.

During the entire period of his reign, Andrei Alexandrovich (1294-1304) was constantly at enmity with other Russian princes. The most acute conflict between them arose in 1296-1297, when at the princely congress in Vladimir a close-knit coalition of appanage princes headed by the Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich, the Pereyaslavl prince Ivan Dmitrievich and the prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich came out against him. The strife at this congress turned out to be so strong that both sides were ready to take up arms again and call on the Tatars for help. The matter did not come to a new Tatar pogrom, and they were able to come to an agreement. What the compromise reached is not entirely clear, since there is no information on this in the annals. But a number of famous historians (A. Nasonov, A. Gorsky) suggested that the basis of this compromise was the preservation of the rights of these princes self-collection tribute, which they received from Khan Nogai, honoring him as their rightful suzerain.

3. Lands of South and South-West Russia in the second half of the XIII - the middle of the XIV centuries.

The invasion of Batu did not destroy the main elements of statehood in Southern and South-Western Russia, and the principalities-lands that existed here remained for a relatively long time, from fifty (Polotsk principality) to one hundred and fifty (Smolensk principality) years. But practically all of these lands fell under the rule of the Golden Horde. As you know, back in 1243, Batu Khan gave the label for the great reign to the Vladimir prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who was recognized as the "oldest" prince in Russia. The possession of the ancient capital of Russia, where "I will keep Kyev Yaroslava with my boyar Eikovich Dmitrom." Kiev de jure still remained the main political center of Russia, but the Grand Duke himself, having placed the governor there, was constantly in Vladimir, which suffered much less from the horrors of the Mongol invasion. In 1249, after the death of Yaroslav, his eldest son Alexander Nevsky received a new khan's label in Karakorum for "Kyev and all Russian land», but upon his return to Russia, he left for the Novgorod throne, and in "capital" Kiev, like his late father, put his governor.

The further fate of the Kiev throne is poorly covered in the sources. Based on indirect data, it can be assumed that before the early 1290s. The princes of Kiev were the successors of Alexander Nevsky on the grand-ducal table, which was under the patronage of Temnik Nogai, the ruler of the western part of the Golden Horde, which actually fell away from the Horde khans who ruled in Sarai. In 1294, after the adherent of the Horde Khan Tokhta, Andrei Alexandrovich, received the grand-ducal label, his rival Nogai did not let the governors of the Grand Duke into Kiev controlled by him, and he was temporarily ruled by representatives of the Putivl branch of the Chernigov princely house. At the same time, Kiev finally lost the role of the metropolitan residence, since in 1299. "Metropolitan Maxim, not tolerating Tatar violence, leaving the metropolitan and fleeing from Kiev and all Kiev fled, and the Metropolitan is going to Bryansk and ottole in the Suzhdal land."

The first direct reliable news about the new Kiev prince refers only to 1331, but his name remained unknown, since all attempts of a number of modern Ukrainian historians (F. Shabuldo, L. Voytovich) to see in him either Fyodor Svyatoslavich or Fyodor Gediminovich, either Stanislav Ivanovich, or some other mythical characters, are very unconvincing. It is also not entirely clear when the Kiev principality was finally subordinated to Lithuania. Ukrainian historians (F. Shabuldo, G. Ivakin, L. Voytovich) for quite understandable reasons associate this event with the defeat of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Ivanovich in the battle with prince Gedimin on the Irpen River in 1324. But most historians (V. Antonovich, A. Gorsky) believes that this happened immediately after the victory of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd over the Tatars, which he won in the battle of Blue Waters in 1362, it was then that one of his eldest sons, Vladimir Olgerdovich (1362―1398), sat on the Kiev throne, whose descendants were representatives of the two famous princely dynasties of Slutsk and Belsk.

After the Mongol invasion, the territory of the neighboring Pereyaslavl principality, which was located on the southernmost borders of the Polovtsian steppe, came under the direct authority of Sarai, so the local prince Svyatoslav, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, immediately drove from the ancestral table of the Monomachs to North-Eastern Russia. There are no sources in the sources about other Russian princes who ruled at the local table, therefore, most likely, it was ruled by the Khan's Baskaks. This continued until the Lithuanian prince Olgerd annexed these territories to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1362.

In the Chernigov land, after the invasion of the Mongols, political fragmentation sharply intensified and new princely tables were consolidated for different branches of the Olgovichi. In particular, in the northeast, the Novosilskoe, Karachevskoe and Tarusa principalities arise, in the southeast, the Vorgolsk and Lipovichi principalities are added to the previously existing Kursk and Ryla principalities, and in the northwestern, forest part, which is more protected from Tatar raids, the Bryansk principality appears. ... It was here, in Bryansk, in the 1260s. moved political center The local prince Roman Mikhailovich (1263-1288), and then his son Oleg Romanovich (1288-1307), were entrenched in the Chernigov land and the throne. Metropolitan Maxim of Kiev also moved here in 1299. However, the possibility of integrating all the principalities of South-Eastern Russia under the auspices of Bryansk was soon lost.

According to many historians (A. Nasonov, A. Kuzmin, A. Gorsky), most likely, the main role here the fact that the Bryansk princes were part of the coalition of Russian princes, who were guided by the temnik Nogai, played a role. But in 1300 the rebellious temnik was killed and its conqueror, the Horde Khan Tokhta, transferred Bryansk into the possession of the Smolensk prince Alexander Glebovich (1297-1313), and gave Chernigov to the loyal Kozelsk prince Svyatoslav Mstislavich (1300-1310). The princely table in Chernigov was never assigned to any of the branches of the Olgovichi, and in 1356 most of Chernigov lands also went into the possession of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In the north-eastern part of the Chernihiv lands, appanage principalities The Rurikovichs, where the famous Russian princely dynasties of the Mezetsky, Obolensky, Volkonsky, Dolgorukovs, Baryatinsky, Vorotynsky, Bolkhovsky, Mosalsky, Gorchakov, Repnins, Shcherbatovs and others were subsequently formed.

In Southwestern Russia, as a result of the unification of Galician and Volyn lands under the rule of Grand Duke Daniel Romanovich (1238―1264), a strong state formation was formed that managed to avoid any significant political fragmentation. Initially, Prince Daniel, like other Russian princes, recognized the power of Batu. But in 1252, after repelling the invasion of Kuremsa, he set aside from the Horde, and already in 1254, hoping to receive real help from Catholic Europe, he took the royal title from the hands of Pope Innocent IV. However, the European monarchs, together with the Roman archpastor, as always, cheated Prince Daniel, and after the new invasion of the Burundian Temnik in 1259, he again had to admit his dependence on the Horde.

After Daniel's death, the seniority in the dynasty passed to his younger brother Vasilko (1238-1269), who continued to reign in Vladimir. Capital Galich went to his eldest son Lev Danilovich (1264-1301). After the death of Vasilko Romanovich, his vast Volyn possessions were inherited by the eldest son Vladimir Vasilkovich (1269―1289), who, together with his cousin, Prince Lev, in the 1270―1280s. constantly fought with the Hungarians, Yatvingians and Yatvingians. After the death of Vladimir, Prince Leo established himself on his throne and until the end of his days ruled alone the vast territory of the entire Galicia-Volyn Rus.

After Leo's death, the Galician-Volyn throne passed to his eldest son Yuri Lvovich (1301―1308), who in 1303 obtained recognition from the Patriarch of Constantinople as a separate Metropolitan of Russia, since Metropolitan Maxim of Kiev had long since moved to North-Eastern Russia. Canonically, this metropolis was still subordinate to the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia, whose residence was first Vladimir and then Moscow. In 1305, Prince Yuri, like his grandfather, took the title of "King of Little Russia". Moreover, we will note that it is “Malaya Rus”, and not “Ukraine”, as modern candidates of Ukrainian sciences are trying to present. It was from here that the very name of that part of the Russian people - Little Russians, who lived on the territory of Galician and Kievan Rus', stemmed.

After his death, the Galicia-Volyn principality passed into the joint possession of his two sons Andrey Yuryevich and Lev Yuryevich, who, relying on the Teutonic knights and princes of Mazovia, began a struggle against the Golden Horde and Lithuania, which ended with their death in 1323. Polish chroniclers claimed that that their heir to the princely throne was Prince Vladimir Lvovich (1323―1325), who was the last representative of the Romanovichs in Southwestern Russia, but the Russian chronicles do not confirm the fact of the reign of this prince.

After the end of the Rurik dynasty, the son of the Mazovian prince Troyden, Yuri II Boleslav (1323―1340), became the king of "Little Russia", who restored relations with the Horde Khan Uzbek and recognized his dependence on the Horde. Maintaining peace with Lithuania and the Teutonic Order, he at the same time spoiled relations with Hungary and Poland, and in 1337, together with the Mongols, went on a campaign against Krakow. The death of Yuri II put an end to the independence of the Galicia-Volyn principality and ended with its division between neighbors. In Volhynia, the son of the great Lithuanian prince Gediminas Lyubart (1340―1383) was recognized as the ruling prince, and in Galicia the noble boyar Dmitry Detko (1340―1349) became his governor. After his death, the Polish king Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) seized the Galician lands and began a war with the Lithuanians for Volhynia, which ended only in 1392. The result of this war was the incorporation of Galicia and Kholm into the Polish Kingdom, and Volhynia into the Great principality of Lithuania and Russian. Therefore, the pitiful attempts of the current Ukrainian independenceists to present Galicia-Volyn Rus as the second cradle of Ukrainian statehood do not stand up to criticism, since this statehood has completely dissolved in the territory of more powerful neighboring states.

The question of why exactly Northeastern Russia became the center of the gathering of Russian lands was overshadowed for a long time by the more private the problem of the reasons for the rise of Moscow. This is the key problem. Of course, these reasons were of a completely objective nature, and were not the malicious intent of the "damned Muscovites", because:

1) Unlike the Chernigov, Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn princes, the princes of North-Eastern Russia almost did not participate in the ruinous internecine war of the 1230s, which claimed the lives of many Russian princes, boyars and warriors.

2) By the middle of the XIII century. the princes of the Suzdal branch managed to establish control over the Novgorod reign, which objectively turned out to be a more profitable all-Russian table than Galich, and even more so Kiev ruined by the Tatars.

3) Unlike Galicia and Volhynia, which directly bordered on Hungary, Poland, Lithuania and the Horde, Northeastern Russia did not come into contact with Lithuania until the beginning of the 15th century. a kind of "buffer" in the form of the Smolensk principality remained between them.

4) It was the Vladimir princes who were recognized as the "oldest" princes in Russia in the Horde itself, and already in the XIV century. the title of "Grand Duke of All Russia", which had previously been applied only to the Kiev princes, was officially transferred to the great princes of Vladimir.

5) An important factor was the transfer to Vladimir and then to Moscow of the metropolitan throne, which was occupied by the "Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia."

6) A negative role in the history of Galicia-Volyn Rus was played by the termination of the Romanovich dynasty, as one of the branches of the all-Russian princely dynasty of Rurikovich, to which the Horde itself probably had a hand.

Batu's cruel and bloody campaigns led to the emergence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke over the Russian people. The dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde forced people to adapt to new conditions and a new state system.

The conquest of Rus led to a relationship of subordination of the Russian people to the Golden Horde khans. Later, the system of rule of the Mongol-Tatars was organized.

The chronicle of 1243 says that Prince Yaroslav went to Batu, and sent his son to Kanovi. The kagan of the Golden Horde received Yaroslav with great honors and appointed him the most senior prince over all the princes of Russia.

In 1246, the Pope sent a mission led by Plano Carpini, a famous Franciscan, to the Khan of the Golden Horde to collect information about the Tatars. The Europeans were frightened by the invasion of the Mongol Tatars into Europe and the conquest of Russia. In the Horde, he met a Russian prince. In the report, he described in detail all the honors rendered by the Tatars to him and the prince.

The Vladimir-Suzdal and Kiev lands were assigned to the Yaroslavs. However, Yaroslav did not visit Kiev, and appointed boyar Dmitry Eikovich to manage. The conquered lands did not become part of the Golden Horde.

For the Horde Khanate, the lands of Russia were politically autonomous with their own power, but they were obliged to pay "exit" (tribute). There were also emergency payments called requests. For example, the khan organized a military campaign and needed money. He sent an unexpected "request" to the Russian princes, which had to be collected rigorously. A lot of gold was required to appease the khan, his relatives and ambassadors with expensive gifts, to bribe the courtiers and officials of the Golden Horde.

It was announced to the Russian people that the supreme ruler would be the ruler of the Mongol Empire, and that Khan Batu would rule everything. The Khan of the Golden Horde was called "king". The feudal principalities of Russia were in vassal dependence on the khan. The princes who survived the campaigns were commanded to come to the Horde in order to receive a label from Batu to rule. This letter should be a documentary confirmation of the prince's authority to govern a certain principality. The dependence was expressed in the "tsarist grant" of the Russian princes by the khan. The Russian metropolitan or the authorized khan sat on the prince's table. The princes were under the control of the Horde Khan. Control was exercised by the Baskaks, of whom there were one in each principality.

At the end of the 13th century, the Baskaks were killed by the rebellious people. The princes began to collect tribute. However, there was still a formal dependence. The princes were still established in their places by the Tatar khans.

The entire population paid the Tatar "exit". The kaganate even ordered a population census. For the first time they collected tribute and copied the Baskaki people. In 1257, the new khan had already taken advantage of the membership. The Laurentian Chronicle says that they appointed temniks, thousand, centurions and foremen. Further, almost every khan rewrote the Russian people in the conquered territories in a new way.

There was no exact process for the census, but the units of taxation are known for sure: plow, plow, ralo. They previously existed in Russia, and the Tatars simply took advantage of them.

The story is known when Prince Vasily brought a tribute to the khan (0.5 hryvnia from a plow). The khan was dissatisfied with the tribute brought and ordered a census of the population in a new way. Some church chronicles list the payments that the people paid. The Tatars excluded the clergy from the list of taxpayers. They saw the church as a political force, which they used to their advantage. In reality, this was so: submission to the Tatars was consolidated by a public prayer of clergy for the khans.

In addition to tribute, duties were determined to strengthen the power of the Golden Horde.

All captured Russia was divided into tumens - districts, which nominated 10,000 men each in the militia in case of war. The people in them were divided into thousands, hundreds and tens. A total of 29 tumens were formed.

As you can see, the Tatars in Russia took people and money. The clergy released from duties did not supply soldiers to the Tatar army.

There were duties with the use of manpower. For example, the Yamskaya duty - the people supplied horses to Tatar officials and ambassadors. Russia found itself in the system of paths of the Golden Horde: after a given interval of the way, inns with stables were organized. The surrounding people worked there - yamchi. They were obliged to ensure the non-stop movement of the khan's messengers.

As mentioned above, from the XIV century, Russian princes began to collect tribute. They sent tributaries to collect tribute. The dimensions of the "exit" were constantly changing. The princes competed with each other and sought to enrich the Horde Khan to a greater extent. Also, the khan, at his discretion, increased the sum of the "exit".

To retain power in Russia, the Tatars periodically carried out raids. For example, during the second half of the 13th century, 14 raids were organized and carried out.

The princes understood the power of the Golden Horde and refrained from uprisings. This was the only way to save your people from death and slavery. Several generations of princes visited the Horde with expensive gifts and tried to win over the kagan. At the same time, a struggle was fought among the princes for labels on the principality. The Horde authorities in every way fanned such conflicts in order to weaken Russia. But the prince's right to collect tribute made it possible to accumulate money in order to attract supporters and intimidate opponents.

In the second half of the XIV century, the Mongol-Tatar yoke weakened. Internal fragmentation of the Golden Horde weakened it, the Mongols could not organize large armies for military campaigns.

250 years of yoke had a positive effect on the Russian people. He learned from the Horde the techniques of warfare, combat skills, customs duties, and many items of clothing. Yamskaya service existed in Russia for several centuries.

Happened mixed marriages... It was prestigious to be related to the Tatar nobility. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, some of the Horde moved to Russia and became the founders famous families Glinsky, Godunovs, Turgenevs, Shakhmatovs, Urusovs, etc.