China in the 19th century l 1. China in the face of the West. The Opium Wars. The system of unequal contracts. l 2. Taiping uprising. l 3. Self-reinforcement policy. Comprehension of the problems of modernization of China by the intellectual elite of China. l 4. The revolt of the Ichtuan.
l Western countries and their policies in China in the 19th century : l 1) interest in trade contacts. l 16th century -Spain and Portugal, l 17th century. - Holland, l 18th century -England
l Trade monopolies: England - Ost. India Company; China - Gonghong, a guild of merchants in Guangzhou (Canton). l Guangzhou is the only place where trade with foreigners is allowed. Restrictions (quarter, short license period). l Export from China: silk, tea, porcelain
l Large influx of silver into China. l The British are interested in Chinese silver. l The activity of the British in China: to change the balance of trade in their own interests, to create a market for their goods in China, to reduce Chinese customs tariffs, to trade in the hinterland, along the Yangtze.
l 1793 - Lord George Macartney's mission. Failure. Chinese Emperor: “We have everything, I don't need industrial goods from your country. "
l First Opium War 1840-1842 ... l Reasons: England's fight for the "opium markets" in China; l China's prohibition against drug users and sellers
l Lin Zexu and his activities in Guangzhou: destruction of a consignment of opium; England used steam ships, in China - a wooden rowing fleet.
l l l Treaty of Nanking, 1842: 1) China paid compensation to England; 595 tons of silver. 2) opening of five ports for England (Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai) 3) reduction of import duties by 5% for goods imported by England; 4) The right of extraterritoriality for the British 5) the right of "most favored nation" for England
l l l l The import of British fabrics, knives, and pianos increased. - Second Opium War. Unequal treaties with England, France, USA, Russia. 14 ports are open. Unlimited lease of territories by foreigners. Establishment of foreign diplomatic missions. Power diplomacy. Christian sermons throughout the country.
Legalization of the opium trade in 1860. As a result of the war, China turned into a semi-colony, into a source of raw materials and a sales market. l the value of industrial goods imported by Britain to China increased from 969 thousand pounds sterling in 1842 to 2.4 million pounds. Art. in 1845, including textiles - from 616 tons. Art. up to 2 million 175 t. f. Art. The export of raw silk increased from 1787 bales in 1843 to 23 thousand bales in 1851, tea - from 18.7 million pounds to 99.2 million pounds. ... l l
Taiping Uprising (1850 -1864). l What are the reasons for popular discontent? l dissatisfaction with the results of the first opium war, unequal treaties; l After the defeat in the Opium War, the Manchus changed the country's policy of self-isolation to a policy of cooperation with foreigners. This hit hard on the national economy.
Radicalization of the consciousness of the masses in connection with the growing threat colonial takeover... l In China at the end of the 40s. quite a few anti-Manchu and anti-colonial uprisings broke out. There are especially many protest movements on the coast, where many foreign traders have penetrated. The main slogan of the uprisings is "Let us overthrow the TsMN - we will restore the Ming". Ideas of patriotism l
l Natural disasters: the Yellow River spill exacerbated the situation; the spread of Christian ideas of equality and the kingdom of heaven, justice.
l The movement began in Guangxi province. l Ideas of universal equality, redistribution of property, struggle against the "devil" (Manchu dynasty). By 1849 - 10 thousand people. by 1851, fortified in the village of Jintian, Guiping county prov. Guangxi.
Taiping reforms: l Agricultural. Land Law. Equalizing redistribution of land. The goal is to prevent the landlessness of the peasants and hunger. According to the quality of land, there are 9 categories. One allotment of the first category was equal to three allotments of the 9th category. the allotments were distributed among the eaters. The law has not been implemented. In fact, large landholdings and leases have survived. Large landowners were able to pay off the confiscations for a bribe. l
Taiping reforms tax policy. The main burden of taxes rests on the wealthy. The extraordinary taxes associated with providing for the army fell on the wealthy as well. l freedom of foreign trade in taiping territories. Reduced import duties. l social and cultural events: planned equality of rights for men and women, simplified writing, developed journalism l
Taiping reforms - creation of paramilitary communities. Every 25 families - a community, with a common storeroom, where the peasants were obliged to donate all money and supplies, except for the bare essentials. For weddings, funerals, childbirth from the pantry, appropriate assistance was issued. Each family had one representative to carry military service... Thus, the community formed a Platoon headed by the headman. The platoon was mobilized only for the period of the military campaign. V Peaceful time- worked the land. Within the okrug. a corps (500 platoons) was formed. A ruler was placed at the head of the district. The law is not implemented everywhere.
Taiping Movement In the winter of 1853, they embarked on the Northern Expedition to Beijing. Ended up with the defeat of the Taipings. Failed to connect with the Nianjun uprising (300 thousand rebels). Failed to take Tianjin and Beijing. l Large landowners began to create their own armies - "Hunan fellows" Zen Guofan (a major Chinese official) l
Taiping movement l Second period - 1856-1860. the struggle for power within the Taiping elite l Gradually, traditional Chinese monarchical principles prevailed in the ranks of the Taiping elite, despotic moments triumphed, embezzlement, etc.
Taiping Movement l Taiping State in Nanjing - 10 years l Suppressed by the combined efforts of the Qing and Western countries
Second Opium War (1856-1860) l Reason: the desire of England and Western countries to increase their influence on China. l Reason: the Chinese government seized the British ship Arrow, which was carrying smuggled cargo. The British fired at Guangzhou. They were joined by the French.
Second Opium War (1856 -1860) l First stage: autumn 1856-summer 1858 Defeats of the Qing. Tianjin agreements of 4 powers with Qing (England, Fr, USA, Russia): l creation of permanent diplomatic missions of powers in Beijing l the right of foreign merchants to move freely throughout China and trade on the Yangtze River;
Second Opium War (1856 -1860) l new ports were opened for foreign trade, customs and transit duties were reduced; l the opium trade was legalized l indemnity to China (England received 4 million lians of silver);
The Second Opium War (1856 -1860) l Russia, according to the Aigun Treaty (1858), resolved issues of delimitation along the Amur: before the unification of the Amur and Ussuri, the left bank of the Amur - Russia, the right bank - to China. l The territory of the Ussuriysk Territory - in the joint possession of Russia and China.
Second Opium War (1856-1860) l Second stage: 1859-1860 The Anglo-French captured Beijing. The Summer Palace of the Chinese Emperors was plundered, about 200 pavilions, halls, and temples were destroyed.
Second Opium War (1856 -1860) In 1860, Prince Gong signed a treaty with the powers at the Gugong Palace in Beijing: l l l contribution increased to 8 million lians opened for foreign trade Tianjin; it was allowed to use Chinese coolies in the colonies of France and England; The southern part of the Kowloon Peninsula, directly adjacent to Hong Kong, went to Great Britain. In 1860, an agreement was signed in Beijing between China and Russia. The Ussuriysk Territory went to Russia. some ports and Beijing are open for Russian trade.
Self-empowerment policy (1860-1890) Self-empowerment ideologists: l Wei Yuan (1794-1856): China must be strengthened by the hands of the Western barbarians themselves: the camp of barbarians l Feng Guifen (1809 -1875): it is necessary to put traditional Confucian values as the basis of education, Western ideas as the basis of technical modernization.
Self-empowerment policy (1860 -1890) Self-empowerment ideologists: Feng Guifen (1809 -1875): it is necessary to put traditional Confucian values in the basis of education, Western ideas - in the basis of technical modernization.
The policy of "self-reinforcement" (1860 -1890) The "isolationists" and reformers also fought at court. The brothers of the emperor Gong and Chun were in favor of the reforms. Emperor Tongzhi was small, the regent was his mother Cixi (1835 -1908), who was opposed to the reforms. l A feature of the self-reinforcement policy was to become the practice of building industrial enterprises without changing political system... l
Self-empowerment policy (1860 -1890) l Self-empowerment practices: l Li Hongzhong l Zeng Guofan l Zuo Zongtong. These were the Chinese militarists who helped suppress the Taiping uprising.
Self-reinforcement policy (1860 -1890) l What reforms have been implemented? 1) the construction of military factories, the construction of ships, the training of soldiers, the production of machines. The first Western arsenal in China was created by Zeng Guofan in Anqing. Weapons, mechanical factories, shipyards were built in Suzhou, Shanghai, Nanjing, Tianjin. , Guangzhou.
The policy of "self-reinforcement" (1860 -1890) 2) In 1881 in North China - the first Railway l Restrictions on private equity. In the 80s there was some tendency towards privatization, but it was limited by the bureaucracy. l State entrepreneurship was ineffective and led to high costs.
Self-reinforcement policy (1860 -1890) - training of new personnel. 120 young men were sent to the United States in the early 70s, but were quickly recalled, because the government was afraid of the penetration of Western ideas. Military schools and schools of Western sciences were opened in Tianjin and Guangzhou.
The policy of "self-reinforcement" (1860 -1890) l Features of the development of capitalism in China in the second half of the 19th century: within the framework of the state policy of self-reinforcement, state capitalism l in the south some development of small and medium-sized businesses. Rural rich people, officials became entrepreneurs. For 20 years (70s-90s) 70 private firms with employment of 30 thousand people have been opened. l Growth in agricultural marketability, increased cotton exports due to the civil war in the United States. The import of manufactured goods from Western countries led to the development of trade, the emergence of manufactories in China, which imported cheap English yarn and made fabrics from it in China. l foreign enterprises. The Qing gave them benefits. More than 600 foreign firms have been established, including more than 100 industrial enterprises. Shipyards, docks, silk mills, tea, oil processing, cans, transport, communications l
The policy of "self-reinforcement" (1860 -1890) l Features of Chinese modernization: l the simultaneous development of all forms of industrial enterprises (manufactory, factory) l the main role belonged to officials and foreigners. This was a challenge for nationalism. l large non-productive expenditures of sovereigns.
Sino-Japanese War 1894 -1895 Defeat of China. The Shimonoseki Treaty. l l Shimonoseki Peace Treaty: China recognized the independence of Korea, which created favorable opportunities for Japanese expansion in Korea; transferred to Japan forever the island of Taiwan, the Penghu Islands and the Liaodong Peninsula; China paid an indemnity of 200 million liang;
The Shimonoseki Peace Treaty opened a number of ports for trade; l gave the Japanese the right to build industrial enterprises in China and import industrial equipment there. The last point, by virtue of the principle of most favored nation, included in the treaties between China and other powers, opened up wide opportunities for the economic penetration of foreign capital into China. l
Russia in China In 1898, a weakened China agreed to transfer Port Arthur to Russia on a 25-year concession, and also granted Russia the right to build a railroad. l Thus, the interests and spheres of influence of Russia and Japan collided, because in order to have access to the fortified area of Port Arthur, Russia had to control all of Eastern Manchuria, right up to Harbin - the lands immediately adjacent to Korea, which Japan considered its sphere influence. l. l
l Japan's concession to Western countries was sharply negatively perceived by Japanese society, and with the strengthening of militarist and expansionist circles in Japan led to the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. ll prerequisites for the resumption of the reform movement: China has lost influence on the territories once dependent on it - Burma, Annam (Vietnam), Korea, Nepal, Kanzhut, Sikkit, the islands of Lucyu (Ryukyu) China has lost its ancestral lands - Taiwan, Xianggang (Hong Kong) ), Penghulidao Islands. He was forced to transfer to the "lease" to the powers Jiaozhouwan, Kowloon, Guangzhouwan, Weihaiwei, Lushun (Port Arthur), to allocate in large Chinese cities land under concessions and settlements and grant foreigners special rights. This provoked a protest from the liberal-minded strata of the nation. The peak of the protest came in 1898.
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. preconditions for the resumption of the reform movement: l China lost its ancestral lands - Taiwan, Xianggang (Hong Kong), Penghulidao Islands. Defeat in the Sino-Japanese War. l leased out to the powers of Jiaozhouwan, Kowloon, Guangzhouwan, Weihaiwei, Lushun (Port Arthur), land plots in large Chinese cities were allocated for concessions and settlements, and special rights were granted to foreigners. l
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. l This provoked a protest from the liberal-minded strata of the nation. l The peak of protest was in 1898.
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. Kang Yuwei, author of the social theory of "great togetherness". Was born in 1856 (1858) in the south of China, in prov. Guangdong, in an impoverished landlord family. l The main problem: how to modernize the country and preserve its cultural identity? l According to various sources, he either could not get an education due to poverty, or, on the contrary, received it, began to work as a teacher in a rural school. I read a lot. l
Kang Yuwei (1858 -1927) l In 1884 -87. worked on the creation of the doctrine of the "Great Unity", which he outlined in the "Book of the Great Unity" ("Datong Shu").
The doctrine of great unity The source of troubles is private property, writes about the advantages of public property. Ideal Great Unity Society: 1) planning 2) there will be no overproduction, there will be no private trade. l 3) There will be public self-government in politics. l 4) How to liquidate private property? Eliminate the institution of marriage and inheritance of property. Men and women should enter into voluntary relationships, their children should be fully supported by the state. l l l
The doctrine of great unity Conclusion: in 60 years families, private property relations between husband and wife and children and parents will disappear. Large property (factories, factories) after their death will be transferred to the state. Thus, in 100 years the Great Unity will be achieved. l Gradually liquidate the state, through the expansion of republicanism, the expansion people's rights l
Kang Yuwei. Biography. leader of the reform movement in China at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. l Born March 19, 1858 in Nanhai County, Guangdong Province. l A native of an intelligent landowner and bureaucratic family, which traced its lineage to the end of the II millennium BC. NS. and numbered 13 generations of scientists. l Has shown extraordinary mental abilities since childhood. l
Like Yuwei. Biography. 1858 -1927. lll Supporter of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism (Lu Jiu Yuan - 12th century, Wang Yang Ming - 15th century) 1879 - first visit to Hong Kong, interest in the West Failed to pass the Shen Shi exam 1885 begins work on a book about the great unity 1888 - the first memorandum on the need for reform
Kang Yuwei's reform projects l l l l l active recruitment of overseas Chinese immigrants, the transfer of the capital from Beijing to the more ancient Xi'an, issued by a state bank paper money, the minting of a small change, the creation of a state postal system, the transformation of Confucianism into a full-fledged national religion, the creation of an elected advisory body under the emperor. recommended to repeat the experience of the Japanese "Meiji revolution" (1867-1868) and the reforms of Peter I, the plan of resettlement of the Chinese to Brazil for the establishment of New China there.
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. establish a university in Beijing and educational establishments l
The Chinese Reform Movement in the Late 19th Century. Kang Yu Wei. The reformers were supported by Guangxu and the period of "one hundred days of reforms" began (June 11 - September 21, 1898) l The end of this reform activities put the betrayal of General Yuan Shikai (1859-1916) and the palace coup of the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908), who placed Guangxu under house arrest and usurped power. l Kang Yuwei, sentenced to death, managed to escape with the help of the British in Hong Kong. l Six other leaders of the Reform Party, including Tan Sytong (1865-1898) and Kang Yuwei's brother Kang Yupu (1867-1898), were executed without trial in September of that year. l
Kang Yuwei spent the next sixteen years in exile, wandering the world. Continuing to pin his hopes on Wang Xu, in 1899 in Canada, he founded the Emperor's Defense Party (Bao Huang Dan). After the overthrow of the empire in 1911, Kang Yuwei advocated for its constitutional restoration and participated in the failed restoration attempts in 1917 and 1924. l In the draft of the first constitution published in 1915 Republic of China the institutionalization of Confucianism as a state religion was proclaimed, but this constitution was not adopted. l
Kang Yuwei. Biography. 1858 -1927 l. At the end of his life, he was abandoned by everyone, and in disappointment from the failure of grandiose plans he himself sought to renounce the world in a "heavenly journey" (tian yu), but died of food poisoning in Qingdao, Shandong province on March 31, 1927. (http: // dic.academic.ru / dic.nsf / enc_colier / 26 24 /% D 0% 9 A% D 0% 90% D 0% 9 D # sel = )
The defeat of 100 days of reforms l l l On September 21, 1898, a reactionary coup took place: Guangxu was arrested, spent 10 years in prison until his death in 1908. Cixi gained full power. Kang Yuwei and Liang Qichao fled to Japan. Many reformers were executed and arrested.
Defeat 100 days of reform l Reasons for defeat? l 1) fear of democracy, l 2) the top-down nature of reforms, l 3) monarchism of society, l 4) the weakness of the liberal strata in China.
The uprising of the ihetuanians of 1899 -1901 The secret society "Fist for Justice and Harmony" is the secret society of Yihequan. Against the Qing and against foreigners. l Great attention paid military training, martial arts (wushu): in Europe they were called "boxers". l Xenophobia: foreigners, missionaries who criticized the traditional whale were blamed for all the troubles. religion l
Saints 222 Martyrs Orthodox Church who died in Beijing during the uprising mercilessly exterminated foreigners, primarily Christian missionaries, as well as Chinese who converted to Christianity, or simply corrupt officials. l rejection of the "ugly" technocratic civilization of our time. l
ihétuan l destroyed all foreign-type buildings, locomotives and carriages, dismantled railway tracks, chopped down telegraph poles, wrecked cars, destroyed captured weapons, collected and burned European clothes. l dreams of property equality
l Feature: active participation of women and children. It was believed that women in much to a greater extent than men are subject to Magic force, and they willingly joined the rebels and created their own associations and detachments. One of them was called Hongdengzhao (Red Lantern Light) because its members acted only at night. The leader of this division was Huang Lian. She was born into a boatman's family and before the uprising was known as lung woman behavior. During the uprising, she was a little over 30 years old. She was considered a witch, a sorceress, able to heal the most severe wounds.
l Children 10 - 12 years old also willingly joined the ranks of the Ichtuan. During the battle, they usually walked in front of the main forces. There were also purely children's detachments, and children-mediums who were in contact with supernatural powers and those calling for the fight against foreigners, enjoyed the greatest prestige among the population.
ih etuans - ih etuans even broke electric lamps and clocks, and dealt with those who found pince-nez, cigarettes, foreign umbrellas and foreign socks.
The uprising of the ichtuan l l l l 1898 - in the north-west of Shandong, the ikhetuan appeared, mainly on the territory of the German concessions. They smashed the missions They recruited the rural poor to their side In the summer of 1900 - in Beijing and Tianjin Western countries were preparing for a war with the Ichtuan, they called them terrorists. 1900 10 foreign states start invasion of China
Suppression of the uprising of the Ichtuanians - England, France, the USA, Japan, Russia, Italy, Germany and ... even the weakened one not having a single overseas colony, Austria-Hungary took part in the intervention against the Ihhetuanians; l The Cixi government betrayed the ihetuan and participated in the suppression of the uprising
Suppression of the Ihetuan rebellion l western armies within a few days they plundered Beijing, emptying all the treasuries. The imperial palaces, which kept many unique things and cultural works, were especially affected.
The revolt of the Ichtuanians l Aug. 1900 West The troops sacked Beijing. Cixi and Guangxu fled the city. l Li Hong Zhang: negotiations with foreigners l What did you agree on?
The revolt of the ihetuan l "Boxing Protocol" l For five years canceled the degree exams for officials in those provinces who supported the ihetuan (revenge on them) l Contribution approx. 13 thousand tons of silver
V early XIX centuries in China there were destructive internal processes that weakened the state. The policy of the Qing rulers did not satisfy the population; a deep crisis began to emerge, which covered almost all spheres of life. Popular unrest gained momentum throughout the first third of the century. The economic situation was deplorable: 1. landlessness of the peasants, 2. usury flourished. 3. Urban manufactories were dependent on monopolists. In this situation, the influence of the Europeans served as a catalyst for the crisis, and China itself was of great interest to them. China's political weakness allowed the British and French to put pressure on the government and gradually undermined Chinese sovereignty.
In the first third of the XIX century. China pursued a policy of self-isolation. European industry developed rapidly, in England a surplus of production was gradually outlined. China, with its high population density, had enormous commercial potential. In addition to marketing, the British were attracted by the relatively cheap Chinese silver and tea. The ruling Qing dynasty in China sought to restrict the volume of trade and suspend cultural exchange with the British, fearing their influence on the established order of Chinese society. Christianity penetrated into China and gradually spread. In addition, it was the British who imported into the country large consignments of Indian opium, the smoking of which became extremely popular.
Before the city of Anglo-Chinese trade on both sides was in the hands of monopolists. England was represented by the East India Company, and China by the society of Gong merchants, completely controlled by the government. In 1834 the East India Company lost its trade monopoly. The main stumbling block was Indian opium. The import of the drug was officially banned back in 1800, but over the next 35 years the volume of imports increased more than 20 times (reaching 40 thousand boxes a year). In 1836, China abandoned the idea of legalization and launched an anti-opium campaign. For trade with the British, only the ports were officially opened: Macau and Canton. In 1839. Governor Lin Zexu, authorized to solve the opium question, was sent to Canton.
First Opium War (gg.) On March 23, 1839, Lin requested a visit to Canton for an explanation from the General Manager of the English Trade, Captain Eliot, and a resident of the East India Company. Upon their arrival, they were declared prisoners until the English subjects in China surrendered all the opium they had. At the same time, by special order, Lin forbade the Chinese servants to appear in the port and cut off the supply of water and food to the British who were there. Five days later, the Blocked Port sent a representative, who announced the readiness of the British to hand over more than 20 thousand boxes of drugs. At the beginning of the summer, this entire batch was destroyed, and the system of punishments for Chinese citizens for the opium trade became stricter.
The Canton incident was sufficient reason for a response from England and, in fact, marked the beginning of the first Opium War. In February 1840, a squadron under the command of Admiral Eliot was sent to China. Chinese Army: Large but poorly trained. Equipped: match rifles, but most are armed with bows and melee melee weapons. In June 1840, the British arrived in southern China, blocking the Amoy, Ningbo, Cato and the mouths of three rivers: the Minjiang, Yangtze and Baihe. The British issued an ultimatum: 1. transfer to England of the island of Hong Kong, 2. full compensation for the consignment of opium destroyed in the Catonian incident 3. resumption of trade. The conservative Chinese empire was not ready to face England. Negotiations began immediately with the British on their terms. This approach provoked protests from the Chinese aristocracy.
The results of the first opium war were recorded by the Nanjing Treaty on August 29, 1842. The Chinese government: 1. sanctioned bilateral trade with the British in five major ports: Katone, Ningbo, Shanghai, Amoy and Fuzhou, 2. the duty on British goods was set at a minimum 5%. 3. The Chinese trade monopoly was liquidated. 4. China paid indemnity in silver 5. The island of Hong Kong came under the rule of Great Britain. The Treaty of Humyn of 1843: 1. in the ports open for trade, residential quarters of the British were formed with the right to self-government settlements (i.e. settlements). 2. In the settlements, English law was in force, the protection of order was carried out by the foreigners themselves. In 1844, the United States (with the right to duty-free cabotage) and France (with the right to spread Catholicism) also achieved the conclusion of such agreements. The Chinese economy was in a difficult situation: the import of British cotton ruined local producers, and the large-scale export of silver devalued copper money and provoked inflation.
Second Opium War () The Taiping insurgency was directed against the Qing and Manchu aristocracy. From 1856 to 1860 the Taiping movement proclaimed the creation of the state of Taiping Tianguo. Europeans on early stage considered the Taiping policy to be beneficial to themselves. The Taipings managed to capture Nanjing (1853), which became their new capital, and in 1855 to defeat the large army of Zeng Guofan. At the end of 1956, Great Britain and France launched a new military campaign in China, seeking to increase its dependence. This campaign went down in history as the Second Opium War.
In December 1857, Anglo-French troops occupied Guangzhou. The Qing, forced to wage a war on two fronts (civil war and intervention), made new concessions. In June 1858 England and France received the right: 1. to open their diplomatic missions in Beijing 2. free navigation on the Yangtze river 3. unhindered movement of British and French subjects throughout China. The United States received the right to navigate inland rivers. Russia has signed two significant agreements. Aigun Treaty transferred to Russia the left bank of the Amur below the river. Arguni. Tianjin right to trade in all ports and consular jurisdictions open to foreigners.
First half of the 19th century for China it turned out to be a time of economic, political and social crises. Imports of high-quality European goods ruined Chinese producers, and agriculture was gradually depleted. The first Opium War served as a catalyst for a social crisis, which resulted in peasant uprisings in the 1940s, and later in a large-scale Taiping movement. The Second Opium War cemented and expanded the influence of Europeans in China, giving them exclusive rights that violated the country's interests and drained its economy. Opium Wars contributed to the spread of European culture and the spread of Christianity
At the end of the 19th century, China was a backward, semi-feudal state. The bulk of the land was in the hands of wealthy landowners. Most of the peasants rented land from landowners, paying rent in money or part of the harvest. There were very few peasants who owned land.
Peasants came to the city in search of work. But work was not always found, because in China the industry developed very slowly.
Capitalist relations began to develop in the country from the last quarter of the 19th century. The first railways were built, economic relations developed, big cities... The number of workers has increased. With the advent of industry, the national bourgeoisie began to form. But most of the representatives of the national bourgeoisie were compradors, who in reality were agents of foreign firms and grew rich due to the trade in foreign goods and the purchase of cheap raw materials.
The Qing dynasty, in need of money, entered into unequal treaties with foreign states that contradicted national interests... Already in the 70s, foreigners received unlimited rights in 26 ports in China, where they operated like at home.
The construction of railways was run by foreigners. Most of coal mines were also in their possession. China has become a raw material base for foreign countries. Foreigners organized their neighborhoods in big cities and, neglecting the administration of China, conducted their own affairs on their own.
The defeat of China in the war with Japan in 1894-1895 led to the further plundering and enslavement of China by foreign monopolists. In 1897-1898, Germany seized the port (bay) of Jiaozhouwan and included Shandong Prefecture in its circle of influence. France seized the Gulf of Guamchjuwan and began to dominate the province of Yunnan. Russia receives Lushun, where it builds a naval base of Port Arthur, and England asserts its dominance in the port of Wei Highway. The richest area along the Yangtze River came under the influence of England. The Japanese invaders began to dominate the Fujian province. Any construction or change in China was controlled by the occupiers. Thus, China has become a semi-colony.
Industrial development and foreign domination
At the end of the 19th century, the first industrial enterprises began to appear in China; in 1881, the first railway was put into operation in North China. In 1897, there were about 600 foreign firms here, but the growth and increase in the number of industrial enterprises was very slow.
Imports far exceeded exports. The convention, drawn up in 1876 between China and England, further enslaved China. The convention gave England the right to free entry to more than 10 ports and preferential trade in a number of prefectures.
In 1884, due to the occupation of Vietnam by France, relations between France and China deteriorated. In the same year, China renounced official rule over Central Vietnam and recognized a French protectorate there. The Chinese government entered into an emergency agreement with France and "ceded" to France on a number of controversial issues.
Social movement
The plundering by foreign states of China, when it had just embarked on the path of industrial development, had a heavy impact on the state of the population. Various social movements for the further development of the country were formed, which in general were called the reformist movement. In the social movement of this period, a special place belongs to Sun Yat Sen. He was the "leader" leading China to revolution. Sun Yat Sen's organization called the China Awakening Society fought to overthrow the Qing Dynasty of the Manchus and to establish a democratic nation-state in China.
V public life During this period, an underground organization called "Yihetuan" (Fist raised for peace and justice) also played a large role in China. The Ihetuanians acted under the motto "Let's disperse the Manchu Qing, we will destroy the foreigners!"
In 1899, the Ihe Tuan movement developed into an uprising. The Ihetuan people put forward such demands as the suspension of the payment of the contribution to Japan, the unification of Taiwan with China, etc. The Qing dynasty was frightened by the uprising, because the Ihetuan people held in their hands almost half of the capital and province. In 1900, the troops directed by the government against the rebels were defeated.
Well-organized rebel groups began their march to Beijing and established their rule there.
Intervention against China
This event was the pretext for foreign intervention in Beijing. Eight states took part in the intervention: Germany, Japan, Italy, England, USA, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary. Each of them counted on a large share in China.
In September 1899, US Secretary of State Hay's policy of "open doors and equal opportunities" was announced, called the Hay Doctrine.
In July 1900, foreign invaders launched an offensive. In August, Beijing was taken. The invaders ransacked the city and the imperial palace. Eight states forced China to sign an onerous treaty. The treaty demanded the execution or expulsion of officials who participated in the uprising, and it was also allowed foreign states keep your troops in China to protect the roads between Beijing and the sea coast. In addition, China was forced to pay indemnity to foreign invaders in the amount of $ 33 million. The importation of weapons into China was prohibited. Privileges for foreigners in China have increased. As a result, China is left even more vulnerable.
At the same time, the uprising of the Ichuans forced the colonialists to proceed with caution.
Intervention (lat. Interventio - interference) is a violent intervention in order to conquer territory in the internal affairs of another state, to establish one's own power.
Comprador (Spanish comprador - buyer, purchaser) is a representative of a layer of the local bourgeoisie of backward and dependent states, engaged in mediation between foreign capital and the domestic market.
Convention (lat. Conventio - treaty) is one of the types of multilateral international treaty, agreement.
In the first half of the XIX century. Qing China entered a period of crisis and decline. Under military pressure from European powers, the ruling Qing dynasty abandoned its policy of self-isolation. The entire world was shown the economic and political backwardness of the Chinese state. The Taiping peasant war that broke out in the 1950s shook the foundations of the Qing Empire to its foundations.
Territory and population growth
At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. China was a huge empire that included Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and East Turkestan. V vassalage from the Qing dynasty were Korea, Vietnam and Burma. More than 300 million people lived in this country. The population grew so rapidly that in fifty years it increased to 400 million and amounted to almost a third of humanity.
Aggravation of social contradictions
The rapid population growth was not accompanied by a sufficient increase in acreage. In densely populated areas, land was scarce, which was one of the reasons for social tension in Chinese society. Another reason was the arbitrariness and extortion of officials.
In China, the emperor was considered the unrestricted ruler of the entire state, the "father and mother" of all Chinese. Officials, in turn, are the “parents” of the entire population under their care. The steward parents were real despots. They administered judgment and reprisals at their own discretion. Indirect taxes were introduced under various pretexts (on tea, salt, tobacco, rice, bread, sugar, meat, firewood), appropriating a significant part of them.
And the grief was for the peasant who dared to ask for protection from the higher authorities. The complaint was still returned to the abuser for consideration. Whipping was the most common punishment. "Officials of the empire are worse than robbers" - this is how one of the leaders of the Taiping peasant uprising spoke of them.
The first "opium" war
At this time, the Europeans increased their pressure on China. They sought to "open" the country in order to conduct unlimited trade with it and gradually turn it into their colonial appendage.
England was the most active. She was even ready for military action. But the first breach in the wall of Chinese self-isolation was not broken by weapons, but by the drug - opium. The history of its spread in China is very dramatic and instructive.
The Europeans have already supplied this poison to China, paying for Chinese goods with it. But in the first third of the XIX century. imports of opium increased significantly. The English merchants were in a particularly advantageous position. They supplied the drug from the newly conquered India. Opium smoking has become widespread in China. Government officials and soldiers, the owners of workshops and shops, smoked servants and women, and even future monks and Taoist preachers smoked. The health of the nation was in grave danger. In addition, the opium trade facilitated the siphoning of silver from China, resulting in financial position the country has deteriorated.
The harm from opium was so obvious that in 1839 the Chinese emperor banned the import of it into the country. All stocks of drugs belonging to English and other foreign merchants were confiscated and destroyed. In response to these actions, British troops landed in the ports of China. Thus began the Anglo-Chinese, or first "opium" war of 1839-1842. The American president called the war that England unleashed was just.
In the course of the war, the negative consequences of the policy of self-isolation became apparent. The Chinese army was armed with only tiny junks (boats) and edged weapons. The military command was weak and helpless. It knew almost nothing about the international situation and about the country with which it was at war. During the war, a Chinese governor finally made a "discovery." It turns out that the wheels of steamers are rotated not by bulls, but by machines. It is not hard to guess what the given fact testifies to.
Is it any wonder that the defeats of the Chinese troops followed one after the other. Fearing complete defeat, the Qing government hastened to capitulate. Under the peace treaty, England won free trade for its subjects in five Chinese ports. Low customs duties were set on British goods - no more than 5%. China paid England a huge contribution (21 million lians) and ceded the island of Hong Kong (Hong Kong), which only in 1997 became Chinese again. The British also received the right to disobey Chinese laws and courts.
Following England, other European states concluded similar treaties with China. As a result, China was open to foreign infiltration and intervention.
Taiping Uprising 1850-1864
The defeat of China by the "European barbarians" led to a decline in the prestige of the Qing dynasty and an increase in anti-Manchu sentiment. Not only ordinary Chinese, but also some of the landowners were dissatisfied with the ruling dynasty. Military expenses, indemnity paid to the winner, were paid by additional taxes from the population. The peasants found themselves in a particularly difficult situation. Many of them were beggars and eked out a half-starved existence. Some abandoned their households and joined the ranks of the robbery freemen, which was widespread in China. Secret anti-Manchu societies sprang up everywhere, and the air clearly smelled of thunder.
A powerful anti-feudal uprising broke out in the summer of 1850. It swept the central regions of China and lasted for almost 15 years. During the uprising, a "welfare state" - Taipingtianguo was created. Therefore, the rebels were often called taipins.
The leader of the uprising was Hong Xiuquan, a native of a peasant family, a teacher in a rural school. Strongly influenced by Christianity, he called himself younger brother Jesus Christ and preached the idea of equality. He dreamed of creating a "world of great tranquility" and justice. To achieve this goal, in his opinion, it is necessary to overthrow the Qing dynasty. All Manchus - even commoners - were to be exterminated.
In 1851 Hong Xiuquan was proclaimed emperor of the Taiping state. He and his associates tried to put into practice the idea of universal equality. The "Land Law" adopted by them proclaimed joint cultivation of land and equal distribution of material wealth.
England and France closely followed the development of the civil war in China. They decided to use it to penetrate into the interior of the country. The Qing government tried to resist this. Then England and France went over to open aggression. The second "opium" war began (1856-1860). In the fall of 1860, Anglo-French troops entered Beijing, abandoned by the emperor and his nobles. The Europeans plundered the city and exterminated the civilian population.
Their particular attention was drawn to the Emperor's Summer Palace. It was one of the finest architectural structures cities. It consisted of 200 buildings filled with luxury goods, Chinese arts and crafts. During the division of the spoils, so that everyone would get "equally" and "according to their deserts," the Europeans created a commission. Special gifts were selected for Queen Victoria of England and the Emperor of France. However, a civilized division did not work out. Blinded by the brilliance of wealth and distraught with greed, the soldiers began to plunder the palace. Then, to hide the traces of the barbarian robbery, the palace was burned down. The place where he stood turned into a wasteland.
The Qing government, preoccupied with the fight against the Taiping, refused to continue the war with foreigners. It capitulated, making new concessions. Only after that did the European powers help the Manchu feudal lords in the ruthless suppression of the Taipings, who, unlike the Qing, called foreigners "brothers" and not "barbarians." The Taiping uprising, in many ways similar to the uprisings of Razin and Pugachev in Russia, ended in defeat.
The Taiping Peasant War was the longest-running uprising in Chinese history. Many millions of people died. Much of the country was devastated and destroyed. The civil war weakened China and the ruling Qing dynasty to the utmost.
IT'S INTERESTING TO KNOW
"Holy letter" in China
"Hieroglyph" in translation from Greek means "sacred letter". Chinese writing using hieroglyphs is the oldest in the world. It arose in the 18th century. BC NS. This is really the hardest and most difficult letter. To understand it, let us use the following comparison. If we need to write, for example, the word "man", then we will write the letter "h", then "e", then "l", etc. And the Chinese draw a symbol for the concept of "man." There are many words in the language, and each one needs an icon, i.e. hieroglyph. At the dawn of the emergence of hieroglyphs, at first they simply drew a person with a head, arms, and legs. However, when writing quickly, there is no time to draw out all the details. human body... Therefore, after a while, the drawing turned into a conventional image, vaguely reminiscent of its progenitor.
References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History Modern times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.
China's reforms in the 19th century were the result of a long and extremely painful process. The ideology established over many centuries, based on the principle of the deification of the emperor and the superiority of the Chinese over all the surrounding peoples, inevitably collapsed, breaking the way of life of representatives of all segments of the population.
New masters of the Celestial Empire
Since the Manchu invasion of China in the middle of the 17th century, the life of its population has not undergone dramatic changes. The deposed were replaced by the rulers of the Qing clan, who made Beijing the capital of the state, and all the key posts in the government were occupied by the descendants of the conquerors and those who supported them. Otherwise, everything remained the same.
As history has shown, the new masters of the country were prudent managers, since China entered the 19th century as a fairly developed agrarian country with established internal trade. In addition, their policy of expansion led to the fact that 18 provinces were included in the Celestial Empire (as China was called by its inhabitants), and a number of neighboring states paid tribute to it, being in Beijing annually received gold and silver from Vietnam, Korea, Nepal, Burma, as well as the states of Ryukyu, Siam and Sikkim.
Son of Heaven and His Subjects
The social structure of China in the 19th century was like a pyramid, on top of which sat the bogdykhan (emperor), who enjoyed unlimited power. Below it was the courtyard, which consisted entirely of the relatives of the sovereign. In his direct subordination were: the supreme chancellery, as well as the state and military councils. Their decisions were enforced by six executive departments, whose competence included issues: judicial, military, ceremonial, tax and, in addition, related to the assignment of ranks and the performance of public works.
The domestic policy of China in the 19th century was based on the ideology according to which the emperor (bogdykhan) was the Son of Heaven, who received a mandate from higher powers to govern the country. According to this concept, all residents of the country, without exception, were reduced to the level of his children, who were obliged to unquestioningly fulfill any command. An analogy with the Russian anointed monarchs of God involuntarily suggests itself, whose power was also given a sacred character. The only difference was that the Chinese considered all foreigners to be barbarians, obliged to tremble before their incomparable Master of the world. In Russia, fortunately, they did not think of this.
Steps of the social ladder
It is known from the history of China in the 19th century that the dominant position in the country belonged to the descendants of the Manchu conquerors. Below them, on the steps of the hierarchical ladder, were placed ordinary Chinese (Han), as well as Mongols who were in the service of the emperor. Next came the barbarians (that is, not the Chinese) who lived in the territory of the Celestial Empire. They were Kazakhs, Tibetans, Dungans and Uighurs. The lowest level was occupied by the semi-savage Juan and Miao tribes. As for the rest of the planet's population, in accordance with the ideology of the Qing Empire, it was viewed as a collection of external barbarians unworthy of the attention of the Son of Heaven.
Army of china
Since in the 19th century it was focused mainly on the capture and subjugation of neighboring peoples, a significant part of the state budget was spent on the maintenance of a very large army. It consisted of infantry, cavalry, sapper units, artillery and navy. The core was the so-called Eight Banner troops, formed from the Manchus and Mongols.
The heirs of an ancient culture
In the 19th century, Chinese culture was built on a rich heritage inherited from the rulers of the Ming dynasty and their predecessors. In particular, the ancient tradition was preserved, on the basis of which all applicants for a particular state position were required to pass a strict examination of their knowledge. Thanks to this, a layer of highly educated bureaucracy was formed in the country, whose representatives were called “shengyi”.
Representatives ruling class The ethical and philosophical teachings of the ancient Chinese sage Kun Fuzi (6th-5th centuries BC), known today as Confucius, were always held in high esteem. Revised in the 11th - 12th centuries, it formed the basis of their ideology. The bulk of the population of China in the 19th century professed Buddhism, Taoism, and in the western regions - Islam.
Closed political system
Showing a fairly broad religious tolerance, the rulers at the same time made a lot of efforts to preserve the internal political system. They developed and published a set of laws that determined the punishment for political and criminal offenses, and also established a system of mutual responsibility and total surveillance, which covered all segments of the population.
At the same time, China in the 19th century was a country closed to foreigners, and especially to those of them who sought to establish political and economic contacts with its government. Thus, the attempts of the Europeans not only to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing, but even to supply the goods produced by them to its market ended in failure. China's economy in the 19th century was so self-sufficient that it could be shielded from any outside influence.
Popular uprisings in the early 19th century
However, despite the external well-being, a crisis was gradually brewing in the country, caused by both political and economic reasons... First of all, it was provoked by the extreme uneven economic development of the provinces. In addition, an important factor was social inequality and infringement of the rights of national minorities. Already at the beginning of the 19th century, mass discontent resulted in popular uprisings, led by representatives secret societies"Heavenly Mind" and "The Secret Lotus". All of them were brutally suppressed by the government.
Defeat in the First Opium War
In terms of its economic development, China in the 19th century lagged significantly behind the leading Western countries, in which this historical period was marked by rapid industrial growth. In 1839, the British government tried to take advantage of this and forcefully open its markets for its goods. The reason for the outbreak of hostilities, dubbed the "First Opium War" (there were two of them), was the seizure in the port of Guangzhou of a significant consignment of drugs illegally imported into the country from British India.
In the course of the fighting, the extreme inability of the Chinese forces to resist the most advanced army at the time, which Britain had at its disposal, was clearly manifested. The subjects of the Son of Heaven suffered one defeat after another, both on land and at sea. As a result, the British met June 1842 in Shanghai, and after a while they forced the government of the Celestial Empire to sign an act of surrender. According to the agreement reached, from now on, the British were given the right to free trade in five port cities of the country, and the island of Hong Kong, which previously belonged to China, was relegated to them in "eternal possession."
The results of the First Opium War, very favorable for the British economy, were disastrous for the ordinary Chinese. The flood of European goods pushed the products of local producers out of the markets, many of which went bankrupt as a result. In addition, China has become a destination for vast quantities of drugs. They were imported earlier, but after the opening of the national market for foreign imports, this disaster took on catastrophic proportions.
Taiping uprising
The result of the increased social tension was another uprising that engulfed the entire country in the middle of the 19th century. Its leaders called on the people to build a happy future, which they called the "Heavenly Welfare State." In Chinese it sounds like "Taiping Tian". Hence the name of the participants in the uprising - taiping. Their distinguishing mark was red headbands.
At a certain stage, the rebels managed to achieve significant success and even create a kind of socialist state on the occupied territory. But very soon their leaders were distracted from the formation happy life and completely surrendered to the struggle for power. The imperial troops took advantage of this circumstance and, with the help of the same British, defeated the rebels.
Second Opium War
As payment for their services, the British demanded a revision of the trade agreement concluded in 1842 and the provision of large benefits to them. Having received a refusal, the subjects of the British crown resorted to previously proven tactics and again staged a provocation in one of the port cities. This time, the pretext was the arrest of the ship Arrow, on board of which drugs were also found. The conflict that broke out between the governments of both states led to the beginning of the Second Opium War.
This time the hostilities had even more disastrous consequences for the emperor of the Celestial Empire than those that took place in the period 1839 - 1842, since the French, hungry for easy prey, joined the British troops. As a result of joint actions, the allies occupied a significant part of the country's territory and again forced the emperor to sign an extremely unfavorable agreement.
The collapse of the dominant ideology
The defeat in the Second Opium War led to the opening of diplomatic missions of the victorious countries in Beijing, whose citizens received the right to free movement and trade throughout the territory of the Middle Kingdom. However, the troubles did not end there. In May 1858, the Son of Heaven was forced to recognize the left bank of the Amur as the territory of Russia, which finally undermined the reputation of the Qing dynasty in the eyes of its own people.
The crisis caused by the defeat in Opium Wars, and the weakening of the country as a result of popular uprisings led to the collapse of the state ideology, which was based on the principle - "China surrounded by barbarians." Those states, which, according to official propaganda, were supposed to “tremble” before the empire headed by the Son of Heaven, turned out to be much stronger than it. In addition, foreigners who freely visited China told its residents about a completely different world order, based on principles that exclude worship of a deified ruler.
Forced reforms
Finances were also very deplorable for the country's leadership. Most of the provinces that were formerly Chinese tributaries came under the protectorate of the stronger European states and stopped replenishing the imperial treasury. Moreover, at the end of the 19th century, China was engulfed in popular rebellions, as a result of which significant damage was caused to European entrepreneurs who opened their enterprises on its territory. After their suppression, the heads of eight states demanded payments of large sums of money to the affected owners as compensation.
The government, led by the imperial Qing dynasty, was on the verge of collapse, prompting it to take the most urgent measures. They were the reforms that were long overdue, but implemented only in the period of the 70-80s. They led to the modernization of not only the economic structure of the state, but also to a change in both the political system and the entire dominant ideology.
