Introduction

Start of overseas trips

Congress of Vienna

3. "100 days" of Napoleon

Holy Union

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

“The Russians could not shamelessly open the glorious book of their history if the page on which Napoleon is depicted standing in the middle of burning Moscow was not followed by the page where Alexander is in the middle of Paris,” wrote one of the most insightful Russian historians S.M. Solovyov.

December 1812, on Christmas Day, Alexander I signed the Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War and on the construction of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in honor of the victory in Moscow. And already on January 1 of the new year 1813, the emperor, together with a hundred thousandth army, crossed the Neman - the Foreign Campaign of the Russian army began.

The commander of the Prussian corps of the former Grand Army, General Johann York, judging that the time had come to separate from Napoleon, at his own peril and risk, concluded a convention with the Russians, according to which his corps began to adhere to neutrality. The Prussian king at first ordered York to be removed from command of the corps and put on trial by a military tribunal, but soon he himself went over to the side of the winners. Thus, Alexander won the first great diplomatic victory: he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia, yesterday's ally of Napoleon. This alliance became the foundation of the sixth anti-Napoleonic coalition long conceived by the Russian emperor.

The purpose of the abstract is to study the course and results of the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1815.

highlight the foreign campaign of 1813-1814;

disclose the provisions and decisions of the Congress of Vienna;

to show the role of the Holy Alliance in the post-war arrangement of the world.

1. The beginning of foreign trips

On April 16, 1813, Field Marshal Kutuzov died in the small German town of Bunzlau. His death, as it were, summed up the Patriotic War of 1812 and opened the era of the campaign of the Russian army in Europe.

Russian troops were rapidly moving to the West, sweeping out of the way the French troops stationed in Poland and in the German lands. IN East Prussia The Russian army defeated MacDonald's corps retreating here. Koenigsberg was soon taken. On February 20, Russian troops entered Berlin. For the second time in history, the Prussian capital was in the hands of the Russian army, Prussia was forced to break the military alliance with Napoleon and signed a peace treaty with Russia, pledging to fight against the former ally. Prussian troops turned against France. The Austrian corps of Schwarzenberg rolled back to the south, and Austria entered into secret negotiations with the Russian top military leaders and concluded a secret truce with Russia and also pledged to take part in the fight against France.

The Russian command strongly supported this liberation upsurge. In his appeals and proclamations to to the German people already in the first days of the entry of Russian troops into Germany, it was emphasized that the Russians came here as liberators, that their goal was not to take revenge on those who supported Napoleon Bonaparte, not to take revenge on the French people, but to give the peoples of Europe the opportunity to regain independence, revive and strengthen their sovereignty.

These documents found a wide and grateful response among the European population. It is no coincidence that the result of the liberation of the European peoples from the dictates of Napoleon was the deployment of a democratic movement in Europe, the ripening of reformist aspirations, the beginning of profound socio-economic and political changes in the German lands, primarily in Prussia, in the Italian lands, and later in France itself.

Meanwhile, Napoleon was feverishly preparing to continue the struggle. IN short term he managed to raise a new army of five hundred thousand. But its quality, fighting spirit were already different than those of his former illustrious corps. For the most part, these were youngsters who had not yet been shot, who, however, like his former veterans, still blindly worshiped their idol and recklessly believed him. Napoleon significantly strengthened his army also due to the withdrawal of military units from Spain, where the liberation war against the French invaders was flaring up more and more. In the summer of 1813, the remnants of the French troops were forced to retreat beyond the Pyrenees. Spain became free.

However, Napoleon did not want to hear about any peace with his opponents on the condition of significant concessions on his part. In the summer of 1813, Napoleon went on the offensive. With him were fresh parts, with him were his illustrious marshals. Finally, his organizational talent and military leadership did not fade. Invading East Germany, Napoleon defeated the Allies near the cities of Lützen and Bautzen. In mid-August, in a two-day battle, he defeated the combined Russian-Prussian-Austrian army near Dresden.

But these were temporary successes. Now Napoleon was opposed by the armies, governments, peoples of almost all of Europe. The core of this confrontation with France remained the Russian army, which retained its combat strength, its generals, its unbending spirit. All this was vividly confirmed in the three-day "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig on November 4-7, 1813. More than 500 thousand people participated in it on both sides. The main blow of Napoleon was withstood the Russian and German troops, and then went on the counteroffensive. The French were broken. In this battle, Napoleon, despite the stubbornness and courage of his recruits, suffered a complete defeat. At the end of December, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. And soon it was decided to move to Paris. After a bloody battle near Paris, the French retreated, on March 18, 1814, the French capital capitulated. Napoleon abdicated.

At the final stage of the war, during the campaigns of 1813-1814, Alexander I played an outstanding role in the military and political crushing of Napoleon Bonaparte. lost. During the battle, Alexander was located so that he saw Napoleon, and he saw him. In the battle of Dresden, he took part in the leadership of the troops and stood under fire, showing personal courage. A cannonball exploded next to him, fatally hitting the general standing next to him.

It was last fight where he had to experience the burden of defeat. After that came the victories. Alexander I felt more and more confident in the role of a military strategist.

2. Congress of Vienna

In May 1814, the victors dictated to defeated France the terms of a peace treaty. France was stripped of all its conquests in Europe and was left within its pre-war borders. Her acquisitions in the Apennines - in northern Italy and on the Adriatic coast - went to Austria; Belgium and Holland conquered by Napoleon were henceforth united and turned into an independent Kingdom of the Netherlands. The key strategic position in the Mediterranean - the island of Malta - was transferred to England. France lost in favor of England and part of its overseas possessions.

However, this was only the beginning of the political reorganization of Europe. The Kingdom of Poland and the German states were waiting for their fate. If the claims of England and Austria were to some extent satisfied, then Russia and Prussia were still waiting for gratitude from the allies for their contribution to the crushing of Napoleon and for the hardships, losses and destruction suffered.

In the same place in Paris, an agreement was reached on a decision further destinies Europe in Vienna, at the pan-European congress, which took place in the autumn of 1814.

The Congress of Vienna was attended by 2 emperors, 4 kings, 2 princes, 3 grand dukes, 215 heads of princely houses, 450 diplomats. The Russian delegation was led at the talks by the thirty-seven-year-old Emperor Alexander I himself, who was in a halo of military and political glory.

But already in the first days of the Congress of Vienna, European wits quite aptly characterized its work with the following words: "The Congress dances, but does not move." And this was justified, because insurmountable contradictions immediately arose between the winners, especially between the three most influential powers on the continent - England, Russia and Austria, each of which claimed a dominant role in post-war Europe. No wonder the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, one of the main opponents of the strengthening of Russia on the continent, in one of his conversations said to the French Foreign Minister Talleyrand: "Do not talk about allies, they are no more." The Congress of Vienna gave rise to this new process, which eventually led to Crimean War 1853-1856

Alexander I was indignant at the anti-Russian position of the former allies, and they were already looking to the future, gradually forming a new, this time anti-Russian, coalition.

January 1815, three powers - England, Austria and France - entered into a secret military alliance against Russia. Each of the parties in the event of a military conflict with Russia undertook to field an army of 150,000 fighters. Several other states have joined this treaty. In 40 years, the leading ones will take part in the Crimean War against Russia. However, the beginning of the contradictions between Russia and the European powers began to mature precisely from the Congress of Vienna.

During intense negotiations, personal meetings heads of state with each other by February 1815, the Congress of Vienna finally managed to agree on the main positions. The Kingdom of Poland was ceding to Russia, and the emperor expressed his intention to introduce constitutional rule there.

3. "100 days" of Napoleon

Intense negotiations were still going on when, on the night of March 6-7, a breathless courier literally broke into the imperial palace in Vienna and handed the emperor an urgent dispatch from France. She announced that Napoleon Bonaparte had left the island of Elba, landed in the South of France and was moving to Paris with an armed detachment. A few days later, reports came that the population and the army enthusiastically welcomed the former emperor and his arrival in the French capital was expected soon.

The famous "100 days" of Napoleon began. And immediately all disputes, intrigues, secret agreements at the Congress of Vienna ceased. A new terrible danger united potential rivals. England, Russia, Austria, Prussia again created another coalition against Napoleon. On the roads of Northern Europe, military columns again stretched in an endless stream, military carts rumbled.

Before entering into battle with the allies, Napoleon dealt them a severe diplomatic blow: entering the royal palace, he discovered among the documents of Louis XVIII, abandoned in a panic, and the secret protocol of the three powers against Russia. Napoleon immediately ordered that he be delivered by courier to Vienna, hoping thereby to open the eyes of Alexander I to the treachery and hostility of his allies towards Russia. However, Alexander I again in dealing with his political partners he showed generosity. He declared that the new danger to Europe was too great to pay attention to such "trifles", and threw the text of the secret treaty into the fireplace.

After the massacre of Bonaparte, the allied troops entered Paris for the second time. The Second Peace of Paris was concluded, which not only confirmed the decision of the First Peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna, but also tightened their articles regarding France. A large indemnity was imposed on her, a number of her military fortresses were occupied by the Allies for three to five years. The country's borders were further curtailed in favor of rivals. According to the decisions of this world, a Russian occupation corps also appeared in France.

4. Holy union

The war, which lasted in Europe for a full 10 years, brought enormous damage to the countries of the continent. She grinded in her millstones cities, villages, hundreds of thousands of people from Moscow to the Atlantic coast, from the English Channel to the Adriatic, from Normandy to Sicily. It was a real world war of the XIX century. - the forerunner of those world wars that flared up in the world already in the 20th century. And like any total war, it, in the end, caused the horror and confusion of peoples and rulers. And now, after the victory of one side, it seemed that the world could be arranged on permanent, stable grounds, the causes of bloody European dramas could be eliminated. late XVIII- the beginning of the XX century.

The experience of world history shows that these calculations were illusory, but the same experience shows that for some time the peoples and governments, exhausted and frightened by the war, in the first post-war period are ready to develop levers for a peaceful arrangement of the life of peoples and states, to make compromises. World War in the first decade of the 19th century. just became at the same time the first world experience of regulation international relations, political stabilization on the European continent, guaranteed by all the might of the victorious powers. The Congress of Vienna, its decisions - inconsistent, contradictory, carrying the charge of future explosions - nevertheless, to a certain extent, played this role. But the monarchs were not satisfied with this. Stronger and not only forceful, but also legal and moral guarantees were needed. This is how the idea of ​​the Holy Union of European States appeared in 1815 - the first pan-European organization, the purpose of which should have been to secure the existing order of things, the inviolability of the current borders, stability ruling dynasties and other state institutions with post-war changes that have already taken place and approved in different countries. In this sense, the first European war and its consequences became the forerunner not only of the bloody world wars of the 20th century, but also of the League of Nations after the First World War of 1914-1918. and then the United Nations after World War II of the 20th century. - 1939-1945

Alexander I became the initiator of this union of European states. Already at the time of growing contradictions with Napoleon, fearing a pan-European massacre and senseless death of people, the Russian emperor in 1804, sending his friend Novosiltsev to England, gave him instructions in which he outlined the idea of ​​​​concluding between peoples a general peace treaty and the creation of the League of Nations. He proposed to introduce into relations between states the norms of international law, according to which the advantages of neutrality would be determined, and the countries would undertake obligations not to start a war without first exhausting all the means provided by the mediators. In this document, he advocated a "Code of International Law".

True, Alexander was not so naive as to believe "in eternal peace and that the European powers will immediately accept these new rules. Nevertheless, an important step towards the legal regulation of international relations was made. Then, however, the soldiers' boots of thousands of armies were trampled on the fields of Europe from 1805 to 1815. these good intentions. And now Alexander I returned to his idea again, but not as an enthusiastic idealist, whose ideas were then teased in London, preparing for a bloody confrontation with the aggressive French military machine, but as a sovereign, behind whose shoulders was victory in the great war, but he himself was at the head of a huge army in Paris and could, in order to reinforce the proposed new order of things, put 800,000 soldiers under arms in the form of a guarantee of peace and security.

Alexander wrote the main provisions of the treaty of the Holy Alliance with his own hand. They contained the following articles: maintain ties of fraternal friendship between states, provide assistance to each other in case of destabilization of the international situation, govern their subjects in the spirit of brotherhood, truth and peace, consider themselves members of a single Christian community. In international affairs, states were to be guided by the gospel commandments. Characteristically, Alexander I not only limited himself to these purely propaganda propositions, but at further congresses of the Holy Alliance raised the question of the simultaneous reduction of the armed forces of the European powers, of mutual guarantees of the inviolability of territories, of the creation of an inter-allied headquarters, of the adoption international status persons of Jewish nationality who were discriminated against in many European countries. And later, at the congresses of the Holy Alliance, questions of a great humanistic sound were raised. The powers unanimously united against maritime piracy and confirmed the decision of the Congress of Vienna to ban the slave trade. European rivers were declared free for navigation without any restrictions.

Thus, the ideas of the Holy Union, which really became a type international organizations already in the 20th century, were filled with the best of intentions, and Alexander I could be pleased with his brainchild. Soon, almost all the countries of Europe, except for island England, joined the Union, but England also actively participated in the work of its congresses and exerted a rather strong influence on their policy.

In essence, the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance created the so-called "Viennese system" in Europe, which, for better or worse, but existed for 40 years, protected the European continent from new big wars, although the contradictions between the leading powers of Europe still existed and were quite sharp.

This became apparent immediately after the introduction of the "Viennese system" into life, and its main test was not so much the territorial claims of the powers to each other, but the growth of the revolutionary movement on the continent, which was a logical continuation of the grandiose transformations public life countries of Europe, begun by the English and continued by the Great French Revolution. At one time, these revolutions began as a counteraction to obsolete feudal-absolutist regimes, and then developed into the leveling movement of the Levellers (in England), into the Jacobin terror, and ended with the dictatorship of Cromwell in England, Napoleon - in France and turned into early XIX in. an all-European war, the seizure of foreign territories, the destruction of the civilizational values ​​of mankind. Under these conditions, the Holy Alliance and its leader Alexander I faced a difficult task - to separate the wheat from the chaff: to support constitutional sentiments and institutions that are truly progressive from the point of view of civilization, to combine them with the evolutionary development of European states without bloody dramas, annihilating wars, the most brutal massacres. Here in this, the main issue, the members of the Holy Union looked at things differently.

Fearing the Spanish Revolution of 1820 and remembering the revolutionary horrors of her own country, France demanded immediate and decisive intervention in support of the Spanish monarchy. Alexander I, on the contrary, recognized the events in Spain as legitimate and constitutional, since the popular movement made the constitution its banner, parliamentarism, and the Spanish king himself swore allegiance to the constitution. Now it was a question of protecting the legitimate rights of the king.

Then revolutions broke out in Italy and Portugal. In 1820, a bloodless revolution took place in Naples, and King Ferdinand II was forced to proclaim a constitution along the lines of the Spanish model and agree to the convocation of parliament. However, the successes of the southern revolutionaries inspired the northern provinces of Italy, under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs. There began a powerful social movement. The legitimate frame of Europe is cracking at the seams. Austria demanded military intervention and Russia's consent to this. But the liberal-minded Alexander I opposed these violent measures. In addition, big politics also came into play: Russia was not at all interested in the overwhelming strengthening of Austria in Europe.

Thus, the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance as an absolutely reactionary and counter-revolutionary organization does not stand up to scrutiny. At the Congress of the Holy Alliance in Troppau in 1820, a decision was made on measures of "moral influence" of the revolutionary forces both in Spain and in southern Italy. The Russian delegation advocated political methods for resolving conflicts. Austria was eager to use military force. Other powers, most notably Prussia, supported Austria. Russia eventually had to give in. Austria sent troops to Italy. France sent its army to save the Spanish dynasty beyond the Pyrenees.

Thus, the good intentions of Alexander I and the organizers of the Holy Alliance were ultimately crushed by the selfish political interests of the powers. In addition, the dawn of a new revolution under the banner of the national liberation movement, which since the 1920s. 19th century rose over Europe, again inspired horror in the organizers of the "Viennese system". Again loomed the ghosts of Jacobinism, the merciless crushing of thrones. Under these conditions, even liberals, including Alexander I, hesitated. His disappointment with the transformation of the Holy Alliance was sincere and bitter, and his indignation at the insidious actions of selfish allies was deep and painful. And yet the Russian tsar was slowly but surely moving away from his idealistic ideas about the post-war structure of Europe. Already in the early 20s. on the example of events in Spain, Italy, on the example of the uprising of his own Semenovsky regiment in the center of St. Petersburg, he understood with absolute clarity what an abyss lay between his liberal dreams, cautious constitutional steps and the storm of popular revolutions or military mutinies. The real breath of popular freedom frightened the creator of the Holy Alliance and forced him to drift to the right.

And yet, despite the deep contradictions that tore apart the Holy Alliance from the very beginning of its existence, it largely contributed to the stabilization of the situation in Europe, introduced new humanistic ideas into European practice, did not allow Europe to slide into a new military and revolutionary extremism, although it did not turned into a strong supranational organization. Nevertheless, the European continent for 40 years after the Congress of Vienna lived in relative peace and tranquility. And a great merit in this belonged to the so-called "Viennese system" and the Holy Alliance.

The Patriotic War of 1812 lasted only a few months, and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army that followed it lasted less than a year and a half, but these events greatly influenced public sentiment and remained forever in people's memory. And although historians are still debating about the goals of Napoleon's invasion, there is no doubt that Russia fought with him for survival and for the preservation of the country as such.

An interesting position is Grosul Vladislav Yakimovich, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Chief researcher Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, expressed in the article "Public sentiment in Russia during the Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns", published in the sixth issue of the journal "Russian History" for 2012.

In the Russian press in the years leading up to the war, Napoleon was praised, then scolded, then praised again. The country was filled with rumors, often quite fantastic. Information about Napoleon's military preparations quite often also came from Russian intelligence, which had become much stronger at that time, specially following Napoleon's actions. As the researchers note, the Russian command spent 1811 in feverish preparations for war.

Under these conditions, Alexander I, perhaps more than ever, had to reckon with public opinion and, above all, with representatives of the conservative part of society, to which most of the generals and officers then belonged.

The resignation of Speransky caused delight in the circles of the conservative nobility and raised the authority of the tsar in his eyes.

In August 1812, Alexander I, despite his dislike for Kutuzov, was forced to give in to the general opinion. “The public wanted him to be appointed, I appointed him,” he told his Adjutant General E.F. Komarovsky. “As for me, I wash my hands.”

The king's decision was met with great enthusiasm in wide circles of society and the people. Meanwhile, among the generals, the attitude towards him was ambiguous, sharply critical of him were Prince. P.I. Bagration, M.A. Miloradovich, D.S. Dokhturov, N.N. Raevsky. As soon as the new commander-in-chief continued his retreat, murmurs began to grow in his address. It is not surprising that the decision to give a general battle at Borodino was taken by Kutuzov largely under the influence public opinion and the morale of the troops.

battle of Borodino entered the popular consciousness as a victory. According to A.P. Yermolov, on this day "the French army was crushed against the Russian." F.N. aptly described the battle. Glinka: "The Russians resisted!". However, when Moscow was abandoned, in the army and society they began to resent both Kutuzov and the tsar himself. Literally in one day, admiration for Kutuzov was replaced by condemnation, the troops stopped shouting “hurray” at his appearance, desertion and looting became more frequent, indicating a temporary decline in the morale of the soldiers.

In Tarutino, the army was preparing to advance, but Kutuzov preferred the tactics of a "small war". Therefore, there was a certain discrepancy between the desires of the army and the actions of the commander in chief. Kutuzov found it increasingly difficult to resist the general desire to take decisive action, he had to listen to the aspirations of the troops and launch an attack on the French avant-garde on October 6. However, Kutuzov himself was irreconcilable.

The exit of the French from Moscow caused relief in Russian society. At the same time, the atrocities of the Napoleonic soldiers and especially the destruction of Moscow were painted in special proclamations.

The fact that Napoleon and part of his army were able to avoid encirclement on the Berezina caused anger in wide circles of Russian society. He fell upon Admiral Chichagov, who was accused of almost treason. He was scathingly ridiculed by I.A. Krylov and G.R. Derzhavin.

Russian troops who found themselves abroad had to establish relations with the local population. In the German lands, Russian troops were generally received well. The Germans themselves compiled and distributed leaflets calling for all kinds of assistance to the Russians, and also released many portraits of Kutuzov, whom all of Europe considered their liberator.

The Russian army was treated quite favorably in France as well. According to the young Major General gr. M.F. Orlov, who was the first to enter Paris, the Russians enjoyed greater sympathy from the population than their allies. As F.N. Glinka, "the Russians conquered the capital of France with their courage, and surprised her with generosity." For their part, officers and soldiers absorbed the public sentiments of foreign countries and took them home with them. Pride and joy of victory organically combined with fresh impressions and observations.

The mood of the army was transmitted to society and quickly spread to different cities and provinces, where foreign campaigns aroused the liveliest interest.

The Patriotic War of 1812 and the Foreign Campaigns of the Russian Army of 1813-1814 are undoubtedly the most significant events of the first half of XIX century, which for many years changed the political map of Europe and predetermined the further development of the European peoples. The dominion of Napoleon, who enslaved almost all the peoples of Europe, was undermined in the autumn of 1812 during his Russian campaign, when the whole world saw with surprise how the “greatest military genius”, considered invincible, lost half a million army in six months. The victory over the conqueror, who created and destroyed states with a single movement of his hand, changed kings at his whim and decided the fate of peoples, and whom no one in Europe dared to contradict, struck the imagination of his contemporaries and excites their descendants to this day. The unparalleled courage, heroism and steadfastness shown by the Russian people in the fight against the hordes of Napoleon in 1812 are admired even 200 years later. Russian troops played a decisive role in 1813-1814. during the liberation of Europe.

Events of the war of 1812-1814. and its victorious completion had a huge impact on the development of Russian national culture. The Patriotic War of 1812, during which the patriotic feelings of the people were so clearly manifested, became a catalyst for rethinking national traditions. Russian society embraced an unprecedented patriotic upsurge - the growth of national pride and self-awareness of the Russian people was expressed in the manifestation of interest in the heroic pages of Russian history. The development of the realistic trend in literature and fine arts and the flourishing of the Empire style in architecture and arts and crafts are also associated with the era of 1812.

The heroic self-sacrifice of all classes in 1812 and the feats shown during the war received a worthy reflection in poetry, prose, music, painting, monumental and decorative art.

Conclusion

After the liberation of their homeland, the Russian army moved beyond its borders for the final overthrow of Napoleon's rule in Europe. Russian troops carried the liberation of the European peoples from the Napoleonic yoke. Moving through the territory of Germany, the Russian army everywhere met with an enthusiastic reception from the population. According to one of the participants in the campaign, "the name of the Russian became the name of the defender, the savior of Europe."

In October 1814, the Congress of European Powers opened in Vienna. Theoretically, everyone recognized the need to implement the principle of legitimism (legality), which was supposed to be expressed in the restoration of "legitimate" feudal dynasties and pre-revolutionary borders of states.

After Napoleon's second exile, the participants in the Congress of Vienna quickly completed their work, redrawing the map of Europe at their own discretion, contrary to the wishes of the peoples of certain countries, sometimes contrary to common sense. England received the island of Malta and the Ionian Islands. She also captured the Dutch colonies of Ceylon and Guiana. In compensation for the damage caused to Holland, Belgium was annexed to it. Prussia got a significant part of Saxony, Russia - the Duchy of Warsaw. Austria - lands in northern Italy - Venice and Lombardy. Sweden annexed Norway.

In order to preserve the absolutist-feudal order in Europe, the international balance established by the Congress of Vienna, and the struggle against the revolutionary movement in 1815, on the initiative of Alexander I, the so-called "Holy Alliance" was created. At his congresses in Aachen (1818), in Troppau and Laibach (1820 - 1821) and in Verona (1822), measures to suppress revolutions in Spain, Naples, Piedmont and Greece were discussed.

On January 1813, a 100,000-strong Russian army entered Europe to liberate its peoples from French domination. In the summer of 1813, an anti-Napoleonic coalition was created (Russia, Prussia, England, Austria and Sweden), designed to defeat the enemy and restore the status quo in Europe. The first battle of the allies with the 440,000th army of Bonaparte near Dresden ended in failure. However, in the "battle of the peoples" near Leipzig in October 1813, the Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops managed to win. In January 1814, they entered the borders of France, in March Napoleon abdicated, and in May 1814 a peace treaty was signed, according to which France returned to the borders of 1792, and Louis XVIII of Bourbon, who returned from emigration, became its king. .

The Vienna agreements were supplemented by the proclamation of the so-called Holy Alliance.

“... The Russian army, which consisted of half of the serf recruits,” wrote the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, - went from Moscow to Paris to help Europe get rid of the conqueror. Around the bivouac fires on the fields of Leipzig and on the heights of Montmartre, Russian officers, comparing these events, thought about the distant fatherland, about its new meaning for humanity, about national identity, about the hidden forces of their people, who were not allowed to unfold in the open before humanity. At home, these thoughts met with a lively response. Meanwhile, the course of the same world events put Russian politics on guard of the newly restored lawful order in Europe. The protective principles of the Holy Alliance that she adopted, while not favoring the national-political movements abroad, did little to actively continue the reform initiatives at home, and patriotic excitement, as it was then expressed, did not strengthen this disposition.

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4. History of Russia from the beginning of the nineteenth to the beginning of the twenty-first century. T. 2. / Ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M.: Astrel, 2009. - 863 p.

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Russian history [ Tutorial] Team of authors

6.4. Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army

Preparing for war

By 1810, the peace of Tilsit was violated by both France and Russia.

So, in December 1810, Napoleon occupied the North German lands and captured the Duchy of Oldenburg.

Russia, in turn, also shied away from observing the continental blockade of England: ships under the flags of neutral states with British goods went through Russian ports to Western Europe. The prevailing opinion was that waging war would cause less damage to the Russian economy than the decline in agriculture and finance caused by the cessation of foreign trade with England. In the summer of 1810, a "customs war" began between Russia and France - a mutual increase in tariffs on imported goods.

At the same time, both France and Russia launched military preparations. Napoleon carried out additional mobilization in the vassal states of France, as a result of which he " Grand Army” began to number more than 1 million people.

The military ministry of Russia paid the main attention to the rearmament of the Russian army and the protection of the western borders. Defensive fortifications were built along the rivers Western Dvina, Berezina, Dnieper.

The Russian army was significantly inferior in number to the Napoleonic one, but its higher morale was indisputable - it was the army of the defenders of the Fatherland. She had a large number of talented commanders and military leaders, such as M. I. Kutuzov, P. I. Bagration, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, N. N. Raevsky, D. S. Dokhturov, N. A. Tuchkov, M. I. Platov, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The duchy of Warsaw became the springboard for the attack on Russia: military warehouses were built there, stocks of fodder and food were created. By June 1812, a huge army of more than 400 thousand people stood at the borders of Russia. The front stretched for 300 km from Warsaw to Konigsberg.

The strategic deployment of Russian troops was unsuccessful. They consisted of three armies, distant from each other over long distances and forced to act independently: the 1st Western Army covered St. Petersburg (commander M.B. Barclay de Tolly), the 2nd Army (commander P.I. Bagration) acted on the Moscow direction, the 3rd Western Army - in the Kiev direction (commander A.P. Tormasov). The overall command was concentrated in the hands of General of Infantry Barclay de Tolly.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the French army invaded Russia and, practically without resistance, began a rapid advance into the interior of the country. In order to prevent Napoleon from cutting off from each other and defeating the Russian armies one by one, the 1st and 2nd Western armies moving towards connection. The connection took place on July 22, 1812 near Smolensk and was the first success of the Russian troops, but the strategic retreat continued. On the night of August 6, Smolensk was abandoned. Entering the city, Napoleon sent for the first time to Alexander I an offer of peace, which was left unanswered.

It was clear that hostilities were taking on a protracted character. On the part of Russia, the war became national liberation - domestic. The further retreat of the Russian troops caused discontent both in the army and in society. Under these conditions, Alexander I agreed to the appointment of Mikhail Kutuzov as commander-in-chief.

On August 17, Kutuzov arrived in the town of Tsarevo-Zaimishche, where the headquarters of the Russian army was located, and began to prepare the army for a general battle.

battle of Borodino

The place for the decisive battle was determined near the village of Borodino near Mozhaisk, 120 km from Moscow. Three fortifications were built on a huge field in the center of the Russian positions: a redoubt near the village of Shevardino, a battery of General Raevsky on the Kurgan Heights, and the so-called Bagration Flushes - earthen fortifications near the village of Semenovskaya. They took the main blow of the French troops.

On August 24, the French launched an attack on the Shevardinsky redoubt, which changed hands several times and was abandoned by the Russians by nightfall on the orders of Kutuzov.

The main battle took place on 26 August. It started early in the morning and lasted 12 hours. Napoleon delivered the main blow on the left flank - against the 2nd army of Bagration. To weaken the force of the blow, Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks under the command of Ataman M. I. Platov and the cavalry corps of General F. P. Uvarov to raid behind enemy lines. This maneuver somewhat delayed the attack on Raevsky's battery. But by 4 o'clock in the afternoon, the French captured this fortification, although in general they failed to break through the defense of the Russian troops. With the onset of darkness, Napoleon withdrew his troops from the battlefield.

The losses on both sides were enormous: the French - more than 35 thousand people, the Russians - 45 thousand. But the Battle of Borodino was greeted by contemporaries as a political and moral victory for Russia. Napoleon in his memoirs gave a textbook assessment of Borodin: "The French showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible." Despite heavy losses, the Russian army retained its main structure and, unlike the French, had the opportunity to replenish it.

Leaving Moscow

The retreat of the Russian army after the Battle of Borodino continued. On September 1, at a military council in the village of Fili near Moscow, it was decided to leave the capital. Kutuzov considered his main duty save the army, believing that "with the loss of Moscow, Russia is not lost." He had no doubt that by leaving Moscow he would prepare the inevitable death of the enemy.

September 2, 1812 Napoleon approached Moscow. Settling on Poklonnaya Hill, he waited in vain for a "delegation of boyars" with symbolic keys to the city. By this time, the capital was practically empty - everyone who could leave the city along with the army. During the 36 days spent in the Russian capital, Napoleon offered Alexander I three times to start peace negotiations. But the tsar left Napoleon's letters unanswered.

On October 7, 1812, the French left Moscow. Before the retreat, Napoleon ordered to blow up the Kremlin. Russian patriots prevented the explosion, cutting the already lit fuses, but some of the buildings were still damaged, including the Faceted Chamber, the Nikolskaya and Borovitskaya towers, etc.

Tarutino maneuver and the retreat of the French army

Leaving Moscow and preparing for a counteroffensive, Kutuzov made the so-called Tarutino maneuver - the transfer of the army along the Kaluga road to the village of Tarutino (80 km from Moscow), thereby blocking the French way to the south, to areas not devastated by the war and to the Tula arms factories. In the Tarutinsky fortified camp, the army was intensively manned, now it was twice the size of the French.

Napoleon, hoping to break through to the food reserves of the south, went to Kaluga. On October 12, a major battle took place in the area of ​​​​the city of Maloyaroslavets, which changed hands eight times and was abandoned by the Russians only after they took a more advantageous position. Napoleon had to give the order to move west along the devastated Old Smolensk road. The strategic initiative completely passed to the Russian army. The outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion. Kutuzov's army moved parallel to the flanks of Napoleon's army, depriving it of maneuverability. From the rear of the enemy pursued the Cossack corps of ataman Platov and partisans attacked. The French army as a whole was demoralized, but remained combat-ready, and the Russian troops had to fight stubborn battles. In mid-November, a battle took place near the village of Krasnoye, where the rearguard corps of Marshal Ney was cut off from the main army of the enemy and most of it was destroyed.

On November 8, Napoleon set out from Orsha and headed for the city of Borisov, where he expected to cross the river. Berezina. He managed to avoid encirclement, but more than 20,000 French were killed or captured during the crossing. After the Berezina, Napoleon's retreat turned into a disorderly flight. The "Great Army" ceased to exist. Napoleon himself, having left the army, arrived in Paris in early December.

The Patriotic War of 1812 is an outstanding event in the history of Russia. In the course of it, all sectors of society were united by one idea, one goal - the salvation of the Fatherland, the struggle for national independence and state sovereignty.

The patriotic feeling naturally grew into a sense of national pride, the civic consciousness of both the noble society and the common people awakened. The victory in the war gave impetus to the development of Russian culture, literature, architecture, engineering, etc. The War of 1812 was of great international importance, the defeat of the Napoleonic army in Russia marked the beginning of the liberation of the countries of Central and Western Europe.

Russian army in Western Europe

After being expelled from Russia, Napoleon intended to resume the war and was gathering a new army. Therefore, it became necessary to continue the struggle until the complete defeat of the enemy. On January 1, 1813, the Russian army crossed the river. Neman and entered the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, marking the beginning of her foreign campaign. In February 1813 Russia and Prussia signed an agreement on peace, friendship and alliance. On February 20, Russian troops entered Berlin. At the end of the summer of 1813, Austria and Sweden joined the anti-French coalition. The total number of coalition armies reached half a million. On October 4–6, 1813, a battle took place near the city of Leipzig, which was called the “battle of the peoples” (allied Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish armies participated in it). The Napoleonic army was defeated by the Allied forces. The Russian army near Leipzig was commanded by General P. H. Wittgenstein. (M. I. Kutuzov died in April 1813 in the Silesian town of Bunzlau.)

The battle of Leipzig ended the campaign of 1813. Since 1814, hostilities were already taking place in France. On March 18, 1814, the allied armies led by the Russian Emperor Alexander I entered Paris.

Congress of Vienna and the creation of a new political system

Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated and was exiled to Fr. Elba, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France.

In May 1814, the allies (Russia, England, Austria, Spain, Prussia, Portugal, Sweden) signed the Treaty of Paris with France. Under its terms, France returned to the borders of 1792 (before the start of the revolutionary wars). The victorious countries annexed parts of the territory of the Napoleonic "Great Empire". Two months later, a peace congress of European states opened in Vienna, the purpose of which was to consolidate the territorial and political changes in Europe.

In total, the Congress of Vienna lasted almost a year (September 1814 - June 1815). The main disputes were caused by the Polish and Saxon questions (ie, about the transfer of the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia, and Prussia - Saxony). The severity of the contradictions even led to the creation of an anti-Russian coalition consisting of England, Austria and France.

But the famous "100 days" of Napoleon Bonaparte - the escape from the island of Elba, the victorious march through the country and the restoration of his power in France - again rallied the participants of the congress. On May 28, 1815, the final act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. According to the terms of the agreement, most of the Duchy of Warsaw passed to Russia. The task of the winners was to stabilize the situation in Europe. They succeeded. For almost 40 years, Europe did not know major wars.

On September 14, 1815, at the initiative of Alexander I, the Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, Prussia was concluded, declaring the inviolability of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in the name of maintaining stability in Europe and the joint suppression of any revolutionary movements.

The system of international relations after 1815, the territorial changes in Europe and the political union of the monarchs were called the Vienna system.

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The campaign of 1813 was a new, now forgotten by our people, page of the Glory of Russian weapons. The inspirer and organizer, as well as the fastening link of the VI anti-Napoleonic coalition, was undoubtedly Emperor Alexander I.

AlexanderI

Having already completed the victorious campaign of 1812, the Emperor decided for himself that leaving Napoleon in the state in which he was, after the defeat in the Russian campaign of 1812, was unacceptable and dangerous, because. his shaky Throne, like the Throne of any conqueror, was kept only by continuous victories, and Bonaparte, after a year or two, having again gathered troops subject to Europe, would again repeat the invasion of Russia, and would try to avoid his previous mistakes. Thus, the campaign in Europe was not so much the willfulness of Alexander I, but also a state necessity.

In early December 1812, the Russian army concentrated near Vilna (Vilnius). Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov led to the borders Russian Empire only 40 thousand soldiers, and out of 620 guns only 200 were delivered. Thus, the autumn-winter campaign of 1812 cost Napoleon 160,000 people (dead and prisoners), and the Russian army lost up to 80 thousand people during this period (only one fourth of this composition was killed in the fighting). By the end of December 1812, units of Admiral P.V. joined Kutuzov’s army. Chichagov and the corps of Count P.Kh. Wittgenstein, thus forming an army of 90,000. Already on December 28, 1812, Kutuzov's army crossed the river. Neman and entered the territory of Prussia and the Duchy of Warsaw.

M.I. Kutuzov-Golenishchev

main goal winter hike In 1813, Alexander I staged the destruction of the flank corps of Magdonald in Prussia and the Austro-Saxon corps of Schwarzenberg and Renier in Poland. These goals were soon achieved. In January 1813, all of East Prussia was cleared of the French by the army of Count P. Wittgenstein, the Prussians enthusiastically welcomed the Russian liberators. Soon the cities of Thorn and Danzig were besieged by Russian troops. Units under the command of Prince Kutuzov-Smolensky launched an offensive against the city of Polotsk, which forced Schwarzenberg to evacuate units from Warsaw and retreat with Poniatovsky's corps to Galicia. The Saxon corps of General Rainier retreated to Kalisz, where on February 1, 1813 he was defeated by the corps of General Winzingerode.

The actions of the Russian army in East Prussia became the spark from which the fire of the patriotic struggle of the people of Prussia flared up against the Napoleonic occupation. After some hesitation, King Friedrich Wilhelm III concluded on February 16, 1813, a military alliance, according to which Russia was obliged to form an army of 150 thousand, and the decision of the allied monarchs (Russian and Prussian) was made "not to put weapons until the restoration of Prussia within the borders of 1806" . Prussia, for its part, was obliged to put up an army of 80 thousand, but at the beginning of the union, the Prussian army of General Blucher had only 56 thousand soldiers. By the end of February 1813, the Russian army already had 140 thousand, and a reserve army was being formed in Belarus and Ukraine, reaching up to 180 thousand soldiers. On February 27 (March 11), 1813, the army of Count Wittgenstein occupied Berlin, and on March 15 (27), 1813 Dresden was taken by Russian troops.

Pyotr Khristianovich Wittgenstein

On April 16 (28), 1813, His Serene Highness Prince Kutuzov-Smolensky dies in the city of Bunzlau. Count Peter Wittgenstein was appointed the new commander of the united Russian army. His position was quite difficult, because. under his command were more senior and experienced corps commanders, once his direct superiors: M.B. Barclay de Tolly, Tsesarevich Konstantin Pavlovich and Field Marshal Blucher.

Gebhard Leberecht Blucher

Wittgenstein did not have sufficient authority over them. In addition, the Russian army had an imperial headquarters, which also gave its own orders, bypassing the commander-in-chief of the army.

At the cost of enormous efforts, Napoleon gathered during the winter of 1812-13 a new French army, numbering about 200 thousand people, with 350 guns, and in April 1813 invaded Germany. In the new army of Bonaparte there were only 8 thousand cavalry; all the famous cavalry of Marshal Murat died in the Russian company of 1812 (at Borodino and while crossing the Berezina River). The Russian-Prussian army in early April 1813 concentrated south of the city of Leipzig, trying to get closer to the Austrian border, because. secret negotiations were constantly going on with Austria in order to attach it to the anti-Napoleonic coalition. Not knowing about the concentration of allied troops near Leipzig, Napoleon sent his troops to him by echelon. Count Wittgenstein, with 94 thousand and with 650 guns, tried to strike a flank attack on the dispersed parts of the French and attacked Napoleon on April 20 (May 1), 1813 at Lucin.

But this attack was repulsed by the French army, and the allied forces retreated beyond the river. Elba. Out of 72 thousand allies, the losses amounted to 12 thousand people, and out of 100 thousand Frenchmen - 15 thousand. The absence of cavalry deprived Napoleon of the opportunity to build on success and make strategic reconnaissance on the flanks. Despite the attempts of Count Wittgenstein to attack Napoleon from the flanks, the allies were soon forced to leave Dresden and all of Saxony.

On 8 (20) and 9 (21) May 1813, near the town of Bautzen, the allied Russian-Prussian army was again defeated and retreated to upper Selesia. Under Bautzen, the balance of power was as follows: the allied Russian-Prussian army consisted of 96 thousand soldiers and 610 guns, the French had 165 thousand with 250 guns, thus. the French had almost 2-fold superiority in manpower, while the allied army had a two-fold superiority in artillery. On May 8 (20), 1813, Napoleon attacked the units of General Miloradovich and threw him back to the main positions of the Allied army. After that, General M.B. Barclay de Tolly advised not to accept the battle and retreat, but Alexander I supported the arguments of the Prussian generals and insisted on the battle. On May 9 (21), a 100,000 army led by Napoleon attacked the Allied army in front (frontal attack), and Ney's 60,000th corps bypassed the right flank and threatened the rear of the entire allied army. Napoleon carried out a diversionary maneuver on the left flank, forcing the transfer of reserve units there. Count Wittgenstein warned of a possible attack on the right flank, but Alexander I ignored his warning. The situation was saved by the fact that Marshal Ney never fulfilled his task, being carried away by private, rearguard battles and thereby saving the Allied army from complete disaster. The losses of the allied army amounted to: 12 thousand killed and wounded, the French lost 18 thousand soldiers and officers.

On May 23 (June 4), 1813, a 1.5-month truce was concluded between the Russian-Prussian alliance and Napoleon, which was later extended until July 29 (August 9), 1813. On July 30 (August 10), 1813, after the end of the armistice, the Austrian Empire announced a break with France, joining the anti-Napoleonic coalition and thereby declared war on Napoleonic France.

By the end of the truce VI, the coalition numbered up to 0.5 million people, and consisted of three armies: Bohemian, Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg, who was near the city of Bautzen - 237 thousand (77 thousand Russians, 50 thousand Prussians, 110 thousand Austrians), Silesian General Blucher near Schweidnitz - 98 thousand (61 thousand Russians and 37 thousand Prussians), and the northern army of the former Napoleonic Marshal Bernadotte (then already known as Crown Prince Karl-Johan of Sweden) at Berdin - 127 thousand (30 thousand Russians, 73 thousand Prussians and 24 thousand Swedes). Formally, the commanders-in-chief were the monarchs of Russia, Prussia and Austria, but de facto the commander-in-chief of the allied army was the Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg ...

Carl Philip Schwarzenberg

Thus, all Russian units were subordinate to foreign commanders. To defeat Napoleon, the allies adopted the so-called. The “Trachtenberg plan”, according to which the main thing was not to fight, but to maneuver ... The Allied army, which Napoleon attacked, would have to retreat, and the other two should have delivered flank attacks on the stretched communications of the French.

By this time, in Germany, Napoleon concentrated up to 40 thousand troops. active forces, and another 170 thousand were in the garrisons of Hamburg, Dresden, Danzig and Torgau. In this way. Napoleon's active army was slightly over 100,000. Napoleon saw his main task entry into Berlin and the surrender of Prussia, for which 70 thousand corps of Marshal Oudinot was sent to the Berlin direction, and parts of Marshal Davout and Girard (about 50 thousand) were supposed to block the retreat of the northern army of Bernadotte. The corps of Ney acted against the army of Blucher, and the corps of General Saint-Cyr against the army of Schwarzenberg. Napoleon himself led the reserve army, which should immediately approach the French corps against which the main blow would be delivered. On August 11 (22), the army of Marshal Oudinot collided with the army of Bernadotte at Grosberene and was defeated, thus. attack on Berlin failed...

Soon another battle took place at Dresden on August 14-15 (26-27), 1813, first on August 13 (25) double (87 against 40 thousand Frenchmen of Saint-Cyr) Schwarzenberg had a superiority, who could not decide to fight the French, and when on August 14 (26) the allied army increased to 130 thousand, then the French reserve army led by Napoleon approached Dresden. Based on this, Emperor Alexander I ordered to retreat, but the order did not reach the army of Count Wittgenstein in time, who launched an attack on the outskirts of Dresden and suffered significant losses. On August 15 (27), Napoleon dealt a crushing blow to the allies, sending his units against the Austrians on the left flank. The battle was accompanied by heavy rain, and the battle was fought with cold weapons. The French lost 12 thousand soldiers, the Allies 16 thousand and 50 guns. After the defeat at Dresden, Schwarzenberg's army began to retreat to Bohemia, his task was to cover the direction to Vienna and prevent the French army from entering the capital of the Austrian Empire.

To cut off the Allies' retreat through mountain valleys(Ore Mountains region), on August 14 (26), 1813, Napoleon sent the 1st Army Corps of General Vandam to the left of the city of Teplitz (Bohemia), supported by the corps of Marshals Saint-Cyr and Marmont (but Vandam did not wait for support). With the successful completion of the task set by Vandamme, an extremely dangerous and even critical situation would have developed for the allies, both in military and political respects. In the military, because in the event that Vandam's corps went to Teplitz, it blocked the narrow path through the Ore Mountains, and then the Bohemian army (with which the Russian Emperor and the King of Prussia were located) was threatened with encirclement and complete defeat. Politically, there was a real threat of the collapse of the coalition of allies. Already after the defeat at Dresden, Austria was inclined to withdraw from the VI anti-French coalition, and its chancellor Mitternich was about to send his representatives to negotiate with the French ...

The path of the 35 thousand French corps of Vandam near the city of Kulm (Bohemia) was blocked by a detachment of the Russian guards of Count Osterman-Tolstoy, which included the 1st Guards Infantry Division of General A.P. Yermolov and the remnants of the 2nd Army Corps of Prince Eugene of Württemberg - a total of 10-12 thousand soldiers of the Russian Guard.

On the first day of the battle, August 17 (29), 1813, the French units, having almost a threefold superiority, constantly attacked, but all their efforts were shattered by the stamina of the Russian guard. The Life Guards Semyonovsky Regiment stubbornly defended itself, but lost almost 1,000 people (out of 1,600 initially). His second battalion lost all its officers. The life huntsmen also distinguished themselves. The commander of the Russian corps, Count Osterman-Tolstoy, was out of action, his left arm was torn off by a cannonball. General A.P. took command of the Russian units. Ermolov. At 1700 hours the French managed to succeed in the center of the position. In the reserve of A. Yermolov, only two companies of Preobrazhensev and Semenovtsy remained, and when it seemed that the French would be able to win, reinforcements came up - dragoon and lancer regiments, under the command of General I.I. Dibich, entered the battle from the march ... Next came the heavy cavalry - 1st and 2nd cuirassier, 1st grenadier and 2nd guards divisions. Russian units lost about 6 thousand people that day, but combat mission was completed - the movement of the allied army through the Ore Mountains was ensured.

On August 18 (30) the battle of Kulm continued. Now the allies had a numerical superiority and attacked the French units from three sides. As a result of this attack, Vandam's corps was almost completely destroyed, General Vandam himself with four generals surrendered, and the other two generals of his corps remained in the fields near Kulm. More than 12 thousand French soldiers and officers were taken prisoner. Also captured were 84 guns, two imperial eagles, five banners, and the entire French baggage train. As the Russian military historian in exile A.A. Kersnovsky: "The Kulm victory shines with glory on the banners of our guard - it was the favorite victory of Emperor Alexander Pavlovich." In honor of the victory at Klm, the King of Prussia, Friedrich Wilgel III, established the "sign of the Iron Cross", which in Russia became known as the Kulm Cross.

After the victory at Kulm, the allied army moved to Bohemia to replenish reserves. After the end of the war with Napoleon, all the regiments of the Russian guard were given St. George's banners with the inscription embroidered on them: "For the feats rendered in the battle of Kulm on August 17, 1813."

On the eve of the Battle of Kulm - on August 14 (26), the Franco-Prussian battle of the Katzbach took place, as a result of which Blucher's army completely defeated MacDonald's corps (the balance of forces was as follows: 75 thousand allies against 65 thousand French and 200 guns on each side) . Napoleon's army moved to help MacDonald, but Blucher evaded the battle even then.

On August 24 (September 5), the army of Marshal Ney launched a new offensive against Berlin, but was defeated in the battle of Dennewitz and retreated. After the defeat of Ney's army, the position of the French army in Germany became critical. The victories of the Bohemian army at Kulm, the Silesian army at Katzbach, the northern one at Grosberen and Dennewitz undermined the faith of the French army in victory, besides, Napoleon's losses amounted to 80 thousand soldiers and 300 guns ... In September, the army of the VI coalition received reinforcements in the form of a 60 thousandth army (formed in Poland) Count Bennigsen.

In mid-September, the offensive of the allied armies began, which was divided into two groups: the 1st northern and Slesian armies led by Blucher and Bernadotte, the 2nd Bohemian and Polish armies under the command of Schwarzenberg. Napoleon tried to break through to Berlin again, but soon found out about the uprising in the Bavarian Kingdom, which threatened to block the path to retreat and turned to Leipzig. Soon, the main forces of Napoleon and the allies gathered near Leipzig, and from October 4 (16) to October 7 (19), 1813, the “Battle of the Nations” took place at Leipzig.

The balance of forces according to A. Kersnovsky in his "History of the Russian Army" is given as follows: 316 thousand and 1335 guns for the forces of the anti-Napoleonic coalition and 190 thousand and 700 guns for Napoleon. The front of the Battle of Leipzig stretched for 16 kilometers. Despite the rather mediocre command of Schwarzenberg, the allies managed to break Napoleon’s resistance during two days of fighting, but in the heat of battle, Alexander I was almost captured, he was obliged to save the attack of the Life Cossacks of Orlov-Denisov and His Majesty’s Own Convoy. After a bloody battle on October 7 (19), Schwarzenberg was unable to cut off the retreat of the French units, but despite this, Leipzig was taken by the Allied forces. The French lost 40 thousand (1/5 of their army), 20 thousand prisoners (10%), and more than 300 guns (40% of artillery). The allies at Leipzig lost 45 thousand (15%), while half of the losses fell on the Russian contingent - 22 thousand, the Prussians lost 14 thousand and the Austrians lost 9 thousand. Beyond the Rhine, Napoleon was able to withdraw only 60,000 soldiers from his 190,000th army. But even these forces were enough for him to defeat the army of the Bavarian King at Hanau, which was blocking his retreat to France. At the same time, Russian units led by Prince Alexander of Württemberg occupy Danzig, thus ending the campaign of 1813 with the liberation of the Kingdom of Prussia.

The campaign of 1813 had the character of a war of mass armies and armed peoples, at the same time the very attitude of opponents to each other was in the nature of the traditions of chivalry, and there could be no question of concentration camps for prisoners of war! Even the attitude towards the prisoners was emphatically polite and respectful, both on the part of the Napoleonic army, but especially on the part of the Russian soldiers. It must be admitted that the entire campaign of 1813 is entirely the merit of the Russian army, it showed miracles of valor and stamina, just as Emperor Alexander I showed enviable persistence in the fight against Napoleon, and did not make any concessions and negotiations with Bonaparte.

1813-14

fighting Russian army for expulsion from the countries of the West. Europe of Napoleon's troops. After the defeat of the Napoleonic army in the Patriotic War of 1812, Rus. pr-in decided to move the military. operations in Europe to achieve graduation. victory over Napoleon. At the same time, it set as its task the strengthening in Europe. state-wah feudal-absolutist regimes. The government of Alexander I expected to involve Western Europeans in the war with Napoleon. monarchs and use for their own purposes nat.-liberate. movement in Europe, intensified under the influence of the defeat of Napoleon's army in Russia.

Campaign of 1813. After an unsuccessful campaign against Russia, Napoleon had more to say. economical and military resources. There were 350 thousand troops in France and the occupied countries, the number of which could be easily increased. Fearing a quick restoration by Napoleon of his weapons. strength, Russian pr-in the beginning of the military. action in Europe already at the end of Dec. 1812. The immediate task of the Russian. army (over 100 tons) under the commands. feldm. M. I. Kutuzov was the defeat of the retreating from the west. provinces of Russia, the remnants of the Napoleonic troops (about 81 tons) and reaching the line of the river. Vistula. By Feb. the whole territory before the Vistula was cleared of the enemy, in the hands of which only the fortresses of Danzig, Torun and Modlin remained. Kutuzov sent the corps of P. X. Wittgenstein to Berlin, and the corps of F. V. Saken to the Austrian. border. Ch. forces moved towards Kalisz. Successful actions rus. armies called patriotic. rise among the population of Prussia. Dec 18(30) Prussian commander. Corps of Gen. L. York signed with representatives of the Russian. command of the Tauroggen Convention of 1812, according to a cut Prus. troops stopped the war. actions and retreated to Vost. Prussia. 16(28) Feb. the Treaty of Kalisz of 1813 was concluded with Prussia, which marked the beginning of the 6th anti-French. European coalition. state-in. The 6th coalition was an alliance of reactionaries. monarchies, but it was supported by the peoples of Europe, who fought for the independence of their countries and liberation from the tyranny of Napoleon.

At the end of March, Russian-Prussian. troops under general command. M. I. Kutuzov resumed the offensive in the direction of Leipzig. Ch. Russian forces struck from Kalita, and Wittgenstein's corps and Prus. troops from district of Berlin, which was released on Feb. 20. (March 4) Rus. detachment of A. I. Chernyshev. Partisans deployed behind French lines. movement supported by Russian. detachments. The local population met Russian. troops as their liberators from the foreign yoke. Soon all of Saxony was liberated. Napoleon managed to ser. Apr. put up 200 tons. The Allied troops numbered 92 tons (including 54 thousand Russians). 16(28) Apr. M. I. Kutuzov died in Bunzlau. The new commander in chief was Gen. P. X. Wittgenstein, and from May 17 (29) - gene. M. B. Barclay de Tolly. Going on the counteroffensive, the French. troops 20 Apr. (May 2) in the battle of Lützen, they defeated the allies and occupied Dresden. On May 8-9 (20-21) in the Battle of Bautzen in 1813, Napoleon again achieved victory. The Allies withdrew to Silesia. Both sides were exhausted. On May 23 (June 4), the Plesvitsky truce of 1813 was concluded until July 8 (20), which was then extended until July 29 (Aug. 10). On June 15 (27) the Reichenbach Conventions of 1813 were signed, according to which Austria undertook to be an intermediary in negotiations between the allies and Napoleon at the Prague Congress of 1813, and in the event of Napoleon's refusal of peace conditions, she had to declare war on France. 2 (14) - 3 (15) June England signed with Russia and Prussia conventions on the provision of subsidies. France was opposed by Sweden, bound with Russia by a treaty of alliance on March 24 (April 5), 1812. The negotiations in Prague ended in failure, because Napoleon rejected the allies' proposals for France to renounce most of the conquered territories. in Europe. On July 29 (Aug. 10), Austria announced the severance of relations with France. Considering the variability of the Austrian politicians, the leader of which was Chancellor K. Metternich, Rus. pr-in insisted on the conclusion of 28 Aug. (Sept. 9) Teplitsky Union Treaties 1813 between Russia, Austria and Prussia. 21 Sept. (October 3) England joined them, signing the Teplitsky Treaty of 1813 with Austria.

By the autumn of 1813, the allied troops numbered 492 tons (including Russians - 173 tons), 1383 guns. Three armies were formed: Bohemian (about 237 tons, including 77 thousand Russians) Austrian. feldm. K. Schwarzenberg was in the Budin district; Silesian (about 99.5 thousand hours, including 61 thousand Russians) Prussian. feldm. G. Blucher - in the district of Schweidnitz; Northern (approx. 155.5 thousand hours, including 30.5 thousand Russians) Swede. Crown Prince J. Bernadotte - in the Berlin region; otd. command corps. gene. Valmodena (28 tons and 62 guns) was advanced to Hamburg. Schwarzenberg was considered the Allied Commander-in-Chief. Franz. the army consisted of 440 tons and 1200 guns. Of these, 102 tons were concentrated near Dresden and Zittau against the Bohemian Allied Army, and 120 tons against the Silesian Army. The reserve (90 tons) led by Napoleon stood at Görlitz. South of Berlin, there were 70 thousand under teams. S. Oudinot, in Hamburg - 35 thousand. the corps of L. Davout, near Magdeburg - the division of E. Gerard (12 tons). At the meetings of the allied command in Trachenberg, a military plan was developed. operations, to-ry provided at the same time. going on the offensive with all three armies. The Silesian army was supposed to divert the attention of the French by demonstrative actions. troops, and Sev. and the Bohemian army - to act on their flanks and rear. The fighting began on 3 (15) Aug. the offensive of the Silesian army, 10 (22) Aug. The Bohemian army went on the offensive on Dresden. Napoleon ordered Oudinot, Davout and Gerard to act against Sev. army, and himself from Ch. he moved to Silesia with his forces, but, having received news of the Bohemian army going on the offensive, he turned to Dresden, hiding from the Silesian army 70-80 thousand troops under commands. J. MacDonald. Austria, although it joined the 6th coalition, continued to play a double game, starting separate negotiations with Napoleon. This led to an extremely passive offensive of the Bohemian army towards Dresden and allowed the French to prepare for a strike against it. 14-15 (26-27) Aug. in the Battle of Dresden in 1813, the allies were defeated and retreated to Bohemia. Franz. troops tried to pursue them, but on 17-18 (29-30) Aug. in the battle of Kulm the guard pushed them back. After Kulm, Metternich was forced to temporarily break off negotiations with Napoleon. The Silesian army defeated Macdonald's troops, and Sev. army - to the troops of Oudinot. The allied troops went on the general offensive and 4-7 (16-19) Oct. Napoleon's army was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. The rest of her retreated behind the Rhine. Only in Hamburg did Davout's corps still remain, against which the troops of the North were sent. army. Their offensive forced Denmark to abandon its alliance with France and on 2 (14) Jan. sign the Kiel Peace Treaties of 1814 with Sweden and England, according to which Denmark undertook to declare war on France. Part of the forces of Sev. army (corps of General F. V. Bülow) began the expulsion of Napoleonic troops from Holland. The most important outcome of the 1813 campaign was the liberation of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. But, as V. I. Lenin noted, it took place "... not without the help of the robber states, which fought against Napoleon not a liberation war, but an imperialist war ..." (Soch., vol. 27, p. 31).

Campaign of 1814. By the beginning. campaign, the Allied troops numbered 900 tons and more than 2000 guns, of which 453 thousand (including 153 thousand Russians) were located along the rights. banks of the Rhine, making up three armies: the Main (former Bohemian) Schwarzenberg (198 thousand, including 61 thousand Russians), Silesian - Blucher (75 thousand, including 56 thousand Russians), Northern - Bernadotte (180 thousand, including 36 thousand Russians). In Spain there were 120 thousand troops under the command of the English. gene. A. Wellington, in Italy - 80 thousand, led by the Austrian. gene. G. Bellegarde, the rest of the Allied forces were in the rear. Napoleon could oppose them no more than 300 tons. Of these, along the left. the banks of the Rhine unfolded 160 tons; 80 thousand were in Spain, 30 thousand in Italy, 14 thousand in Holland. Dec. 1813 - early. Jan. 1814 all three allied armies crossed the Rhine and launched an offensive deep into France. Austrian troops occupied Switzerland. Despite the huge superiority in forces, the allied forces fought extremely indecisively. The first major battle took place only on 17 (29) Jan. at Brienne, where Napoleon managed to oust the allies, but on January 20. (February 1) his troops were defeated at La Rothiere. The allied command decided to attack Paris with the Main and Silesian armies. Napoleon, putting forward part of the forces against Ch. army to Troyes, main. mass of troops attacked the Silesian army. Jan 29 - 2 Feb. (February 10-14), west of Chalons, Napoleon won a series of victories over the allied forces, and then launched an offensive on Ch. army, forcing it to withdraw. Only 15 (27) Feb. in the battle of Bar-sur-Aube, the allies managed to delay the advance of the Napoleonic troops.

The invasion of the allied armies into France revealed the reaction. the nature of the plans pr-in Europe. state-in, to-rye pursued their own selfish goals. Russia and Prussia sought the overthrow of the Bonaparte dynasty. Austria wanted to establish a regency in France headed by Marie Louise and thereby create an alliance of Austria with France, directed against Russia and Prussia. England, like Austria, was against the strengthening of Russia's influence in Europe. This gave rise to disagreements between the allies and had a negative effect on the conduct of the military. actions. Influenced by the victories of the French troops Metternich again entered into separate negotiations with Napoleon. In order to strengthen the coalition on the proposal of the English. min. foreign del R. Castlereagh 26 Feb. (March 10) the Chaumont Treaty of 1814 was signed between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, to which the allies pledged not to conclude either peace or a truce with France without general consent. Secret articles determined the post-war. structure of Europe. The treaty officially sealed the European Union. monarchs against Napoleon. Jan 24 (February 5) - March 7 (19) at the Châtillon Congress of 1814, the allies made another attempt to peacefully resolve the conflict with Napoleon, but the latter again rejected their conditions for the return of France to the borders of 1792. February 25-26. (March 9-10) troops of the Silesian and North. armies were victorious at Laon. March 8-9 (20-21) Ch. army defeated the French at Arcy-sur-Aube. On March 13 (25), the general offensive of the Allies began on Paris, which, after stubborn resistance, capitulated on March 18 (30). On the night of March 30 (April 11), Napoleon signed his abdication at Fontainebleau, and then was exiled to Fr. Elba. In French the throne under the name of Louis XVIII was erected by the brother of Louis XVI - Count of Provence. On May 18 (30) the Peace of Paris of 1814 was signed between the Allies and France.

During the campaigns of 1813-14 Rus. the army rendered great assistance to the peoples of the West. Europe in their liberation from Napoleonic domination. She was the main the core, around which the Prussians, Austrians were grouped. and other coalition troops. However, the reaction the goals set by the ruling circles of the allied powers, gave the war with Napoleon in 1813-14 a contradictory character. K. Marx pointed out: "All the wars for independence that were waged against France are characterized by a combination of the spirit of rebirth with the spirit of reactionary..." (K. Marx and F. Engels, Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 10, p. 436 ).

Lit .: Marx K., Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 6, p. 300; vol. 7, p. 502; Lenin, V.I., Unhappy world, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 27; his, Notes from the history of Napoleon's wars with Germany, Len. Sat., Vol. XI, p. 49-51; Andrianov P., From the Neman to the Rhine. War of 1813 Struggle for the liberation of Europe from the yoke of Napoleon, O., 1913; his own, War of 1814. From the Rhine to Paris, (O., 1914); Bogdanovich M., History of the war of 1813 for the independence of Germany, according to reliable sources, vol. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1863; his, History of the war of 1814 in France and the deposition of Napoleon I, according to reliable sources, vol. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1865; Materials of the Military Scientific Archive. War of 1813, vol. 1-3, St. Petersburg, 1914-17; Glinka F.N., Russian Letters. officer ..., part 6-8, M., 1815-16; Karpov (P.P.), Military Historical Review of the War of 1813, St. Petersburg, 1855; M. I. Kutuzov. Sat. dok-tov, v. 5, M., 1956; Mikhailovsky-Danilevsky A.I., Description of the war of 1813, Full. coll. soch., v. 6, St. Petersburg, 1850; his, Description of the campaign in France in 1814. Notes of 1814 and 1815, ibid., vol. 7; Poltoratsky V., Military East. atlas of wars of 1812-15, St. Petersburg, 1860, supplement to the atlas - 1865; Tarle E. V., Napoleon, M., 1957; Russisch-Deutsches Volks-Blatt, 1813, (2 Aufl.), V., (1953); Kampf um Freiheit, Dokumente zur Zeit der nationalen Erhebung. 1789-1815, (V., 1954); Beitzke H., Geschichte der deutschen Freiheitskriege in den Jahren 1813 and 1814, 3 Aufl., Bd 1-2, B., 1864; Charras, J. B., Histoire de la guerre de 1813 en Allemagne, P., 1870; Clément G., Campagne de 1813, P., 1904; Clausewitz C., Der Feldzug von 1812 in Russland, der Feldzug von 1813 bis zum Waffenstillstand und der Feldzug von 1814 in Frankreich, 2 Aufl., B., 1862; Reboul F., Campagne de 1813. Les preliminaires, t. 1-2, P., 1910-12; Sporschil, J., Die grosse Chronicle. Geschichte des Krieges des verbündeten Europe "s gegen Napoleon Bonaparte in den Jahren 1813, 1814 und 1815, 3 Aufl., Tl 1-7, Buch 1-4, Braunschweig, 1840-43.

I. I. Rostunov. Moscow.

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ed. E. M. Zhukova. 1973-1982 .

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The fighting of the Russian army to expel Napoleon's troops from the countries of Western Europe. After the defeat of the Napoleonic army in the Patriotic War of 1812 (See Patriotic War of 1812), the Russian government decided to transfer military operations to ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814- Foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813 1814 - the fighting of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and Austrian troops to complete the defeat of the army of Napoleon I and liberate the countries of Western Europe from the French conquerors. ... ... Encyclopedia of Newsmakers

Military operations of the Russian army, together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, the Austrian armies against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of the troops of the French emperor Napoleon I in Leipzig ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 14 military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and, from August 1813, the Austrian armies against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon's troops in the battle of Leipzig and their expulsion ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

1813 1815, military operations of Russian troops together with the allies against the Napoleonic army in Western Europe. The political and strategic situation in 1813 After the catastrophic defeat of Napoleon (see NAPOLEON I Bonaparte) in Russia, military ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

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Foreign campaigns of the Russian army- FOREIGN CAMPAIGNS OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY, the name of the military operations of the Russian army together with the Prussian, Swedish and Austrian armies in 1813 14 against the Napoleonic troops in Germany and France, as well as the campaign of the 1st Russian army ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

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In Germany, the war for the liberation of Germany from the domination of Napoleonic France. The most important prerequisite for the development of O. in. was the victory of the peoples of Russia and Rus. army in the Patriotic War of 1812. In the context of the rapid advance of the Russian. troops on ... ... Soviet historical encyclopedia

The victory of the Russian people in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national self-consciousness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.

But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet guarantee Russia an end to Napoleon's aggression. He himself believed that the end of the campaign of 1812 did not mean the end of hostilities against Russia. He openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly formed a new army.

To consolidate the victory, it was necessary to transfer hostilities outside of Russia. The performance of the Russian army served as a signal for a general uprising against Napoleon. One by one, his former allies fell away from Napoleon and joined Russia. In early May 1813, Napoleon launched an offensive against the Allied forces, winning two victories at Lützen and Bautzen in Saxony. Napoleon put up a 550,000-strong army against the allies (Russia, Prussia and Austria) and on August 15 won a victory near Dresden. Of decisive importance during the campaign of 1813 was biggest battle near Leipzig on October 7, nicknamed the "battle of the peoples". The battle ended with the victory of the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops. After the battle of Leipzig, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from the French army. In January 1814, the Allies crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. On March 18, 1814, the last battle took place under the walls of Paris. The next day, the Allies entered the capital of France. On May 18, 1814, a peace treaty between Russia, Austria, Prussia and England was concluded in Paris, according to which France was returned to the borders of 1793. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne. Napoleon himself, with a small garrison of soldiers, was sent to about. Elba in the Mediterranean.

The result of the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814. was not only the salvation of Russia from foreign invasion, but also the liberation from the Napoleonic yoke of the European peoples. Napoleon's bloody wars of conquest, which had lasted 15 years, were put to an end.

After the collapse of Napoleon's empire, Russia's international prestige increased significantly. Alexander I and other European monarchs took advantage of the victory over Napoleon to restore reactionary regimes. In the course of solving this problem, sharp contradictions arose between the victorious countries, mainly on territorial issues. At the congress of these powers, which met in September 1814 in Vienna, disputes began. At the beginning of January 1815, Austria, England, Bavaria and France entered into a secret "defensive alliance" against Russia. There was a threat of a military conflict, and only the coming of Napoleon to power in France at the end of March 1815 pushed these differences into the background and forced the European powers to quickly resolve disputed territorial issues. A declaration was adopted that outlawed Napoleon and laid the foundation for the creation of a new coalition against him. At the final stage of the Congress of Vienna, part of Saxony was transferred to Prussia, and the Duchy of Warsaw to Russia.

June 6, 1815 was followed by the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. The allied troops again entered Paris. Napoleon was deposed and exiled to Fr. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he soon died.

September 14, 1815 Alexander I signed the act on the creation of the Holy Union. This union was joined by all the monarchs of Europe with the exception of England. The purpose of the Holy Alliance was to preserve the system of new state borders, the strengthening of the former feudal dynasties, the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements.

Russia became an active member of the Holy Alliance.